The Scientific RevolutionChapter 17

Section 1

The Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution marked the beginning of a dramatic shift in how people viewed the world. The medieval and early modern European outlook had been dominated by religion. As a result of this revolution, many came to see the world predominantly in secular and scientific ways. In the short term, the Scientific Revolution set the stage for the Enlightenment; its long-term repercussions can still be felt today.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Questioning old knowledge & assumptions

Rejection of religious authority and demystification of the universe

Gradual rise of science & reason

Scientists of this era differed from predecessors in combining mathematics and experiments

Models of the Universe:

Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Geocentric: the Earth is at

the center of the universe; all heavenly bodies move around the Earth

Heliocentric: the Sun is at the center of the universe; all heavenly bodies move around the Sun—including the Earth

Old Geocentric Theory

Sun rises Sun sets

Earth seems still

Official view of the Catholic Church

Geocentric: Earth-centered

Proof:

Earth seems stationary

Sun seems to move across the sky

Bible quotes

Blind acceptance of Greek teachings

Man views himself as focus of the universe

Geocentric Theory

Teachings of Aristotle – 300 BCE

World is made up of 5 elements:

Earth, air, water, fire and Quintessence

Earth does not rotate.

Teachings of Aristotle

Clear, round, domes hold planets and stars.

Laws of Motion:

Things move by weight or violent force

Ptolemy 150 CE (Greek)

Agrees with Aristotle

Used math and Geometry to “prove” the Geocentric Theory

Problems:

•Planets must travel in loop orbits

•Does not fit calendar

•Math is forced

NEW HELIOCENTRIC THEORY

The theory is introduced by Copernicus (1473 – 1543) a Polish astronomer and mathematician

Goal: Fix the problems of Ptolemy (Calendar and math)

Make the sun the center and the math works!

HELIOCENTRIC THEORY

Sun is the center of the universe.

The earth revolves around the sun and it rotates

Problem: It goes against the teachings Aristotle and “common sense”

On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, the book written by Copernicus is not published until after his death

Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) German

The Proof: Used Brahe’s measurements –made one adjustment, and the math worked perfectly!

Laws:

Planets travel in an Ellipse

Planets travel slow then fast

Figure distance from sun by how long it takes to revolve around sun. T² = ka³

Explain the difference between the

Geocentric and the Heliocentric theory’s.

Arabic NumeralsDuring the Middle Ages, Europeans switched from Roman to Arabic numerals. This is very important for the Scientific Revolution. (Leonardo de Pisa)

Without this system, Copernicus could not have made his mathematical calculations,

Arabic numerals use a place number system consisting of ten numerals – when these are used up, a new number is added. Allows for fast calculations.

Try to multiply: MDMCXLVII BY CCCLXXII without converting to Arabic Numerals

Tycho Brahe (Danish mathematician)

Really supported Aristotle- wanted to prove Copernicus wrong

Provides the mathematical evidence that Copernicus is correct.

Takes measurements for over 20 years

Leaves his work to assistant Johannes Kepler

NEW DIRECTIONS IN ASTRONOMY & PHYSICS

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS (1473-1543)Polish monkObserved patterns of star and planet movementCalled into question the literal truth of the ScripturesCopernicus waited until he was near death to publish his findings

JOHANNES KEPLER, (1571-1630):

Proved mathematically many of Copernicus’ theories

Developed idea of elliptical planetary movement

NEW DIRECTIONS IN ASTRONOMY & PHYSICS

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) Italian mathematician,

astronomer “Father of Science” Telescopes and

astronomical discoveries Theory of falling objects;

disproved Aristotle

Galileo’s telescopic drawing of the moon

GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642) Italian scientist

Improved the telescope

Made observations that proved the Copernican theory of the universe

Described motion of bodies on earth

1633 -- Church forced Galileo to recant; placed under house arrest.

Galileo vs. the Catholic Church

The church condemned heliocentric conceptions of the universe

The Roman Inquisition

Galileo’s trial Galileo

recants, put under house arrest

19th-century depiction of Galileo before the Inquisition tribunal

Why did the church put Galileo Galilei on trial?

ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)

mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time.

