the prediction and monitoring of environmental impacts caused by cdm-ar projects

The Prediction and Monitoring of Environmental impacts

caused by CDM-AR Projects

Prof. Dr. ir. Bart MUYSK.U.Leuven

[email protected]

B. MUYS - environmental impact of CDM-AR - 2004

2

Outline1. A sustainability framework for CDM-AR

1.1 Environment as part of Sustainable development

1.2 Sustainability framework 2. Environmental Impact in CDM-AR (demand)3. Methods to assess Environmental Impact (supply)

3.1 Overview of methods3.2 Selection of methods

4. Assessment Methods for CDM-AR4.1 Programme design4.2 Project design4.3 Project monitoring and internal auditing4.4 Project auditing and certification

5. Conclusions


3

1. A sustainability framework for CDM-AR1.1. Environment as part of sustainability

WHAT IS SUSTAINABILITY ?

“When you figure out what sustainability is, let me know”USDA economist, 1990

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”

WCED, 1987 (the Brundtland Report)


4

Interpretation: Sustainability is…• Something important• Something good• Something to do with ecology and

economy at the same time• Everybody talks about it• Everybody understands it differently• Everybody thinks he/she is implementing

it• Hence, something difficult to measure• In conclusion, a very important concept,

but unpractically defined


5

Re-defining sustainability• Sustainability: a state in which the

environment and the ecosystem are not degraded by human activities

• Development: evolution of increasing human welfare and well-being

• Sustainable development (SD): development which does not degrade environment and ecosystem over the longer term (50/50)


6

1.2. Sustainability framework for CDM-AR(Madlener et al., 2003, modified after Lammerts van Bueren and Blom, 1998)

GoalSustainable LULUCF project

Sustainability dimensionsSocial Economic Environmental Institutional

Action pathProject design, planning and implementation

Control pathProject monitoring and evaluation

Sustainability issues Sustainability principles

TargetsStrategies

TasksGuidelines

CriteriaIndicators

NormsVerifiers


7

Framework definitions (1/3)

• An Issue is a main theme or domain that should be covered to reach SD (e.g. The environmental issue). SD is essentially a multi-issue optimization process

• A principle is an accepted fundamental rule of SD. It is formulated as a commandment (e.g. The protection function should be maintained, and where appropriate, enhanced)


8


• A target is a long term planning objective aiming at the implementation of a principle

• A strategy a long-term methodological approach followed to reach a target

• A task is a concrete item of an action plan bringing targets and strategies to implementation

• A guideline is a set of practical instructions important for successful implementation of a task


9


• A criterion describes the state of the system under compliance with a principle. It is formulated to allow a verdict (e.g. Soil erosion is minimized)

• An indicator is a variable indicating the level of compliance with a criterion

• A norm or threshold is a well-defined indicator value setting the boundary between compliance and non-compliance to a criterion

• A verifier is a tool or instrument to measure an indicator


10

Framework for CDM-AR: exampleHierarchical level Example

Aim Sustainable LULUCF project

Dimension Environmental

Action path:

Issue Ecosystem protection

Target Erosion control

Strategy Fight soil erosion through preventive action

Task Preventive erosion control during road construction works

Guideline Guideline for good environmental practice concerning the protection of stream flows during road construction works


11

Framework for CDM-AR: exampleHierarchical level Example

Aim Sustainable LULUCF project

Dimension Environmental

Control path:

Principle The protection function shall be maintained and, if appropriate, enhanced

Criterion Soil erosion is minimized

Indicator Annual sediment loss in tonnes/ha

Norm

Verifier

Maximum soil loss = 10 tonnes/ha/year

Calculation of USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation)


12

PrinciplesPrinciples under the Environmental Issue under the Environmental Issue1. The overall GHG balance (including carbon in peat and soil,

N2O, CH4, etc.) of the project shall be positive 2. Forest area shall be conserved or restored, forest vitality and

condition shall be maintained and where appropriate enhanced3. The Productive function of the forest shall be maintained,

forest regeneration secured and sustainable harvest promoted4. Biodiversity, ecological processes and life support functions

of the ecosystem shall be maintained, and where appropriate, restored

5. The Protection function (water, soil) shall be maintained and where appropriate restored


13

Examples of Examples of criteriacriteria for environmental principle 4 for environmental principle 4 (biodiversity)(biodiversity)

