The Two Worlds of ChristendomThe Quest for Political Order Intro

The eastern half of the Roman empire was invaded by Germanic peoples, but did not collapse.

The political challenge for rulers of this area was the restore order following these invasions In the 6th century the Byzantine rulers even attempted to recreate Roman authority

throughout the Med basin Their efforts fell short, and they would soon lose lots of territory to the expanding

Muslims Presided over a powerful society in the eastern Med region Political challenges were much more difficult in the West Germanic invaders mostly settled in the western regions

Disrupted Roman authority Deposed Roman officials Imposed new states of their own making

After two centuries of fighting, it seemed that one of these groups, the Franks, would reestablish imperial authority in much of Roman Europe Could have played the role of the Sui and Tang in China by reviving centralized imperial

rule By the late 9th century, the Frankish empire had fallen victim to internal struggles and

new invasions Political authority then went to local and regional jurisdictions

Formed a decentralized political order

The Early Byzantine Empire Intro

The Byzantine empire took its name from Byzantium, a market and fishing town with an important, strategic location On a peninsula with a harbor known as the Golden Horn Had the potential to control the Bosporus strait, which control access to the Black Sea Also had easy access to Anatolia, SW Asia, and SE Europe Sea lanes connected the city to areas throughout the Med basin

The City of Constantine The Roman emperor Constantine, who recognized its strategic location, made Byzantium the

site of a new imperial capital

Renamed it Constantinople Built it because the astern med was the most productive region of the Roman empire Also, relocation enabled him to keep close check on the Sasanids and the Germanic

peoples on the Danube Moved to Constantinople after 330 ce Became a metropolitan Filled the city with libraries, museums, art, palaces, churches, baths, and public buildings Kept the name Constantinople until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, who renamed it

Istanbul Historians refer to this period of rule as the Byzantine empire, which lasted from the 5th-15th

centuries Caesaropapism

Constantine and his successors reinforced their rule with an aura of divinity and splendor As a Christian, Constantine could not claim the divine status of earlier emperors He claimed divine sanction for his rule as the first Christian emperor Intervened in theological disputes Used his political position to support views he considered orthodox, and condemning

those he deemed heretical Initiated the policy of “caesaropapism”, the emperor was not only a secular lord but also

played a role in ecclesiastical affairs Following his example, Byzantine emperors presented themselves as exalted, absolute

rulers Even dress and court etiquette testified to their lofty status

Wore silk robes dyed a dark, rich purple, a color reserved for the imperial house and forbidden for anyone else to wear

High officials presented themselves to the emperor as slaves Prostrated three times, kissed the hand and feet

By the 10th century, engineers had created devices that impressed foreign envoys Imitation birds, mechanical lions The throne itself would move up and down to emphasize the splendor of the emperor

Justinian and Theodora The most important of the early Byzantine rulers was Justinian (r. 527-565), known as the

“sleepless emperor” Ruled with aid of his ambitious wife Theodora Despite their origins (Macedonian peasant and striptease artist), they both were smart,

strong-willed, and disciplined Justinian received an education, joined the bureaucracy, and mastered finance, while

Theodora was a shrewd advisor and supporter of her husband Lavished resources at the imperial capital

Most notable construction was the church of Hagia Sophia, a domed structure that is one of the most important examples of Christian architecture Later turned into a mosque The enormous dome was likened to the heavens encircling the earth

Justinian’s Code Justinian’s most significant political contribution was his codification of Roman law

Went back to the time of the Roman kings Had become a confusing mass of conflicting injuctions

Justinian systematically reviewed Roman law and issued the Corpus iuris civilis (Body of the Civil Law) Won recognition as the definitive codification of Roman law Influenced civil law in most of Europe, Japan, and Louisiana

Byzantine Conquests Justinian’s most ambitious venture was his effort to reconquer the western Roman empire

from the Germanic peoples and reestablish Roman authority throughout the Med basin Between 533 and 565, Byzantine forces gained control over Italy, Sicily, much of NW

Africa, and southern Spain The Byzantines did not possess the resources to sustain a long-term occupation and to

consolidate these conquests Shortly after Justinian’s death, Byzantines abandoned Rome, making Ravenna the HQ of

