the role of student affairs practitioners in … · that guides student affairs practitioners’...

THE ROLE OF STUDENT AFFAIRS PRACTITIONERS IN IMPROVING CAMPUS RACIAL CLIMATE: A CASE STUDY

Ibrahim M ohamad K arkouti University o f Hartford

The purpose of this paper is to examine the racial conflict that occurred at the University of Michigan (UMI) earlier last year when Black students expressed their frustrations with the underrepresentation, racial discrimination and disparaging remarks against African Americans on campus (Jaschik, 2014). Because student affairs is the service most relevant to the issue, the paper primarily focuses on multicultural student services and explores how the student affairs division addresses the shortcomings of discrimination and underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in order to enhance campus racial climate and promote equal representation of socially oppressed groups. Finally, two multicultural frameworks that can be used to enhance student affairs practitioners’ multicultural skills and guide them in transforming their educational institutions are proposed.

National Survey on Campus Racial Climate

In an effort to understand the climate for underrepresented groups and diversity on U.S. campuses, Hurtado and Ruiz (2012) examined findings from the Diverse Learning Environments National Survey (DLE) that was designed to assist institutions of higher learning in evaluating their campus racial climate. The DLE sample includes 31 private and public institutions that differ in terms of minority enrollment policies, including public institutions in California and Texas that no longer use race as a factor in enrollment decisions. Of the 27,819 participants, the DLE focused primarily on the responses of 59 Native American, 490 Black, and 3,488 Hispanic students. The results indicated that only 13% of minority students reported racial incidents to their university officials, and that racial conflicts occurred at a significant higher rate at low-diversity institutions. In addition, 55.4% of Black students reported some level of exclusion while

60.4% of minority students indicated that the most prevalent form of discrimination comes in the form of racist verbal comments at low-diversity institutions. The percentage of Black students who experienced offensive verbal comments at low-diversity institutions is the highest among students of other races and ethnicities with 67.2%, whereas 58.8% of Hispanic students reported similar experiences at low-diversity institutions. More importantly, Hurtado and Ruiz indicated that these percentages decrease significantly at the most diverse institutions where campus racial climates are more hospitable. The data derived from the DLE and Hurtado and Ruiz’s inferences regarding the intensity of racism at low-diversity institutions provide insight into the University of Michigan’s racial conflict especially that Black undergraduate enrollment rates decreased from 6.2% in 2009 to 4.6% in 2013, while the State of Michigan has an overall Black population of more than 14% (Jaschik, 2014; Vega, 2014).

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University of Michigan: An Overview

The University of Michigan (2013) was established in 1817 and is one of most recognized research universities in the world with more than 51,000 students and 5,600 faculty members located on three campuses. UMI argues that they value diversity and is committed to student learning in a multicultural educational environment where students learn from their similarities and differences. However, Black students constitute only 4.2% while their White peers constitute 57.4% of the university’s total enrollment rates (University Ethnicity Reports, 2013). UMI’s student affairs department consists of 24 divisions that aim to increase students’ competencies and abilities in creating and sustaining inclusive communities, provide all students with curricular and co-curricular opportunities that prepare them to participate in a democratic society, and promote students’ personal development, health and well-being (Units of Student Life, 2013). Furthermore, the student affairs division claims to address race-related issues through incorporating a set of professional preparation programs that infuse sociology and psychology into their activities and practices. Table 1 (see Appendix A) summarizes the role of each area.

Summary of Current Issue at the University of Michigan

In an effort to address racial tension, discriminatory practices and other grievances reported by a number of African American students, the Black Student Union at the University of Michigan launched a social media campaign via Twitter to attract the maximum number of supporters to voice their concerns to university officials (Vega, 2014). The Black Student Union demanded university officials to admit more Black students who make up less than 5% of the university’s total enrollment, provide Black students an equal

opportunity to implement change, provide students of lower socio-economic status with better housing rates, allow Black students to share their experiences in a new Trotter Multicultural Center located on main campus, incorporate the history of racial discrimination into the university curriculum, provide scholarships for Black students facing severe economic hardship, and increase disclosure of all documents that clarify how the institution have dealt with racial issues ever since its inception (Jaschik, 2014).

