the self-help guide to the law -...

THE SELF-HELP GUIDE TO THE LAW

Contracts, Landlord-Tenant Relations, Marriage,

Divorce, Personal Injury, Negligence, Constitutional

Rights and Criminal Law for Non-Lawyers

THE SELF-HELP GUIDE TO THE

LAW

Contracts, Landlord-Tenant Relations,

Marriage, Divorce, Personal Injury, Negligence,

Constitutional Rights and Criminal Law

for Non-Lawyers

J. D. Teller, Esq.

THE SELF-HELP GUIDE TO THE LAW

Contracts, Landlord-Tenant Relations, Marriage, Divorce, Personal Injury,

Negligence, Constitutional Rights and Criminal Law for Non-Lawyers

J. D. Teller, Esq.

Copyright © 2014-16 by TellerBooks™. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,

including photocopying, recording, or copying to any storage and retrieval

system, without express written permission from the copyright holder.

2016 Edition

ISBN (13) (paperback): 978-1-68109-037-5

ISBN (10) (paperback): 1-68109-037-6

ISBN (13) (Kindle): 978-1-68109-008-5

ISBN (10) (Kindle): 1-68109-008-2

ISBN (13) (ePub): 978-1-68109-009-2

ISBN (10) (ePub): 1-68109-009-0

JuraLaw™

an imprint of TellerBooks™

TellerBooks.com/Time_Books

www.TellerBooks.com/JuraLaw

Portions of this book were previously published as Law School Survival Guide,

copyright © TellerBooks 2008-2016, and Police Handbook on Searches, Seizures

and Arrests, copyright © TellerBooks 2007-2016.

DISCLAIMER: Although this book is designed to provide rigorously researched

information, it is intended not as a definitive statement of the law, but rather, as a

concise and general overview that will help readers to understand basic legal

principles and find further information, if necessary. Because the law changes

rapidly through new statutes and innovative judicial decisions, law books, including

this one, may quickly become outdated. Furthermore, some decisions may be

ambiguous and subject to differing interpretations and other sources may come to

conclusions distinct from those presented herein. Nothing in this book forms an

attorney-client relationship or is intended to constitute legal advice, which should be

obtained through consultation with a qualified attorney.

Self-Help Guides to the Law™

Self-Help Guides to the Law™ explain the law in clear, concise

terms to a popular audience of non-lawyers. Summarizing the key

areas of the law with which readers are most likely to come into

contact, the Guides broadly outline the statutes and cases that govern

landlord-tenant relations, personal injury, contracts, family law,

criminal law and constitutional law and procedure.

With detailed references to sources for readers wishing to delve

deeper, the Guides are ideal for readers wishing to better understand

their legal rights and responsibilities, regardless of whether they

ultimately opt to hire a lawyer.

In addition to The Self-Help Guide to the Law: Contracts,

Landlord-Tenant Relations, Marriage, Divorce, Personal Injury,

Negligence, Constitutional Rights and Criminal Law for Non-Lawyers,

readers may acquire the following individual titles:

- The Self-Help Guide to the Law: Property Law and Landlord-

Tenant Relations for Non-Lawyers

- The Self-Help Guide to the Law: Contracts for Non-Lawyers

- The Self-Help Guide to the Law: Negligence and Personal

Injury Law for Non-Lawyers

- The Self-Help Guide to the Law: Know Your Constitutional

Rights

- The Self-Help Guide to the Law: Criminal Law and Procedure

for Non-Lawyers

About the Imprint

With a focus on international and comparative law, the JuraLaw™

imprint publishes monographs exploring public and private

international law and overviews of the laws of various nations.

Summary Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 1. LANDLORD / TENANT LAW .............................. 19

CHAPTER 2. REAL AND PERSONAL PROPERTY ................. 37

CHAPTER 3. NEGLIGENCE AND PERSONAL INJURY ........ 67

CHAPTER 4. CONTRACTS ........................................................ 123

CHAPTER 5. MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE ............................. 177

CHAPTER 6. CIVIL PROCEDURE ........................................... 191

CHAPTER 7. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW .................................. 273

CHAPTER 8. CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE .............. 327

APPENDICES 435

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. 17

CHAPTER 1. LANDLORD / TENANT LAW .............................. 19

I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 19 A. Leasehold Estates ................................................................... 19 B. Three Kinds of Leaseholds .................................................... 19

II. DISCRIMINATORY PREFERENCES AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY ISSUES 21 A. The Evolution of Regulations on Landlords .......................... 21 B. Modern Statutes and Religious Liberty ................................. 22

III. TENANT’S RIGHTS AND REMEDIES ................................................ 23 A. Introduction............................................................................ 23 B. Legal Possession .................................................................... 23 C. Actual Possession .................................................................. 23 D. The Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment & Constructive Eviction 24 E. The Implied Warranty of Habitability ................................... 25 F. Illegal Leases ......................................................................... 26

IV. DURATION OF THE TENANCY AND USE OF THE PREMISES .............. 27 A. Duration of the Tenancy ........................................................ 27 B. Restrictions on the Uses of the Premises ............................... 28 C. The Duty of Continuous Operations ...................................... 29

V. FIXTURES ...................................................................................... 30 A. Common Law ........................................................................ 30 B. Modern Law........................................................................... 30

VI. LESSOR’S REMEDIES AGAINST DEFAULTING TENANTS ................. 30 A. Termination of the Lease ....................................................... 30 B. Eviction .................................................................................. 30 C. Damages ................................................................................ 31 D. Limits on the Lessor’s Actions .............................................. 31