Byzantine authority in the western Med As a result, Ravenna would possess example of Byzantine art and architecture Justinian’s dream of reuniting the old Roman empire faded

Muslim Conquests and Byzantine Revival Intro

Justinian’s efforts showed that the classical Roman empire was beyond recovery While the emperor devoted his efforts to the western Med, the Sasanids threatened

Byzantium from the east and Slavic peoples from the north Later Byzantine emperors had to meet these threats, ending their attempt to expand

Muslim Conquests After the 7th century, the expansion of Islam posed more serious challenges to Byzantium

Shortly after Muhammad’s death, Arab warriors conquered the Sasanid empire in Persia and overran large portions of the Byzantine empire

By the mid-7th century, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and north Africa had fallen under Muslim rule

Later subjected Constantinople to two prolonged sieges in 674-678and 717-718 The Byzantines were able to resist most of the Muslim expansion due to their advanced

military tech Byzantines used a weapon known as ”Greek Fire” that they launched at the fleets and

armies of the Muslims Even burned when floating on water, creating a hazard against wooden ships Difficult to extinguish on land, causing panic

The Byzantines were able to retain its hold on Anatolia, Greece, and the Balkans The Theme System

Though diminished by the Muslims, the Byzantine empire was actually more manageable after the 8th century than the far-flung realm of Justinian They responded to the threat of Islam with political and social changes that strengthened

their reduced empire Most important innovation was the reorganization of Byzantine society under the theme

system Placed an imperial province called a theme under the authority of a general, who

assumed both its military defense and civil administration Usually received the appointment from the emperor, who closely monitored their

activities to halt decentralization Generals would recruit armies from the free peasants, who received land for their

military service

Armies raised under the theme system were good fighting forces Enabled Byzantium to expand between the 9th and 12th centuries

During the 10th, they reconquered Syria and pushed their authority west into the Balkan region

By the mid-11th century, the Byzantine empire was from Syria an Armenia in the east to southern Italy in the West; the Danube in the north to Cyprus and Crete in the south

Once again dominated the eastern Med region

The Rise of the Franks Intro

In the year 476 ce, the Germanic general Odoacer deposed the last of the western Roman emperors Did not claim the imperial title for himself, nor made anyone else a replacement Roman admin and armies continued to function temporarily, but urban populations

declined as invasions and power struggles disrupted trade and manufacturing Deprived of legitimacy and resources from Rome, imperial institutions weakened

Germanic Kingdoms Gradually, a series of Germanic kingdoms emerged as successor states to the Roman

empire Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Lombards, Franks, and other Germanic peoples occupied imperial

provinces, displacing the Romans and their institutions As they built successor states, Germanic peoples absorbed a great deal of Roman influence

Many of them converted to Christianity, and others adapted Roman law to the needs of their own societies

The Franks Most successful and influential of these Germanic groups were the Franks

By the early 6th century, the Franks had conquered most of Roman Gaul, emerging as the preeminent military and political power in western Europe

Gained popular support when they abandoned their polytheistic indigenous religion and converted the Christianity Brought them the allegiance of the Christian pop of the former Roman empire and

support from the pope and the western Christian church In the 8th century the aristocratic clan of the Carolingians extended Frankish power

The Carolingian dynasty takes its name from its founder, Charles Martel In 732 at the battle of Tours (in central France), he turned back a Muslim army that had

ventured north from Spain His victory stopped the Muslim rulers of Spain from extending its realm into the rest of

western Europe Charlemagne

The Frankish realm reached its high point under Charles Martel’s grandson Charlemagne (Charles the Great, r. 768-814) Like Harsha in India, Charlemagne temporarily reestablished centralized rule in a society

disrupted by invasion and conquests for power between ambitious local rulers Possessed enormous energy, and the building of the Carolingian empire was largely

his doing While illiterate, was intelligent; spoke Latin, understood some Greek, and conversed

with learned men Maintained diplomatic relations with the Byzantines and the Abbasid caliphate

When Charlemagne inherited the Frankish throne, his realm was most of modern France and Belgium, the Netherlands, and SW Germany When he was done, he had extended the rule to NE Spain, Bavaria, and Italy to