On January 14, 2014, the university provost stated that the UMI is considering the students’ demands and will increase Black student enrollment (Jaschik, 2014). In addition, the university will repair the multicultural center that is located outside the central campus. However, the Black Student Union announced that those efforts are not enough and gave the university a period of seven days to comply with their demands (Jaschik, 2014; Rich, 2014a). Furthermore, the Black Student Union indicated that they would take physical action on the University of Michigan’s campus if their demands were not met (Higbee, 2014; Jaschik, 2014).

Finally, after extensive negotiation rounds, the conflict was resolved when UMI officials decided to allocate $300,000 for renovating the Trotter Multicultural Center (Rich, 2014b). More importantly, the settled agreement between both parties did not indicate whether the university would respond to the remaining six demands (Soave, 2014).

The Role of Multicultural Student Services and Student Affairs Practitioners

in Improving Campus Racial ClimatesFor the purpose of this paper, it is essential

to clarify that enhancing institutional diversity is a major step towards improving campus racial climates (Hurtado, Milem, Clay- ton-Pederson, & Allen, 1998). Diversity and multiculturalism represent a major principle

The Role of Student Affairs Practitioners in Improving Campus Racial Climate / 33

that guides student affairs practitioners’ professional practices (Dungy & Gordon, 2011). Dungy and Gordon (2011) indicated that in 1979, the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education (CAS) was established to provide student affairs educators with standards and ethical guidelines that inform their work. The basic guiding principles of CAS include students and their institutions, organization leadership and human resources, health-engendering environments, diversity and multiculturalism, and ethical considerations. Today, student affairs functional areas have evolved to include 35 dimensions due to the advancement of the profession (Dungy, 2003; Dungy & Gordon, 2011).

Creating diverse learning environments requires student affairs practitioners to consider their campus racial climate in every aspect of their work, because campus climates capture the norms that regulate social interactions among students, faculty, and staff (Chang, Milem, & Antonio, 2011). Therefore, the role of student affairs practitioners is essential in creating opportunities for cross-racial engagement and interracial interactions that expose students to new perspectives and improve students’ college experience (Dey, 1997). According to Dungy (2003), student affairs practitioners promote equal representation of minority students and address the issues of campus diversity through the office of multicultural student services. Dungy explained that the office of multicultural services is a major student affairs functional area that supports, empowers, and merges all students into the campus life. Furthermore, it enables student affairs practitioners to address the issues that prevent institutions of higher learning from attaining the educational benefits of diversity and multiculturalism, and fosters racially and ethnically diverse learning environments that enhance students’ educational experience and prepare them to participate in a democratic society. Finally, according

to Dungy, the office of multicultural services helps students of color achieve their educational, personal and social goals, and aims to increase their enrollment and retention at a rate that exceeds the majority student body.

According to Dungy (2003), the office of financial aid is part of student affairs and plays a major role in assisting students in financing their education. Dungy explained that the primary role of financial aid officers is to evaluate student financial needs and help them in personal financial planning during college. Therefore, the office of financial aid can address the University of Michigan’s case by providing students of color and lower socio-economic status with scholarships, especially since the Black Student Union demanded scholarships for financially disadvantaged students. Creating adequate financial aid policies increase the student diversity, which in turn enhance campus racial climate (Hurtado et al., 1998).

Manning and Coleman-Boatwright (1991) explained that student affairs practitioners play an important role in developing multicultural climates, transforming organizational structures, and creating inclusive learning environments by adjusting their behaviors and professional practices through incorporating the understanding of diverse perspectives. The researchers argued that the department of student affairs influences significant aspects of the institutional environment and student affairs practitioners shape a multicultural campus environment within their immediate positions through professionally managing their functional areas and promoting the representation of minorities on campus. Manning and Coleman-Boatwright concluded that a multicultural institution appreciates the dynamic interaction between different cultures, and is productive, inclusive and effective. Furthermore, a multicultural institution values cultural diversity and recognizes the creativity and capacity that a diverse community entails.