Universal Gravitation: combined laws of planetary & earth motion

new developments in optics and chemistry

developed calculus

work had numerous practical applications

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

DISCOVERIES IN OTHER SCIENCES

Botany: new medical applications

Anatomy: better understand of how human body worked

Microscope invented

Medicine Before the Scientific Revolution

Based on tradition The Church Before the Scientific Revolution, many practitioners of

medicine relied on theories that were centuries old and rarely based on anatomical research or observation.

Medical treatments were at best ineffective and at worst lethal.

The Church banned dissection, a practice critical in understanding the human body and how illnesses affect it.

In general, the Church viewed sickness not so much as a physical disorder but as a spiritual punishment for sin.

Human intervention was seen as challenging the will of God.

William Harvey (1578–1657)

English physician On the Movement of

the Heart and Blood in Animals

Described the functioning of the heart and circulatory system

Disproved Galen’s theories

New Invention: The Telescope Invented in the Netherlands Galileo - Made

improvements to it in the early 1600s, it had not really been widely used as a practical tool for scientific observation

Newton - Made further refinements in the early 1700s when he invented the reflector telescope, which uses a curved mirror to magnify objects to a much greater degree than a simple glass lens is capable.

New Invention: The Microscope Hans Janssen

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Robert Hooke

A Janssen microscope, c.1600Hooke’s drawing of a flea (from Micrographia)

The Microscope• 1590 - Hans Janssen began to construct compound microscopes, which

used several lenses and produced much greater magnification of objects.

• 1600’s - Anton Van Leeuwenhoek developed new methods for grinding and polishing tiny lenses of great curvature which gave magnifications up to 270 diameters, the finest known at that time. He used these lenses to build vastly improved microscopes and make several groundbreaking observations: he was the first to see bacteria, blood corpuscles, and the “life” found in a drop of water.

• 1660’s, - Robert Hooke of the Royal Society of London improved on Leeuwenhoek’s microscope and performed a series of weekly demonstrations to show the power of the instrument. In 1665, he wrote Micrographia, a finely illustrated compendium of microscopic observations that also used the word “cell” as a biological term for the first time; the book sparked increased public interest in microscopy.

New Invention: The Pendulum Clock

Invented by Christiaan Huygens, a 17th-century Dutch scientist

Allowed scientists to more accurately measure time

Huygens’s design for a pendulum clock

New Invention: Barometer Invented by 17th-

century Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli

The barometer measures air pressure

Torricelli’s barometer experiment

New Invention: Thermometer

Invented in the 17th century by Santorio Santorio, an Italian scientist

Ferdinand II – First Sealed Thermometer – Used Alcohol

Gabriel Fahrenheit – Used Mercury and invented the first standard temperature scale

Anders Celsius – Second temperature scale

Illustration depicting Santorio’s thermometer

New Invention: Mechanical Calculator

Invented by Wilhelm Schickard, a 17th-century German inventor

Gottfried von Leibniz’s “Step Reckoner”, Square Roots

Forerunner to modern day Computers

Wilhelm Schickard A 1624 sketch Schickard made of his

calculator

Chemistry: Robert Boyle worked on the properties of

gases; Boyle’s Law: the volume of a gas varies with the pressure exerted on it

Antoine Lavoisier: invented system of naming chemical elements

– regarded as founder of modern chemistry.

What inventions were created or improved during the scientific

revolution?

Women and the Origins of Modern Science:

Margaret Cavendish: wrote Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy; in the book she was critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were masters of nature

Maria Winkelmann: discovered a comet; was refused a teaching position because of her sex

RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650)

Geometry: any algebraic formula could be plotted as curve in space

Deductive Reasoning: predicting particular results from general principles

Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”)

Francis Bacon andthe Scientific Method

1561–1626 English philosopher and

empiricist Inductive reasoning Argued for experimental

methodology

The Scientific MethodScience as a multiple-step process:

3. Test the theory with experiments

2. Develop a theory that explains the object or phenomenon

1. Observe an object or phenomenon

What are the characteristics of

the scientific method?

Significance of the Scientific Revolution

Contributions of these scientists made the universe comprehensible for the first time

The individual became much more important; collective authority was not the source of wisdom…individual intellect was

Began long adversarial relationship between science and religion

The Revolution laid the foundation for the Enlightenment of the 18th century…

Identify examples of new ideas in the form of scientific discoveries or innovations that appeared during the

1500s and 1600s.

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