Rome Campaigned for 32 years to impose rule on the Saxons of northern Germany and

repress their rebellion Beyond the Carolingian empire, rulers in eastern Europe and southern Italy paid tribute

to Charlemagne as imperial overlord Charlemagne’s Administration

Built a court and capital at Aachen Like Harsha in India, spent most of his reign on horseback, traveling throughout the

realm to maintain authority Was necessary since he didn’t have the financial resources for an elaborate

bureaucracy or admin apparatus to enforce policy Instead, he relied on aristocratic deputies, known as counts, who held political, military, and

legal authority in local jurisdictions In an effort to keep his counts under control, Charlemagne instituted a group of imperial

officials called the missi dominici (“envoys of the lord ruler”) who traveled annually to all jurisdictions and reviewed the accounts of local authorities

Charlemagne built the Frankish kingdom into an empire on the basis of military expeditions Began to outfit it with some centralized institutions Did not call himself an emperor because it would directly challenge the authority of the

Byzantine empire, who were the only legit successors to the Roman empire (in their eyes)

Charlemagne as Emperor Only in 800 did Charlemagne accept the title of emperor

Attended Christmas day services with Pope Leo III; during, the pope proclaimed him emperor and placed a crown on his head

He had no desire to strain relations with the Byzantine emperors, who resented his imperial title as an affront to their own dignity

The End of the Carolingian Empire Internal disunity and external invasions brought the Carolingian empire to an early end

Charlemagne’s only surviving son, Louis the Pious (r.810-840) succeeded his father and held the empire together Lacking Charlemagne’s strong will and military skills, Louis lost control of local

authorities, who increasingly pursued their own interests His three sons disputed their inheritance and waged wars against one another In 843, they divided the empire into three equal portions and ruled as three kings

Less than a century after its creation, the Carolingian empire dissolved

The Age of the Vikings Intro

Even if the internal divisions weren’t going to dismember the Carolingian empire, external pressures may have Beginning in the late 8th century, three groups of invaders pillaged the Franks for wealth

in towns and monasteries From the south came Muslims who raided Med Europe

Conquered the islands of Sicily, and seized territory in southern Italy and southern France

From the east came the Magyars, descendants of nomads in Hungary From the north came the Vikings, most feared, who began mounting raids into northern

France during Charlemagne’s lifetime The Viking invasions were part of a larger process of expansion by Nordic peoples

One cause was population growth fueled by increased agricultural growth in Scandinavia Norse expansion depended on a remarkable set of shipbuilding techniques and seafaring

skills developed during the 7th and 8th centuries Built rugged, shallow-draft boats outfitted with sails, enabling them to travel through the

open ocean, and with oars, allowing them to navigate rivers Vikings

Many Norse seafarers were merchants seeking commercial opportunities or migrants seeking lands to settle and cultivate Some turned their maritime skills towards raiding and plundering rather than trading or

raising crops These were the Vikings, originally referring to groups that raided the British elements from

their home at Vik Over time, the term referred more generally to Norse mariners who mounted invasions

and plundered settlements from Russia and eastern Europe to the Med lands With their shallow-draft boats, the Vikings could make their way up many rivers offering

access to interior Europe Coordinated their ships’ movements and timed their attacks to take advantage of the

tides Could sail up a river, surprise a village or monastery far from the sea, spill out crews of

warriors who conducted lightning raids on unprepared villages The first Viking invaders began to attack unprotected monasteries in the 790s

Learning from their raids, more than 150 Viking ships sailed up the Garonne river in 844 Sometimes they attacked large cities- in 845, 800 vessels appeared at Hamburg 885, 700 ships sailed up the Seine and besieged Paris 994, 100 ships raided London Some Vikings passed the nearby areas and ventured into the Med and plundered the

Balearic islands, Sicily, and southern Italy By following the Russian rivers to the Black Sea, other Vikings made their way to

Constantinople, which they raided thrice during the 9th and 10th centuries Dissolution of Political Authority