In an attempt to enhance higher education institutions’ progress toward creating multicultural environments, Strong (as cited in Barr & Strong, 1988) defined the main elements of institutional multiculturalism. According to Strong, a multicultural institution is:

genuinely committed to diverse representation of its membership; is sensitive to maintaining an open, supportive and responsive environment; is working toward and purposefirlly including elements of diverse cultures in its ongoing operations; and is authentic in its response to issues confronting it. (Strong as cited in Barr & Strong, 1988, p. 85)

According to Jones, Terell, and Duggar (1991), student affairs divisions are responsible for promoting cultural diversity in higher education through developing curricular and co-curricular educational programs that emphasize the importance of recognizing and respecting minority students’ cultures, values and beliefs. Student affairs practitioners need to focus their attention on providing students with opportunities for social interaction and cross-racial engagement in order to alleviate racial tension and improve campus racial climate. Furthermore, Jones et al. (1991) explained that the primary role of chief student affairs officers is to promote equal representation of minority groups through sensitizing their campuses to cultural diversity. Finally, Manning and Coleman-Boatwright (1991) indicated that student affairs practitioners who consider the dynamics and complexities of organizational change and emphasize learning, awareness, and sensitivity can transform their institutions from monocultural to multicultural environments.

Jones et al. (1991) indicated that facilitating cultural diversity on campus requires student affairs directors to evaluate their staff in order to determine if they possess the skills

and competencies needed to deal with minority students. If student affairs practitioners were not prepared to engage in cultural awareness campaigns, student affairs directors will have to develop and conduct professional development programs and intensive training workshops about the nature and manifestation of racism. In addition, student affairs directors can engage minority students’ fraternities and sororities in cultural awareness initiatives, because they can assist student affairs practitioners in understanding the historical perspective of their oppression. Furthermore, Jones et al. explained that the division of student affairs could align its efforts with other institutional divisions to promote the visibility of minority faculty and staff in significant administrative positions in order to influence the organizational culture and achieve cultural diversity on campus. Therefore, minority faculty and staff should be allowed to participate in different high profile activities that could enhance institutional efforts toward creating racially affirmative environments.

Finally, according to Jones et al. (1991), the role of chief student affairs officers is fundamental in creating cultural diversity on campus and in integrating multiculturalism within the context of their institutional vision, mission and values. Given the importance of serving the increasing demographically diverse population, student affairs directors must lead the change on campuses through infusing multicultural content and experiences into student affairs and faculty preparation programs in order to accommodate the need for increased awareness of cultural diversity (McEwen & Roper, 1994).

Student Affairs and Multicultural Competence

Understanding the importance of diversity and multiculturalism at higher education institutions and the ability to develop professional programs that allow colleges and universities


to cope with the increasing demands of constantly changing student bodies are mandatory to student affairs professional and ethical practice (Brown, 1991). Nevertheless, student affairs practitioners have received minimal awareness training and professional development programs that prepare them to assume their roles as socializing agents in multicultural environments (McEwen & Ropper, 1994; Mueller & Pope, 2001). This issue is best described by Pope and Reynolds (1997) as multicultural incompetence. According to Pope and Reynolds, multicultural competence is a heuristic tool that enables student affairs practitioners to deal with students who are culturally different. In addition, it guides student affairs practitioners’ ethical, affirmative and professional practices in establishing multicultural sensitive and affirming environments. Anderson (as cited in Bresciani, 2008) referred to multicultural competence as global competence where individuals learn how to express themselves without offending others’ cultures, ideas, beliefs, and feelings. Bresciani (2008) argued that there is very little difference between global competence and multicultural competence if the notion of intellectual diversity is emphasized.

The lack of multicultural competence is problematic in the sense that it prevents student affairs practitioners from understanding themselves, which in turn obstruct their efforts in relating to culturally different others

(Bresciani, 2008; Pope & Reynolds, 1997). Bresciani (2008) argued that student affairs practitioners cannot facilitate learning or even work with students of different cultures if they cannot distinguish their own culture, values, and beliefs. Therefore, Sue et al. (1982) developed a theoretical model that advances student affairs practitioners’ multicultural skills in order to effectively handle multicultural issues and encourage the valuing of cultural differences. The tripartite model consists of multicultural awareness, multicultural knowledge, and multicultural skills (Pope & Reynolds, 1997). Pope and Reynolds (1997) explained that these three foundational constructs represent the scope of multicultural competence. According to Sue et al., multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills are essential if student affairs practitioners are to work ethically and efficaciously across cultural differences. Table 2 summarizes Sue et al.’s (1982) multicultural competence model.

