THE MIDDLE AGES• Began when Roman Empire collapsed in the 6th century AD and

ended sometime during the 14th-15th centuries• Historians once believed they were a long and bleak era of violence,

superstition, and ignorance– Big step backwards from achievements of the Ancient World– Called them the “Dark Ages”

• But Middle Ages were not completely “dark”– Ancient civilization had reached a ceiling in terms of what it

could accomplish– Middle Ages represented a new civilization• By mingling what was best of the ancient heritage with new

Germanic and, later, Arab traditions• Capable of further growth and progress

Western sphere was hodgepodge of loosely-

organized kingdoms that became even more fragmented and decentralized as time went

on

CHARLEMAGNE

• Frankish ruler Charlemagne (Charles the Great) attempted to overcome this chronic disunity around 800 AD– Temporarily created an empire that stretched from France

into Eastern Europe– Invented title of “Holy Roman Emperor” for himself to

underline his attempt to resurrect the unity of the old Roman Empire

BREAKUP

• Empire broke up after his death – Due to incompetence of

his descendants– His failure to set up an

administrative system that would keep the empire together without him

– New barbarian invasions

MAGYARS

• Magyars – From Central Asia– Raided Germany for decades• Hit, destroyed, and left

– Defeated when they tried to invade France and settled in what is now Hungary• Descendants of modern-day Hungarians

VIKINGS• From Scandinavia• Travelled in low-slung ships

which displaced little water• Raids began around the time of

Charlemagne’s death– Escalated with time– Favored attacking the weak

and defenseless• Ultimately established bases in

Normandy and England– Thereby exposed to

civilization and Christianity

A POLITICAL MESS

• End result was a hopelessly complex jigsaw puzzle of small states– Each with its own ruler• Often with title of

“duke” or “count”– Nominally owed

allegiance to men who retained the title of king but this allegiance was more theoretical than real

PROBLEMS• Long distance trade virtually

disappeared• Currency fell into disuse

– People reverted to barter system

• Cities shrank dramatically in size and sometimes disappeared altogether

• With the exception of isolated monasteries, educational standards declined to such a point that even kings were illiterate

• Only form of unity was the Church– But its intellectual standards

decline due to the prevalent ignorance of the time

FEUDALISM• Feudalism developed in

response to need of local warrior-aristocrats to protect and administer their territory in the absence of any sort of effective central authority

• It was the grant of a piece of land (fief) by a lord to a subordinate (vassal) in exchange for the vassal’s promise to provide the lord with military service for a specified period of time

Subinfeudation

FORM OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

• Also a decentralized form of government– As long as a vassal met

his obligations to his lord, he was supreme within his fief• Made his own laws• Enforced them as he

saw fit• Settled dispute of

the people under his jurisdiction

PEASANTS• Vast majority of Europeans

were peasants– Small-scale subsistence

farmers who devoted their lives to growing enough to stay alive and meet their obligations

– Did not participate at all in the political feudal system• Were not lords or

vassals– Lived an worked on manors• Economic sub-units of

fiefs

LAND USAGE

• Typical manor consisted of village surround by arable land– Always divided into three fields,

each in a different state of cultivation• Three field system of rotation• Given the lack of animal fertilizer

and lack of knowledge of scientific fertilization, this was the only way to avoid soil exhaustion

– Fields divided into narrow strips• Each family had certain number

of strips scattered throughout the fields

SERFS• Peasants paid a portion of their annual

harvest to their lord as rent– Also worked a certain number of days

per week on lord’s land– Had to bring legal disputes to lord’s

court and pay fee for decision– Had to pay fee to use lord’s

monopolies– Even had to pay lord a fee for

permission to get married• Peasants were legally “serfs”– Bound to the manor and its lord for

life

GOD’S PLAN• Peasants had to pay 10% of harvest to

Church (tithe)• Later, they also had to pay royal taxes• Even though the peasant theoretically

received the military protection of their lord in exchange for their obligations, their life was an endless round of backbreaking labor, deep poverty, complete lack of personal independence, and resigned and hopeless desperation– But they accepted this unfair system

because• They could think of no alternative• The Church taught that it was God’s

plan

BIG CHANGEAfter the year 1000, cities began to grow in both size

and beauty; local and international trade revived; and kings began to break down the feudal system and create

nation-states with centralized institutions of government

Notre Dame (Paris) Chartres

REASON

• Population began to grow after 1000– After centuries of decline and/or

stagnation– Caused by increase in food

production• Prompted by increase in

amount of arable land–Made possible by draining

of swamps and forest clearance by monasteries in Central and Eastern Europe

REVIVAL OF LOCAL TRADE

• Population growth created surplus people in countryside that manors could not support– They moved to long

dormant towns to find new ways to support themselves

– Sparked revival of local trade and manufacturing• Created demand for

locally produced agricultural products and manufactured items

CRUSADES• Launched in 1095 by Pope Innocent III• Purpose in theory was to reconquer the