The Carolingians had no navy and no means to protect vulnerable sites, and no way to predict the Vikings movements Defense against the Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings rested on local forces that could

rapidly response to invasions Since the imperial authorities couldn’t defend their territories, the empire became the

main casualty of the invasions After the 9th century, political and military initiative in western Europe devolved to regional

and local authorities The devolution took different forms in different areas

In England and Germany, regional kingdoms emerged and successfully defended territories more compact

In France, the counts and other Carolingian subordinates usurped royal rights and prerogatives for themselves

The Vikings established settlements in northern France and southern Italy, where they carved out small independent states

Following a century of internal conflict and external invasion, the emergence of regional kingdoms and local authorities made it unlikely imperial rule would return to Western Europe Like postclassical India but unlike postclassical societies in China, SW Asia, and the

eastern Med, western Europe became a society of competing regional states By putting an end to the 9th century invasions and establishing a stable political order,

these states laid a foundation for social, economic, and cultural development in later centuries

Economy and Society in Medieval Europe Intro

Economic and social development in the two areas of Christendom mirrored their different political fortunes in the postclassical (p.c.) era

Byzantium was an economic powerhouse in the eastern Med The Byzantine countryside produced large agricultural surpluses

Supported large urban populations and manufacturers Merchants participated in long-distance commercial networks that linked lands

throughout the eater hemisphere Western Europe, but contrast, experienced both a decline of agricultural production and

weakening of cities Repeated invasions disrupted economic, social, and political affairs By the 10th century, a measure of political stability helped serve as a foundation for

economic recovery Western European peoples began to more actively participate in the larger trading world

of the eastern hemisphere

The Two Economies of Early Medieval Europe The Byzantine Peasantry

Byzantium was strongest when its free peasant class was strongest After adopting the theme system in the 8th century, soldiers received allotments of land

when they left the army Helped support and large and prosperous class of free peasants, who cultivated their

land intensively in hopes of improving their families’ fortunes The free peasants declined as a class after the 11th century as wealthy cultivators

accumulated large estates For as long as it flourished, the free peasant class provided farming surpluses that

served as the foundation for prosperity in the Byzantine empire Manufacturing

Farming surpluses supporting manufacturing in the cities, esp Constantinople The city was home to lots of artisans and craft workers as well as thousands of imperial

officers and bureaucrats Enjoyed a reputation for their glassware, linen and woolen textiles, gems, jewelry, gold

and silver work Silk

In the 6th century, craft workers added high-quality silk textiles from China to their list of manufactured products Made a major contribution to the Byzantine economy By the late 6th century, Byzantine silks matched the quality of Chinese silks Had become the principal supplier of silk to the Mediterranean lands Was so important to the economy that the Byzantine gov’t closely monitored every stop

in the production and sale Allowed individuals to only participated in one part of the process to prevent the

creation of a monopoly by a few entrepreneurs Byzantine Trade

Sitting on routes going east and west as well as north and south, Constantinople served as the main clearing house for trade in the western part of Eurasia The merchants of Constantinople maintained commercial links with manufacturers and

merchants in central Asia, Russia, Scandinavia, northern Europe, the Black Sea and the Med basin

Even after the early Muslim conquests, they maintained trade with their Muslims counterparts in Persia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt except during outright war

Byzantium was so dominant in trade that their gold coin, the bezant, was the standard currency of the Med basin for more than half a millennium, from the 6th through 12th century

Drew enormous wealthy by simply controlling trade and levying taxes on merchandise that passed through its lands Byzantium served as the western anchor of the Eurasian trading network that revived the

Silk Roads of classical times Silk and porcelain came to Constantinople from China, spices from India and SE

Asia Carpets from Persia, woolen textile from Europe; timber, furs, honey, amber, and

slaves from Russia and Scandinavia Consumed some products from distant lands, but mostly redistributed products, often

after adding to their value by processing them Jewelry out of gems from India, or dyeing raw woolen cloth from western Europe