1. Existing biological, genetic and habitat diversity are maintained and conserved where necessary

2. Numbers, area and distribution of Landscapes, forest types and habitats with specific biodiversity values are conserved

3. Plantation forests are only accepted if they do not replace natural forests, demonstrate to decrease pressure on the natural systems and demonstrate local socio-economic benefits

4. Afforestation/reforestation makes maximal use of native species; use of exotics is minimized and is dependent on a number of restrictions

5. The use of biocides, fertilizer, genetically modified organisms, non native plant, animal, pest and disease species is not allowed or regulated under strict conditions


14

Example of indicators for environmental principle 4, criterion 1 (conservation of biodiversity)modified from national C&I of ITTO for natural tropical forests

• Percentage of original range occupied by selected endangered, rare and threatened species.

• Existence and implementation of a strategy for in situ and/or ex situ conservation of the genetic variation within commercial, endangered, rare and threatened species of flora and fauna.

• Existence and implementation of management guidelines to: (a) keep undisturbed a part of each AR zone, (b) protect endangered, rare and threatened species of flora and fauna, and (c) protect features of special biological interest, such as river banks, cliffs, nesting sites, niches and keystone species.

• Existence and implementation of procedures for assessing changes of biological diversity of the production forests, compared with areas in the same forest type kept free from human intervention.


15

Indicators should meet following criteria:

• Cost effective and simple in measuring• Sensitive to the considered principle and criterion • Universally applicable (rule for auditing, recommendation for

monitoring)• Quantitative• Spatially explicit• Not arbitrarily chosen but based on a solid ecological concept. We

propose the ecosystem exergy concept• Measuring as much as possible endpoints in the cause-effect chain• Low in number• Integrate the time aspect • Distinguish reversible from irreversible impacts


16

Recommendations concerning Recommendations concerning environmental issues (1/2)environmental issues (1/2)

1. RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING THE ACTION PATH (PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION PHASE)

1.1. All 6 environmental issues should be adopted in CDM-AR project design and management plan

1.3. Guidelines for good environmental practice in CDM-AR projects must be developed and adopted

1.4 Environmental risk and uncertainty analysis must be integrated in the design and management of a CDM-AR project


17

Recommendations concerning Recommendations concerning environmental issues (2/2)environmental issues (2/2)

2. RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING THE EVALUATION PATH (MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT PHASE)

2.1. Project initiators should create, use and update a database integrating maps, inventory and monitoring data of all environmental informationconcerning the project area

2.2. The assessment tools used for monitoring and auditing must be flexible to cope with variable experience and data availability

2.3 Assessment tools should be standardized as far as possible

2.4 The use of a functional unit to express environmental impacts is advisable (e.g. 1 Ton of avoided or reduced CO2).


18

2. Environmental impact in CDM-AR (demand side)

• Kyoto protocol (1997): no rules specified• CoP9 Milano (2003): Modalities and Procedures for

AR project activities under the CDM in the 1st. commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol – Many rules and guidelines on carbon accounting (baseline,

additionality, non-permanence) with reference to the IPCC Good Practice Guidance for Land use, Land-Use Change and Forestry.

– Very few explanation on other environmental and socio-economic issues. More detail only in annex B under the contents of a Project Design Document (PDD)


19

Environmental impacts in PDD• describe the project activity, the present environmental conditions

including climate, hydrology, soils, ecosystems, and the possible presence of rare of endangered species and their habitats. They also mention that the PDD should also include the following information on the environmental impact of the project activity:

• Include documentation on the analysis of the environmental impacts of the project activity, including impacts on biodiversity, natural ecosystems, and impacts outside the project boundary of the proposed afforestation and reforestation project activity under the CDM. This analysis should include, where applicable, information on, inter alia, hydrology, soils, risk of fires, pests and diseases;

• If any negative impact is considered significant by the project participants or the host Party, a statement that project participants have undertaken an environmental impact assessment, in accordance with the procedures required by the host Party, including conclusions and all references to support documentation.