Finally, Bresciani (2008) concluded that student affairs practitioners should not consider the development of multicultural competence as a sole indicator of success. Instead, they are required to incorporate outcome-based assessment strategies into their development activities in order to determine their institutional limitations and strengths. According to Pope and Reynolds (1997), the department of research and program evaluation needs to develop valid and reliable

Table 2.Multicultural Competence Model (Sue et al., 1982)

Constructs Description

Multicultural AwarenessCharacterized by the attitudes, values, beliefs, self-awareness, and the assumptions needed to serve students who are culturally different from oneself.

Multicultural KnowledgeCharacterized by ones preconceptions about others’ cultures, values and beliefs. Individuals who have inaccurate information need to adjust their knowledge prior to proceeding with multicultural development

Multicultural Skills

Characterized by meaningful interactions that allow student affairs practitioners to understand cultural differences. Pedersen (as cited in Pope & Reynolds, 1997) explained that multicultural skills are the outcome o f multicultural awareness and knowledge needed for an effective change in multicultural environments


assessment programs that help institutions in measuring the levels of multicultural competence that student affairs practitioners possess. The derived results will identify deficit areas and determine the main goals and objectives that multicultural development programs would address (Ebbers & Henry, 1990). Pope and Reynolds explained that the development of multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills is an ongoing process that necessitates continuous learning and evaluation.

Deconstructing Predominantly WhiteCultures: A Conceptual Framework

Although education and awareness professional development programs were developed in an attempt to improve student affairs practitioners’ multicultural competence and enhance cultural diversity on campus, many universities and colleges have failed to change their learning environments to one that embraces multiculturalism (Manning & Coleman-Boatwright, 1991). According to Baxter-Magolda (2003), the predominant White culture explains why student affairs practitioners’ efforts often fall short in transforming their institutions’ cultural climate. Manning and Coleman-Boatwright (1991) explained that the White culture predominates all aspects of campus life and have become the norm that determines acceptable behaviors, cultures, and values. For instance, traits, actions, and characteristics that differ from the defined standards are rejected and considered deviant, abnormal and inappropriate. Therefore, minority students and others who represent diverse perspectives feel alienated in White cultures because their way of being is not reflected in the organizational mission, values, and behavior (Heath, 1983). Finally, according to Manning and Coleman-Boatwright, a predominant culture on campus is problematic in the sense that it creates hostile learning environments where racial tension among students, faculty, and staff prevails.

In an effort to improve the understanding and appreciation of diversity, Ortiz and Rhoads (2000) offered a five-step multicultural education framework that assists student affairs practitioners in deconstructing White cultures and creating multicultural learning environments. According to Baxter-Magolda (2003), the multicultural education framework assists all students in understanding the concept of culture and their role in its development. Furthermore, Baxter-Magolda explained that students who participate in Ortiz and Rhoads’ multicultural education framework learn that “who they are and are becoming is central to success in learning, career decisions, understanding diversity, and interacting peacefully with others” (p. 244). Table 3 summarizes Ortiz and Rhoads’ (2000) five-step multicultural education framework.

Implications for Future Practice

It is still unclear whether the agreement held between the Black Student Union and the University of Michigan will increase the representation of Black students on campus and sustain academic equity, especially since the university officials responded to one demand ignoring six others. Providing minority Black students with a multicultural center is important but it is not enough to alleviate racial tension, promote equal representation of socially oppressed groups, and create racially affirmative learning environments. Creating multicultural learning environments require institutions of higher learning to hire and promote faculty and staff of color, alter their enrollment policies, increase financial aid for students of lower socio-economic status, engage minority employees in allocating budgets, develop curricular and co-curricular programs that facilitate diversity and multiculturalism, and incorporate the history of racial inequalities into their educational programs (Barr & Strong, 1988).

Student affairs practitioners at the University of Michigan must focus on multicultural


competence needed to increase faculty, staff, and students’ awareness regarding the importance of diverse campus racial climates in building a democratic society. This requires university leaders to develop multicultural training programs that teach faculty, students, and staff how to effectively relate to different individuals who are culturally different to attain both the educational and social benefits o f diversity.