As Byzantium prospered, western Europe struggled to find its economic footing in an era of invasion and political turmoil Disrupted both agricultural production and large-scale manufacturing While dealing with these political and military challenges, western Europe also adopted a

series of innovations that yielded increased agricultural production Heavy Plows

One innovation involved a heavier plow that replaced the light Med plows Were reasonable in the light and well-drained Med soils; did not work well in the heavy,

wet soils of the north After the 8th century, a more serviceable plow came into use: a heavy tool equipped with

iron tips and a mould-board that turned the soil to aerate it and break up the roots of the weeds

Was more expensive, and required cultivators to harness more energy; once hitched to oxen or draft horses, the heavy plow contributed to greater farming production

As the heavy plow spread through western Europe, cultivators took other steps to increase farming Cleared new lands for cultivation, built ponds for fishing

Constructed water mills, freeing humans and animals for other work Employed a special horse collar, allowing them to rely on speedier horses to pull heavy

plows Increased cultivation of beans and legumes Made numerous small adaptations that created a foundation for rural success after 1000

ce Trade in Western Christendom

Trade did not disappear from Western Europe Local markets and fairs offered small-scale exchanged; peddlers shopped their wares

from one settlement to another Maritime trade flourished in the Med despite Muslims conquests Christian merchants from Italy and Spain regularly traded across religious lines with

Muslims of Sicily, Spain, and norther Africa Indirectly linked Europe to a larger world of communication and exchange

Norse Merchant-Mariners Maritime trade also flourished in the North Sea and the Black Sea; most active among the

early medieval merchants in the northern seas were the Norse seafarers, kinsmen of the Vikings Followed the same routes as Viking raiders, and many individuals switched between

commerce and plunder Called at ports from Russia to Ireland, carrying cargoes of fish and furs from

Scandinavia, honey from Poland, wheat from England, wine from France, beer from the Low Countries, and swords from Germany

By travelling down the Russian rivers to the Black Sea, they were able to trade in both the Byzantine and the Abbasid empires

Like the Med merchants, the Norse mariners linked western Europe with Islam The Carolingian empire heavily depended on this connection Took Scandinavian products to the Abbasid and exchanged them for silver, which they

trade at Carolingian ports for wine, jugs, and glassware The silver from the Abbasid empire was a principal source of bullion used for minting

coins in early Medieval Europe A crucially important element of the western European economy

Even if the western European merchants were not as numerous or prominent as their Byzantine counterparts, they still participated in the trading networks of the larger eastern hemisphere

Social Development in the Two Worlds of Christendom Byzantium: An Urban Society

The Byzantine was rich in large, prosperous, cosmopolitan cities Alexandria, Antioch, and Damascus Until the Muslim conquests of the late 7th and early 8th centuries, Byzantium was the most

urbanized society in the world The residents enjoyed the benefits and observed urban traditions inherited from the

classical Med world Constantinople had no rival amongst Byzantine cities

The heart of the city was the imperial palace which employed 20,000 ppl City Life

Aristocrats maintained enormous palaces for their extended family, servants, and slaves

Women lived in separate apartments and did not receive male visitors from outside the household

They did not participate in banquets and parties Wore veils to discourage the attention of me

Dwellings of the less privileged were less maintained Artisans and craft workers typically lived above their workshop Clerks and gov’t officials occupied multistory apartment buildings Workers and the poor lived in rickety tenements with shared kitchens and bathrooms

with the neihbors Attractions of Constantinople

Even for the poor, Constantinople had attractions City of baths Taverns and restaurants offered social gatherings Theaters provided entertainment Mass entertainment occurred in the Hippodrome, a large stadium adjacent to the imperial

palace Watched chariot races, athletic matches, contests between wild animals, circuses

Western Europe: A Rural Society Cities to the west like Constantinople had largely disappeared by the 5th century in the wake

of the Germanic invasions and the collapse of the Roman empire The agricultural surplus of western Europe was enough to sustain local political elites

Not substantial enough to support large, urban populations of artisans, craftsmen, merchants, and professionals

Towns survived, but they were more as economic hubs rather than vibrant centers integrating large-scale economic activities

The Question of Feudalism How did the peoples of western Christendom reorganize after the fall?

