The Reign of Napoleon (b. 1769 - d. 1821)

• Supporter of the Revolution• Superb, but not perfect, military leader• Path to power

– Rapid rise in the military– Brought back to help prop up Directory– Overthrew Directory - 1799– 1802 - Consul for Life– 1804 - Emperor of the French

Reforms of Napoleon• Revised Civil Constitution of the Clergy• Increased religious tolerance, backed

off “cult of reason”• 1804 - Civil Code (Napoleonic Code)

– Merit based– Increased rights for men– Smoothed out residual problems for Rev.– Decreased rights for women

• Not all “sunshine & rainbows”– Censorship, limits on free speech– Secret police– Propaganda– Made France his personal empire

The Empire• Conquered much of France• Forced alliances• Practice of nepotism• Defeated by “General Winter” & scorched

earth policies in Russia - 1812-1813• Abdicated 1814 - exiled to Elba• March 1815 - returned to France for 100 days• Defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena

Haitian Revolution• French colony• Large communities of maroons• Inspired by the French & Am Revolutions• Originally a civil war, turned into a slave revolt• Slaves led by Toussaint L’Overture - a former slave • Est. a constitution for Haiti - did not declare

independence • Toussaint captured by the French - 1802• Haitian independence declared 1803, helped by

malaria

Latin American Wars of Independence

• Large scale social inequalities– Power resided with 30,000 peninsulares

• Upper class creoles (3.5 m) inspired by Am. Rev.– Not looking for social reform– Appreciated US model

• Napoleon’s invasion of Spain - ideal opportunity

Mexico• Originally a peasant uprising led by Miguel

Hidalgo (1753-1811) • Cry of Delores - Sept 16, 1810 - Mexico’s day

of independence• Creales revolted in 1821, led by Augustin

Iturbide - crowned himself emperor• 1823 - Mexico declared a republic• Southern states declared themselves Central

American Federation until 1838

South America• Bolivar (1783-1830)

• Many attempts to overthrow Spain, starting in 1811

• Successful by 1825

• Hoped for a pan-South American state

• Gave up hope by 1830, individual states formed

Brazil• Had acted as seat of Portuguese

empire

• Declared independence from Brazil in 1822

• Monarchy dominated by wealthy creoles

• Republic - mid 1800’s

Nationalism

• Loyalty to state was an emerging notion

• “scientific racism”

• Anti-semitism - – Esp. Russia - pogroms – Highlighted by Dreyfus Affair in France– Dev. the Zionist Mov’t

Congress of Vienna• Wanted to go back to 1789 - Europe

• Wanted to min. revolution

• Largely dominated by Metternich - prime minister of Austria

• Conservative force

• Primarily concerned with balance of power

Unification of Italy• Congress of Vienna - gave control to

France and Austria

• Young Italy - control of Rome in 1848

• Cavour - helped unify northern Italy

• Garibaldi - unifies southern Italy - hands it over to the King

• 1861 - unification

Unification of Germany• Bismarck - realpolitik

• “blood and iron”

• War of unification

• 1871 - unification of Germany

• Large scale resentment between Germany and France