Racial conflicts erupt when educational leaders intentionally disregard various instances of discrimination and racism on campus (Harper & Hurtado, 2007). Therefore, the University of Michigan should constantly examine its campus racial climate and institutional context in order to determine the adequate measures needed to change its organizational culture to one that supports diversity and multiculturalism (Hurtado et al.,

1998). The university must engage in formal and informal assessment programs that determine the extent to which student affairs practitioners are multiculturally competent and prepared to respond to student needs (Pope & Mueller, 2011). Resolving this issue requires university officials to view racial conflicts from a multicultural perspective where racial tensions can positively influence the development of cultural diversity and assist in the attainment of multicultural benefits (Manning & Coleman-Boatwright, 1991). Finally, creating awareness in all student affairs staff, recognizing the legitimacy of other cultures, incorporating multiculturalism into educational programs, and providing all students with opportunities for social interactions would provide worthwhile, alleviate racial hostility, and enhance students’ college experience.

Table 3.Multicultural Education Framework (Ortiz & Rhoads, 2000)

Transformational Steps

Understanding Culture

Description

In the first step, students understand their own culture, explore who they are, and learn how to socially interact with diverse populations. These skills explain to students how culture shapes the daily aspects of their lives.

At this level, students start learning about different cultures. This stage Learning About Other Cultures aims to move students beyond the notion that cultural differences are

superficial and creates an understanding of others’ cultural values, behaviors, and traditions.

Recognizing and Deconstructing White Culture

Recognizing the Legitimacy of Multiple Cultures

Developing a Multicultural Outlook

During this stage, students learn that the White culture has become the norm that determines acceptable behaviors, cultures, and traditions. Deconstructing White culture necessitates skilled facilitation of dialogue between all students in order to explore how White racial identity affects students’ lives. This step may not be comfortable for White students especially that it aims to teach them how to confront their own racial identity development in order to promote learning and success.

After deconstructing the White culture, students engage in recognizing the legitimacy of diverse cultures. The main goal of this stage is to change the existing structures that value a common culture to one that enhance coexistence and promote multiculturalism.

The final step is best described as the process through which students learn about the complex interconnections between culture, society, and individuals. At this stage, students understand that diverse cultures mutually construct democratic societies where all people are equally represented.


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Appendix A

Table 1.University o f Michigan Student Affairs Divisions (Units o f Student Life, 2013)

Divisions Description

Campus Information Centers Guide students to the university offices, services, departments, and events.

Center for Campus InvolvementProvides students with needed resources to engage in different educational and extra-curricular activities.

Counseling and Psychological Services

Provide services that help students reach a balanced university experience.

Dean o f Student OfficeA problem-resolution office that helps students attain their educational and personal goals.

Department o f Recreational SportsOffers a number o f athletic, fitness and recreational programs that enhance students’ development (body, mind, and soul).

Ginsberg Center for Community Services

Actively engages students and faculty in community service opportunities that enhance the learning process.

International CenterHelps international students with cultural adjustment issues and other legal services.

Michigan Union Ticket Office

Office o f Greek Life

Offers students with affordable price tickets for campus and city events.

Governs fraternities and sororities at the University of Michigan.

Office o f Multi-Ethnic Student Affairs and Trotter Multicultural Center

The Office o f Multicultural Affairs seeks to educate the entire campus around issues that affect students o f color.

Office o f Student Conflict Resolution

Resolves student conflicts through promoting a peaceful learning environment that values students’ perceptual differences and facilitates social justice.

Office o f the OmbudsEnables students to discuss their concerns regarding the efficiency and effectiveness o f different university programs

Program on Intergroup RelationsA place where students can work collaboratively in order to build diverse social systems.

Services for Students With Disabilities

Create an accommodating learning environment for students with disabilities through providing them with the resources needed for academic success.

Sexual Assault Awareness CenterCreates awareness for students and faculty about the consequences o f sexual harassment.

Spectrum Center Specialized in providing opportunities for LGBTQ students.

Student Affairs ResearchGathers and disseminate data about students and assist other divisions in collecting information about different issues that contribute to education.

Student Legal Services

Student Organization Account Services

Provide the university community with legal advice in all areas o f the law.

Provide students with information regarding their financial status and assist students o f lower socio-economic status apply for financial aid.

Student Organization Resource Center

Provides student organizations and other university departments with affordable advertising solutions.

The Career Center Connects university students with potential employers.

University Health Services Provide the university community with comprehensive medical plans.

University HousingOffers on- and off-campus residential options to graduate and undergraduate students.

University Unions In charge of the Michigan Union, Michigan League, and Pierpont Commons.

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