Consequence: the assessment methods for CDM-AR must at least include these aspects


20

3. Methods to assess environmental impact

• A variety of methods for sustainability assessment is available

• The question is which ones can best serve our goals and meet the requirements of CoP9

• Rule: not start from the method, but from the problem to solve (using a stakeholders approach)


21

3.1 Overview of methods

• General: Environmental legislation• Action path (methods for design,

planning and implementation)– Design and Planning

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)• Risk Analysis

– Implementation• Codes of Good Environmental Practice• Decision Support Systems (DSS) or Knowledge

Based Systems (KBS)


22

3.1 Overview of methods

• Evaluation path (methods for monitoring and auditing)– State of the Environment Reporting– Environmental auditing (including

standards of P,C&I of SFM)– Life Cycle Assessment– Cost/Benefit Analysis


23

Environmental legislation

• Objective: prevention, control and punition

• Characteristics:– Develops slowly following increased

human pressure on natural resources– Based on the Polluter pays principle

(taxes, charges, fines, compensation for damage)


24

Environmental Impact Assessment• Definition: a procedure for encouraging

decision-makers to take account of the possible effects of development investments on environmental quality and natural resource productivity before any decision is made

• Objective: Prevention of environmental damage or degradation as a result of human action

• Characteristics: follows a systematic interdisciplinary approach to produce an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)


25

Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment (sEIA)

• Definition: an EIA for policies and programmes on a wider geographical level


26

Risk analysis

• Concept: reduce risks to ALARA level (as low as reasonably acceptable)

• Objective: assess the probability of an accident and of the damage it would cause; determine the ALARA level

• Types of risk: technical or environmental, social, marketing, juridical, financial.


27

Codes of good environmental practice

•Operational tool for daily practice •Example: the South African code of good harvesting practice, used for:

•Planning of forest roads, extraction routes and timber harvesting•Monitoring of operations in progress•Feedback during and after completion of the operations (auditing)


28

Codes of good environmental practice. Example: the South African harvesting code of practice

•The code first defines the values to care for:

•Soil•Water•Forest health•Scientific and ecological interests•Paleontological, archaeological and historical values•Aesthetic and recreational values•Human resources•Commercial interests


29

Codes of good environmental practice. Example: the South African harvesting code of practice

•The code gives rules of practice for:•Construction of forest roads, landings and extraction routes•Timber harvesting•Post harvesting operations

•For each activity the following aspects are explained:•The factors influencing the activity•Potential effects of bad practice•Positive effects of good practice•Methods of reducing potential negative effects•Essential elements of the operational plan


30

II.3. Decision support systems• Sustainable forest management

depends on decisions. The right decisions can be hard to make because of:– the complexity of the problem. – the inherent uncertainties in the outcome.– The multiple objectives that have to be achieved, which

means that progress in one direction may impede negative effects in others. In such case a decision maker must trade off benefits in one area against cost in another.

– different perspectives may lead to different conclusions.


31

Decision support systems: a definition• A decision support system is a computer software

package, designed and operated to model or otherwise represent the structure of a decision problem and thus allow the user(s) to identify and select a preferred strategy or other course of action from two or more alternatives against a pre-determined set of criteria.

• A DSS may be defined by its capabilities in several critical areas: Aimed at poorly structured, underspecified problems Combine the use of models or analytical techniques

with traditional data access and retrieval functions Easy to use by non computer specialists in an

interactive mode Emphasize flexibility and adaptability to accommodate

changes in the decision making approach of the end-user


32

Spatial Decision support systems (sDSS)• Takes spatial variation into account: ideal

for land management• Uses GIS technology• Scales up point models to the landscape

level• Exemple: AFFOREST: a spatial decision

support system for afforestation optimizing for carbon sequestration, groundwater recharge and nitrate leaching


33

Second step: analysing the type of question

Time

Initial system Metamodel Afforested system

Afforestation Strategy

Afforested system

Afforested system


34

Evaluation of Decision support systems for sustainable forest managementStrengths: • user friendly• able to give simple answers to complex questions• adapted to specific or local problems• can include all aspects of sustainability• can include a lot of existing expert knowledge• able to model in time (prediction) and space

Weaknesses:• very complex and expensive to design• very few systems are operational• user doesn’t know or understand what is behind