Historians once used the term feudalism to characterize the political and social order of medieval Europe

Spoke of a “feudal system” involving a hierarchy of lords and vassals, who took charge of political and military affairs on the basis of personal relationships

Provided grants of land to their retainers in exchange for loyalty and military service Over the years, this idea has been undermined as an oversimplification

More of a society in which local political and military elites worked in various ways to organize their territories and maintain social order

Had deep implications for the lives of political and military elites as well as their relationship with commoners

In the absence of an effective central authority, local notables or lords mobilized small private armies of army retainers Some of these were descendants of Carolingian or other ruling houses, others were

ambitious strongmen Both the lords and their retainers were warriors with horses, weapons, and military

expertise Lords would sometimes reward retainers with grants of land or something else valuable,

like income from a mill, or rents or payments from a village, even money In other cases, lords retained them by maintaining them in their own household

Provided them equipment and training After 1000, lords increasingly hired their retainers, paying for them as need be

By one mechanism or another, lords and retainers were a privileged political and military elite who dominated local regions

Peasants Lords and retainers mainly supported themselves on surplus agricultural production from the

subject peasants Political and military elites obliged local peasants to provide labor services and payments

of rents, such as a portion of a harvest, a chicken, or a dozen eggs Male peasants typically worked three days a week for the lord while also providing

additional labor services during planting and harvesting Women peasants churned butter, made cheese, brewed beer, spun threat, wove cloth,

or sewed clothes for their lords and family Some peasants also kept sheep or cattle, with their obligations to their lords including

products from both Because lords provided peasants with land to cultivate and the tools and animals, peasants

had little ability to move to different lands They were usually only able to do it with permission from their lords Had to pay fees for the right to marry a peasant who worked for a different lord

Population During the 5th and 6th centuries, epidemic disease and political turmoil took a demographic

toll on both areas From 36 million at the time of the Roman Empire in 200 ce, population fell to 26 million in

600 ce (19 in Byzantium, 7 in western Europe) Population fluctuated dramatically over the next two centuries

Byzantines lost territories to Muslims and western Europeans suffered repeated invasions

After the 8th century, both Byzantium and western Europe began to recover population Political stability created a foundation for more productive farming as new crops

made their way from the Muslim world to Byzantium and Med Europe Durum wheat, rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, lemons, limes, oranges, and

melons brought increased calories and variety that supported increasing populations By the year 800, the had a combined pop of about 29 million, 32 million in 900 and 36

million in 1000 By the year 1000, Byzantium and western Europe had built productive farming

economies that sustained sizable and increasing populations Finally matched the Roman Empire

The Evolution of Christian Societies in Byzantium and Western Europe Intro

Byzantium and western Europe were the heirs to the Roman Empire and to Christianity The two realms created distinct and competing forms of their common religion

Christianity served as the main source of religious, moral, and cultural authority in both areas Both lands supported church hierarchies with monastery networks Both societies worked to extend the reach of Christianity by sending missionaries to

northern areas (Russia, Slavic lands, Scandinavia, British Isles)

By the year 1000, the two heirs of Roman Christianity had created the foundation for a Christian cultural zone in Europe Similar to the Buddhist and Islamic zones of Asia

Even as they were promoting Christianity in their own societies and beyond, church authorities in the areas had deep disagreements on doctrine, ritual, and church authority By the mid-11th century, their differences were so great that church leaders denounced

on another and established their two rival communities Eastern Orthodox church in Byzantium Roman Catholic church in western Europe

Popes and Patriarchs Intro

Christianity was more hierarchical than any other major religious tradition Inherited a strong organizational structure from the late Roman Empire In the early middle ages, the two most important authorities were the bishop of Rome

aka the pope, and the patriarch of Constantinople The Papacy

When the western Roman Empire collapsed, the papacy survived and claimed continuing spiritual authority over the lands formerly of the Roman Empire At first, the popes cooperated closely with the Byzantine emperors, who were the natural

heirs of the emperors of Rome Beginning in the late 6th century, the popes acted more independently and devoted their

efforts to strengthening the Western Christian church based at Rome Distinguished it from the eastern Christian church in Constantinople

Pope Gregory I The person most responsible for an independent Roman church was Pope Gregory I (50-