Holy Land from the Moslem Turks who had taken the region over earlier– This goal was never permanently

achieved despite at least seven Crusades sent to accomplish it

– Main result was a tremendous amount of human and property destruction

• Crusaders did develop a taste for Middle Eastern luxury products– Spices, silk, steel products, coffee, tea– Wanted these things even after they

had returned to Europe

COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION• Ex-Crusaders were wealthy men

who would pay anything to get what they wanted– Provided incentive to northern

Italian merchants to re-establish trade contacts with Middle East• Risks were high but

potential rewards were even higher

• Revival of local and international trade create Commercial Revolution– Gave birth to modern

capitalism

RISE OF THE NATION-STATE• William I (“the Bastard) of England and

Philip Augustus of France painfully created alternative administrative systems which allowed them to bypass the unreliable feudal nobility and exert direct control over their realms– Never tried to do way with the feudal

system– Instead did an end run around it by

developing new ways to administer local areas and raise troops that did not require cooperation of feudal strongmen• Created national institutions of

government

William I of England

EXAMPLE: ENGLAND UNDER WILLIAM I

• Former Duke of Normandy took throne of England in 1066– Rewarded vassals but knew he

couldn’t trust them in the long run

– Divided England into districts (“shires”), each administered by an appointed official called a “Shire-reeve” (sheriff)• Used them to collect taxes,

enforce the law, and raise troops

THE CHURCH

• Authority of Roman Catholic Church greater than that of any king– Sophisticated administration– Tremendous wealth– Owned large percentage of

land in Europe• Popes contended with kings on an

equal basis, using their powerful spiritual weapons– Excommunication– Interdict

CRISIS OF THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

• High Middle Ages were a period of progress and prosperity– Cities grew in size and

beauty– Trade revived– Kings reasserted their power

over their realms– The Church was at its peak of

power and prestige• Then it all came crashing down

in the 14th century– Crisis of the Late Middle Ages

CRISES IN THE CHURCH• Babylonian Captivity– 1309-1372– French king gained control of papacy– Forced popes to move to southern

France (Avignon)• Great Schism– Two, and then three, men claimed to

be pope at the same time– Threw Church into confusion– Things were finally resolved in 1415,

with one pope headquartered in Rome• But many Christians were left

confused and/or cynical

Papal palace in Avignon

100 YEARS WAR• Sparked by dispute over the French

throne between the king of England and French claimant to the throne– Escalated into a war that last over a

century• 1337-1453

• Entire war fought in France– England had the upper hand for the

first 75 years of the conflict– But France would eventually win

and England forced to evacuate territory it had occupied in France

– Involved such famous characters as Edward the Black Prince and Joan of Arc

REPERCUSSIONS I

• Longbow introduced by English– Could pierce armor from a

distance of 100 yards– Rendered heavily armored

and armed feudal knight obsolete• And also the system that

had developed to support him

• Light infantry, recruited from towns and cities, became key to military success

REPERCUSSIONS II• Hundreds of thousands of people

killed during the war– Decimating the population after

centuries of growth• Heavy taxation needed to finance war

intensified the misery of peasants– Often pushed them beyond the

breaking point– Sparked peasant uprisings

(jacqueries) in France and England– None of the revolts succeeded but

they illustrated deep peasant resentment of social and economic system• No longer passively accepted it

BLACK DEATH I

• Also known as bubonic plague• Excruciatingly painful, extremely

contagious, and always fatal disease– Attacked lymphatic system• Causing horrendous

swelling– Also cause body extremities

to decay while person was still alive

– Carried by fleas and by contact with infected person

BLACK DEATH II• Started in China in 1331– Carried by merchants and soldiers

across Asia to Black Sea ports• Picked up by Italian merchants

and carried back to Europe• Spread from Italy to France,

Germany, Low Countries, Spain, and even England by June 1348

– Europeans could not treat it or prevent it from spreading• If you caught it, you were

doomed to die a horrible, often lonely, death

BLACK DEATH III• 25% of European population

killed in two years– Contributing to further

population decline• Some cities lost 80% of their

population– Disrupting trade – Plunged Europe into a

century-long depression• Generated urban

unemployment, waves of business failures, more peasant unrest, and an increase in crime and violence

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Danse Macabre

People thought they were

living through the end of the

world

Talk of the Day of Judgment

was widespread

Most popular piece of literature

was Book of Revelations and

most popular artistic images

were Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and Danse Macabre

JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA

High point of history of Byzantine Empire was during the reign of Justinian and Theodora (527-565)

Re-conquered Italy, southern Spain and North Africa in vain attempt to recreate old Roman Empire

Collected Roman laws and organized them into “Justinian’s Code”

Built largest church in the world in Constantinople: the Sancta Sophia

JUSTINIAN’S CONQUESTS

Most of his conquests would be lost shortly

after his death

SANTA SOPHIA

Exterior

Interior

IMPORTANT ROLE

• Empire would be renown for its wealth, power, and military strength for the next 500 years– Numerous Byzantine emperors would

dominate the Church, the nobility, and common people• Served by huge bureaucracy

– Army would throw back or at least weaken wave after wave of would-be invaders• Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks• Incidentally protected Western

Europe from these invaders

MISSIONARY WORKEmpire also civilized barbarian tribes living on the fringes of

Europe by converting them to Christianity

Byzantine missionaries, led by St. Cyril, converted a Slavic tribe

know as the Russians to Christianity

In order to translate the Bible into their spoken language, he invented the alphabet they still use today—the Cyrillic alphabet

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EAST AND WEST

• Byzantine emperor retained control of the Church in the East– Through his puppet, the

bishop of Constantinople– He appointed all bishops

and settled theological disputes

– Church was closely connected to the state in the East—not independent from it as it was in the West

SCHISM

• Religious difference between East and West led to growing tension between pope and bishop of Constantinople– Tension escalated until 1054

when a minor theological dispute snowballed to the point where the pope and bishop excommunicated each other

– Created two Christian churches• Roman Catholic Church• Eastern Orthodox Church

• Byzantine Empire became smaller and smaller as time went on– Lost Western European possessions, North Africa,

Mediterranean Middle East, and finally Greece to various invaders• By 1200, it only included Constantinople and a little adjoining

territory

FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE

• Ottoman Turks breached walls of the city, killed last Byzantine emperor, and took over city– In 1453– Took advantage of

technological advances in artillery to breach walls

– Renamed city Istanbul and made it capital of their new empire