35

State of the Environment Reporting

• Objective: Long-term monitoring of trends; describe measures and policies taken

• Steps: data acquirement; storage; analysis; statistics; reliability

• Examples: State of the World report (world watch institute); Dobris assessment (European Environment Agency); Company reports (as part of annual reports)


36

Standards of P,C&I of SFM

• The most widespread evaluation tool for sustainable forest management

• More than 150 standards available worldwide

• Standards for the national and for the Forest Management Unit (FMU) level:– National standards: for evaluating the

effectiveness of the national forest policy– FMU standards: for evaluating the sustainability

of the management and for forest certification (FSC, ISO 14000, PEFC)


37

Strengths and weaknesses of C&I for SFM

• Strengths:– BATNEEC method for SFM evaluation: Best Available

Technique Not Entailing an Excessive Cost– Standards adapted to local conditions and local problems– Low technical skills required to use

• Weaknesses:– Poor scientific base (what do they exactly intend to

measure?)– Arbitrary choice of C&I– Arbitrary weights attributed to C&I– Not a quantitative, but a descriptive approach (when it is

sustainable, how sustainable is it?) – No clear reference system– No universal applicability (important if you want to compare

different management systems or different wood products)– Poor uniformity between standards in contents and semantics


38

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)• Method developed in industry to compare

environmental impact of products and production processes with a clear emphasis on continuous improvement

• Quantitative approach, mass balances of inputs and outputs

• Including the complete life cycle of a product from cradle to grave


39

Life Cycle Assessment: an ISO 14040 standardised stepwise procedure

Life Cycle Assessment((LCA) framework

Applications:-product design and product optimisation- planning- marketing

1. Definition of goal and scope

2. Life cycle Inventory (LCI)

3. Life cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

4. Interpretation (including sensitivity analysis, aggregation and conclusion)


40

LCA: differences with C&I• It does not include socio-economic and

cultural aspects; it is restricted to the environmental aspects of sustainability

• It is more standardized (stepwise methodology, linearity, no double counting, sensitivity analysis)

• It is more quantitative and less subjective• It is, in principle, universally applicable: all

land use systems and climate conditions


41

LCA: some important concepts• System boundaries:In the definition of goal

and scope, it is decided which aspects and processes will be part of the study and which ones will be excluded

• Functional unit:It is the unit of the end product to which each impact is expressed (e.g. one newspaper in the case of an LCA for paper; one km in the case of an LCA for vehicle fuels, etc.)

• Impact category: an LCIA is performed per impact category: greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, extraction of abiotic resources, eutrophication, acidification, human health, land use, etc.


42

LCA: some examples• Example 1. Impact category GHG

emissions in an LCA for electricity production from bioenergy crops (short rotation coppice) (1/3)– Goal and scope: which coppice system is having

the strongest GHG emission reduction? – Inventory analysis (literature study)– Impact analysis in two steps:

• dynamic modelling with GORCAM (Graz Oak Ridge Carbon Accounting Model)

• express impact per functional unit (1 Kwh of electricity+heat)

• Compare with a reference system (leaving the land set-aside and produce electricity from natural gas)


43

Impact assessment: modelling the GHG balance (2/3)

• carbon sequestration is low• substitution for fossil fuels decreases GHG emissions substantially• overall GHG emission reduction is very high

B o d e m A

-2 0 00

2 0 04 0 06 0 08 0 0

1 0 0 01 2 0 01 4 0 01 6 0 0

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 0 1 4 0 1 5 0

T ijd [ ja a r ]

Gea

ccum

ulee

rde

kool

stof

[tC/h

a]

S o il D e a d o rg a n ic m a t te r T re e s D is p la c e d fo s s . f u e ls F o s s il fu e l in p u t


44

Impact assessment: results per functional unit (3/3)

-400

0

400

800

1200

1600

emissie productsysteem(per ha)

emissiereferentiesysteem (per

ha)

vermedenbroeikasgasemissie (per

ha)

ton

CO

2-eq

./ha/

100j

r

wilgMiscanthushakhout

fk

0

0,02

0,04

0,06

0,08

0,1

0,12

0,14

vermedenbroeikasgasemissie (per

geproduceerde GJ)

ton

CO

2-eq

./GJp

rod

(Lettens et al. 2002)

• Performance on a ha basis differs from the one on an energetic basis• Best performance of mixed native coppice on an energetic basis explained by higher carbon sequestration in soil, lower N20-emission and lower fossil fuel use

Emission product system

Emission reference system

Avoided emission Avoided emission

Performance per area

Performance per energy unit produced


45

– Goal and scope: which forestry project will have the lowest land use impact?