604 ce), known as Gregory the Great As pope, had numerous challenges

During the late 6th century, the Germanic Lombards campaigned in Italy, menacing Rome and the church

Mobilized local resources and organized the defense of Rome, saving both the city and the church

Faced difficulties within the church, since bishops acted with independent authority in their own ecclesiastical authorities within their own dioceses To regain the initiative, Gregory asserted claims of papal primacy, the idea that

bishop of Rome was the ultimate authority for all the Christian church Also made contributions as a theologian

Emphasized the sacrament of penance, requiring individuals to confess their sins to their priests and atone for them by penitential acts Enhanced the influence of the Roman church in the lives of individuals

The Patriarchs The patriarchs of Constantinople were powerful officials, but they did not enjoy the

independence of their brethren to the west Following caesaropapism of Constantine, Byzantine emperors treated the church as a

department of state Appointed the patriarchs, instructing patriarchs, bishops, and priests to deliver sermons

that supported imperial policy and encouraged obedience to imperial authorities Caesaropapism was source of tension between imperial and ecclesiastical authorities

Had the potential to provoke popular dissent when imperial values clashed with those of the larger society

Iconoclasm The most divisive policy implemented was iconoclasm, inaugurated by Emperor Leo III (r.

717-741) Byzantium had a long tradition of icon painting- paintings of saints, Jesus, and other

religious figures- many of them works of art Most theologians took these icons as visual stimulation that inspired reverence for holy

personages Leo, however, became convinced that the veneration of images was sinful, similar to the

worship of idols 726, embarked on a policy of iconoclasm (“breaking of icons”), destroying religious

images and prohibiting their use in churches The policy sparked protests and riots throughout the empire, since icons were extremely

popular Only in 843 did Leo’s followers abandoned the policy of iconoclasm

Monks and Missionaries Intro

Consumed with matters of theology, ritual, and church politics, popes and patriarchs rarely dealt directly with the lay population of their churches For personal religious instruction and inspiration, lay Christians looked less to the church

hierarchy than to local monasteries Asceticism

Christian monasticism grew out of the efforts of devout individuals to lead especially holy lives Early Christian ascetics in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia adopted extreme regimes of

self-denial to focus all of their attention on religious matters Some lived as hermits, and others formed communes where they devoted themselves to

the pursuit of holiness rather than worldly success Many dedicated themselves to celibacy, fasting, and prayer

Drawn by the reputation for piety, disciples gathered around these ascetics and established communities of men and women determined to follow their example These examples became the earliest monasteries

During the early days of monasticism, each community developed its own rules, procedures, and priorities The result was wild inconsistency: some monasteries imposed harsh and austere

regimes of self-denial, and others offered little to no guidance St. Basil and St. Benedict

Monasteries became much more influential when reformers provided them with discipline and a sense of purpose

The two most important reformers were the patriarch St. Basil of Caesarea (329-379 ce) in Byzantium and St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547 ce) in Italy Both men prepared regulations for monasteries that provided for mild but not debilitating

asceticism combined with meditation and work on behalf of the church In both Basilian and Benedictine monasteries, individuals gave up their personal

possessions and lived communal, celibate lives under the direction of the abbots who supervised the communities

Poverty, chastity, and obedience became the prime virtues for Basilian and Benedictine monks At certain hours, monks came together for religious services and prayers, dividing the

remainder of the day into periods for study, reflection, and labor St. Scholastica

Monasteries throughout Byzantium adopted the Basilian rule for their own use, while their counterparts in western Europe largely followed the rule of St. Benedict Through the influence of St. Benedict’s sister, the nun St. Scholastica (482-543 ce), an

adaptation of the Benedictine rule provided guidance for the religious life of women living in converts

Monasticism and Society Like Buddhist monasteries in Asian lands and charitable religious foundations in Muslim

lands Christian monasteries provided a variety of social services that enabled them to build close relationships with local communities Monks and nuns offered spiritual counsel to local laity Organized relief efforts during times of trouble by supplying food and medical attention Monasteries and convents both served as orphanages and inns Some also provided rudimentary educational services for local communities