– Inventory analysis: literature data and field observations

– Impact assessment• method Muys and Garcia (2002) has 17 quantitative

indicators comparing the exergy level of the land use system with the exergy level of the climax system at the same site. Indicators cover 4 themes (soil, water, vegetation structure and biodiversity)

• expressing the impact per functional unit of 1 ton CO2 emission reduction

Example 2. Impact category land use for LULUCF projects (Land use, land use change and forestry) in the framework of the Kyoto protocol (1/7)


46

• Land use Impact assessment (2/7)– The land use impact score is the difference

in land quality between the present land use and the reference system, multiplied by the time/space requirement to produce one functional unit.

Q

1Q t

1*** FUtimeareaQScore FU

Q r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m .

Q l a n d u s e .


47

• Land use impact assessment indicators (3/7)

Q

100*

**

ref

irefi

i permareatotalpermpermarea

100**

*

periodrotationtime

areatotaldepthareaworked

100*.)(*100

1

m

inm

depthSoilRootableTotalUSLE

100*1

ref

act

CECCEC

100*1

ref

act

SatBaseSatBase

100*1

ref

act

pirationevapotranspirationevapotrans

Indicator Reference

S1 Soil compaction

100% unaffected at

soil permeabilityref

S2 Soil structure disturbance

100% undisturbed

S3 Soil erosion No soil erosion

S4 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

CECref

S6 Base Saturation

Base Satref

W1 Evapotrans-piration

Evapotranpirationref.


48

• Land use impact assessment indicators (4/7)

100*. evapotranpprec

runoffsurface

100*1

ref

act

TABTAB

100*1

ref

act

LAILAI

100*1

ref

act

HeightHeight

100*1

ref

act

NPPbiomass

harvestedNPP

W2 Surface runoff No surface runoff

V1 Total aboveground living biomass (TAB)

Total above ground living

biomassref

V2 Leaf area index (LAI)

Leaf Area Indexref

V3 Height Heightref

V4 Free Net Primary Production (fNPP)

Net Primary Productionref


49

Land use impact assessment indicators (5/7)

100*1

biomasstotalbiomasscrop

100*1

areaTotaldrainareairrarea

100**

1

periodrotationtimeareatotal

affectedarea

100**

1

periodrotationtimeareatotal

affectedarea

100*covcov

erspeciestotalerspeciesexotic

100*1

ref

act

speciesofnumberspeciesofnumber

V5 Crop biomass No crop species or

harvest

B1 Artificial change of water balance

No irrigation or drainage.

B2 Liming, fertilisation, empoverish- ment

No area affected

B3 Biocides No area affected

B4 Cover of exotic species

100% native species

B5 Number of species

Species richnessref


50

land use impact per unit of area (6/7)

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

IND

ICAT

OR

SCO

RE

BodemWaterVegetatieBiodiversiteit

• all land use types can be compared• Impact of all land uses on soil and water is low, except for tropical deforestation• natural systems have lowest impact • intensively managed plantations systems have higher impact than multifunctional forests• overall impact of plantation forest does not seem much higher than that of fijnbos vegetation, when afromontane forest was chosen as a reference• impact of selective logging and shifting cultivation in tropical forest is low


51

Land use impact per FU of 1 ton CO2 (7/7)

ENBOSVLAENAGRVLA

MUBOSVLAnieuw MUBOSVLA

oud PLANTROPPBOSTROP

Bodem

Water

Vegetatie

Biodiversiteit

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

IMPA

CT

SCO

RE

(ha.

yr/t

CO

2)

THEMA

BodemWaterVegetatieBiodiversiteit

• result of multiplying land use impact with area*time needed to produce 1 FU• intensive energy crops have a very low impact, because their time*space requirement per ton CO2 emission reduction is very low• multifunctional forests have a high impact, because their time*space requirement per FU is very high