Because of the various roles they played in larger society, monasteries were effective agents in the spread of Christianity While provided social services, monks also preached Christianity and tended to the

spiritual needs of rural populations For many people, a local neighboring monastery was the only source of instruction in

Christian doctrine A local monastic church offered the only practical opportunity for them to take part in

religious services Through patience and persistence over decades and centuries, monks and nuns helped

instill Christian values in countless generations of European peasants Missionaries

Some monks went beyond the bounds of their own society and sought to spread Christianity in the larger world One of the more remarkable developments of the early middle ages was the creation of a

large Christian cultural zone in the western part of the European continent Christianity was already well established in the Med region

Pagan Germanic and Slavic peoples occupied the more northerly parts of Europe In the late 6th century, Pope Gregory I sent missionaries to England and targeted the pagan

Germanic kings who ruled various parts of the island Hoped that their conversion would induce their subjects to adopt Christianity This tactic largely succeeded- by the early 7th century Christianity enjoyed a stable

foothold By 800, England was securely within the fold of the Roman church

The Franks and Charlemagne later sponsored effort to extend Christianity to northern Germany and Scandinavia Met spirited resistance from Germanic peoples who had desire to abandon their inherited

gods or pagan beliefs By the year 1000, Christianity won a sizable and growing following

Meanwhile, Byzantine authorities sent missionaries to Balkan and Slavic lands

The most famous of the missionaries to the Slavs were Saints Cyril and Methodius, two brothers from Thessaloniki in Greece

During the mid-9th century, Cyril and Methodius conducted missions in Bulgaria and Moravia There, they devised an alphabet known as the Cyrillic alphabet for the previously illiterate

Slavic peoples Adapted from written Greek, the Cyrillic alphabet represented the sounds of Slavic

languages more precisely than did Greek Remained in use in much of eastern Europe until supplanted by the Roman alphabet

in the 20th century In Russia and many other parts of the former Soviet Union, the Cyrillic alphabet

survives to the present day North of Bulgaria another Slavic group began to organize large states: the Russians

About 989, Prince Vladimir of Kiev converted to Christianity at the urging of Byzantine missionaries Ordered his subjects to follow his example

After his conversion, Byzantine influences followed rapidly into Russia Cyrillic writing, literacy, and Christian missionaries all spread quickly throughout

Russia Byzantine teachers traveled north to establish schools, and Byzantine priests

conducted services for Russian converts Kiev served as a conduit for the spread of Byzantine cultural and religious influence

in Russia

Two Churches Intro

While they professed the same basic doctrine, the churches of Constantinople and Rome experienced increasing friction after the 6th century Tensions mirrored political strains

Such as deep resentment in Byzantium after Charlemagne accepted the title of emperor from the pope in Rome

Church authorities in Constantinople and Rome harbored different views on religious and theological issues

The iconoclast movement of the 8th and 9th centuries was one focus of difference Western theologians regarded religious images as appropriate aids to devotion and

resented Byzantine claims to the contrary The iconoclasts took offense at the efforts of their Roman counterparts to have images

restored in Byzantium Religious Rivalry

Over time, the Christian churches based in Constantinople and Rome disagreed on many other points Some ritual and doctrinal differences concerned forms of worship and the precise

wording of theological teachings Minor issues that shouldn’t have caused a deeper division in the larger Christian

communities Byzantine theologians objected to the fact that western priests shaved their beads and

use unleavened bread when saying Mass Others were more substantive theological matters, such as the precise relationship

between God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit All regarded as manifestations of God by most Christian theologians of the day

Schism Alongside ritual and doctrinal differences, the Byzantine patriarchs and the Roman popes

disputed their respective rights and powers Patriarchs argued for the autonomy of all major Christian jurisdictions, including

Constantinople, where popes asserted the primacy of Rome as the sole seat of authority Ultimately, relations became so strained that the western and eastern halves went their

separate ways In 1054, the patriarch and the pope mutually excommunicated each other, each refusing

the recognize the other’s church as properly Christian Had profound historical consequences since the schism between eastern and western

Christian church has persisted to this day In light of the schism, historians refer to the eastern Christian church after 1054 as the

Eastern Orthodox church and its western counterpart as the Roman Catholic church