52

Evaluation of LCA for sustainable forest managementStrengths• Transparent, objective, quantitative approach• Suitable for comparing options• Suitable for making improvement• Compatible with the exergy law

Weaknesses• Only for the environmental aspects of

sustainability (other aspects can be done with cost benefit analysis

• Data requirements can be high• More difficult than C&I to perform


53

What sustainability concerns do different stakeholders of CDM-AR projects have? Policy makers (POL): Does the national CDM-AR Scheme meet the requirements of SD?Forest managers (MAN): Does the FM plan and its implementation meet the requirements of SD?Managers of forest industry (IND): Which production scheme (in terms of silviculture, harvesting and transport) has the lowest environmental impact?End consumers (CON): Does a purchased wooden product comes from sustainable forest?Conservation group (NGO): What is the environmental impact of afforestation in a particular zone?

3.2. Stakeholders’ driven selection of methods


54

Criteria and Indicators (C&I)Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)Knowledge-based Systems (KBS)Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

Example: some available environmental assessment tools to answer these questions:


55

POL EIA (not significant)MAN KBS (significant)IND LCA (significant)CON C&I (not significant)NGO EIA (significant)

The best fits between questions and methods to answer (Baelemans & Muys, 1998)

POL MAN INV CON NGO C&I -0,20 0,42 -0.66 0,36 -0,02 LCA 0.18 -0.36 0,66 -0,14 -0.20 KBS -0,56 0,62 -0.43 0,17 0,01 EIA 0,36 -0,07 -0.11 -0.30 0,65 CBA 0.10 -0.56 0,34 0,26 -0.49


56

4. Assessment Methods for CDM-AR

• For a programme (country):– Programme design: Strategic Environmental Impact

Assessment (sEIA) and, if not in place, Environmental Legislation

• For a project:

– Project design: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), including Risk Analysis

– Project monitoring and internal auditing: Land Use Impact Assessment (a new method based on LCA), leading to an annual State of the Environment Report

– External auditing: P,C&I leading to SFM certification


57

4.1 Programme design: Environmental legislation and Strategic Environmental

Impact Assessment

• Countries that did not yet include EIA in their legislation or did not include CDM-AR projects in their EIA legislation may want to do so. The latter is probably only due for big projects from a certain surface area onwards. Small-scale projects may be exempt from this obligation. The definition of a small-scale project is under discussion at SBSTA.

• A strategic or programmatic EIA is an EIA for policies and programmes on a wider geographical level. This is recommendable in countries where CDM-AR may become a big issue and where some general rules and procedures must be developed, as suggested in the CoP9 Decision.


58

4.2 Project design: Environmental Impact Assessment (including risk analysis)

• The output of the EIA is EIS, a document meeting government requirements and added as part of the PDD for UNFCCC. Important themes to include are: soil erosion, water balance, biodiversity, landscape aesthetics, ecosystem functioning


59

4.3 Project monitoring and internal auditing: Land use Impact Assessment

• The proposed Land Use Impact Assessment method was developed by Muys and Garcia (2002). It divides the landscape in homogeneous sites (based on climate, soil and topography) and per site, it compares the quality of the actual land use with the quality of a reference state, being the Potential Natural Vegetation of that site. This is done for 17 indicators, belonging to 4 thematic groups: soil, water, vegetation structure and biodiversity. The method is scale independent and functions for all land uses anywhere in the world. The data demand is relatively low and it allows to compare different projects among each other. Examples for different Land use, Land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) projects world wide are given.


60

4.4. Project auditing and certification: Environmental auditing (standards of P, C & I, state of the Environment reporting)

• A national standard for CDM-AR can easily be developed from an existing standard for evaluation and certification of SFM


61

5. Conclusion

• It can be concluded that instruments for environmental management and assessment are complementary to each other. For further development in CDM-AR it is important that the different instruments used at different levels and stages in the decision process, use as much as possible the same principles, criteria and indicators.

the prediction and monitoring of environmental impacts caused by cdm-ar projects

Documents

cdmar projects

cdmar demand3

environmental impact

environmental issue

sustainability framework

ar 2004outline1

framework definitions

project design4