VII. ASSIGNMENTS AND SUBLEASES .............................................. 32 A. Introduction............................................................................ 32 B. Determining Whether a Sublease or an Assignment has been

Created ................................................................................... 33 C. Privity .................................................................................... 33 D. Landlord’s Rights .................................................................. 35

CHAPTER 2. REAL AND PERSONAL PROPERTY ................. 37

I. THE ACQUISITION OF UNOWNED PROPERTY .................................. 37

10 THE SELF-HELP GUIDE TO THE LAW

A. The Acquisition of Wild Animals and Unowned Property ....37 B. Acquisition of Volatile Minerals (Oil and Gas) .....................38 C. Acquisition by Conquest ........................................................39

II. PERSONAL PROPERTY ....................................................................39 A. Bailment .................................................................................39 B. Findings..................................................................................40 C. Prior (Unauthorized) Possession ............................................43 D. Adverse Possession ................................................................44 E. Accession ...............................................................................46 F. Bona Fide Purchase ...............................................................48 G. Gifts........................................................................................52

III. CONVEYANCES AND ACQUIRING TITLE .........................................53 A. Financing Arrangements ........................................................53 B. Merchantable Title .................................................................56 C. Equitable Conversion and Risk of Loss .................................58 D. The Modern Deed ..................................................................59 E. The Recording System ...........................................................60

IV. THE INTEGRITY OF THE LAND ........................................................61 A. Trespass and Nuisance; Support of Land ...............................61 B. Zoning ....................................................................................63 C. Takings ...................................................................................64

CHAPTER 3. NEGLIGENCE AND PERSONAL INJURY ........67

I. INTRODUCTION TO TORT LAW .......................................................67 A. Introduction ............................................................................67 B. Development of Liability Based on Fault ..............................68

II. STRICT LIABILITY ..........................................................................68 A. Introduction ............................................................................68 B. Animals ..................................................................................69 C. Abnormally Dangerous Activities .........................................69 D. Limitations (Defenses) ...........................................................71

III. INTENTIONAL TORTS .....................................................................72 A. Introduction ............................................................................72 B. Intentional Torts .....................................................................73 C. Privileges (Defenses) .............................................................81

IV. NEGLIGENCE .................................................................................87 A. Introduction ............................................................................87 B. The Duty to Exercise Reasonable Care..................................88 C. The Standard of Care .............................................................91 D. Causes of Action Based on Negligence .................................95

V. THE DUTY OF CARE .......................................................................97 A. Statutory Standards of Care ...................................................97

TABLE OF CONTENTS 11

B. Duty to Rescue ..................................................................... 101 C. Premises Liability ................................................................ 102

VI. PROVING BREACH ....................................................................... 105 A. Overview.............................................................................. 105 B. Res Ipsa Loquitur ................................................................. 107 C. Summary .............................................................................. 108

VII. CAUSATION ........................................................................... 109 A. Cause-in-Fact ....................................................................... 109 B. Proximate Cause .................................................................. 110

VIII. DAMAGES ............................................................................. 115 A. Damages from Personal Injuries and Mitigation ................. 115 B. Punitive Damages ................................................................ 116

IX. DEFENSES ................................................................................... 117 A. Contributory and Comparative Negligence ......................... 117 B. Assumption of the Risk ....................................................... 120

CHAPTER 4. CONTRACTS ........................................................ 123

I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 123 A. Defining Contracts ............................................................... 123 B. Sources of the Law on Contracts ......................................... 123 C. Classes of Contracts ............................................................. 124

II. MUTUAL ASSENT ........................................................................ 124 A. The Objective Theory of Assent .......................................... 124 B. The Offer ............................................................................. 125 C. Acceptance ........................................................................... 129 D. E-Commerce and Mutual Assent ......................................... 135

III. ENFORCEABILITY ........................................................................ 135 A. Consideration ....................................................................... 135 B. Adequacy of Consideration ................................................. 142 C. Formalities Manifesting an Intention to be Legally Bound . 142 D. Promissory Estoppel (Restatement § 90) ............................. 144 E. The Writing Requirement and the Statute of Frauds ........... 145

IV. WHEN THE DUTY TO PERFORM IS DISCHARGED .......................... 151 A. Satisfaction of Duty by Performance ................................... 151 B. Agreements Discharging the Duty to Perform .................... 152 C. Prospective Nonperformance and Material Breach of

Contract................................................................................ 153 D. Other Ways of Discharging the Duty to Perform ................ 155

V. DEFENSES TO CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATION ................................. 156 A. Legal Incapacity ................................................................... 156 B. Obtaining Assent by Improper Means ................................. 157 C. Mistakes of Present Existing Facts ...................................... 161


D. Changed Circumstances .......................................................162 VI. REMEDIES FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT ........................................165

A. Damages for Breach of Contract ..........................................165 B. Three Limitations on Damages ............................................167 C. Liquidated Damages v. Penalty Clauses ..............................170 D. Other Remedies and Causes of Action ................................171

CHAPTER 5. MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE .............................177

I. MARRIAGE ..................................................................................177 A. Overview ..............................................................................177 B. Requirements for Entry into Marriage .................................177 C. Common Law Marriages .....................................................179

II. ANNULMENTS ..............................................................................180 A. Introduction ..........................................................................180 B. Void Marriage ......................................................................180 C. Voidable Marriage ...............................................................181

III. DOMESTIC PARTNERSHIPS ...........................................................182 IV. SAME-SEX MARRIAGE .................................................................183 V. DIVORCE .....................................................................................184

A. Separation ............................................................................184 B. Divorce from the Bonds of Matrimony................................185 C. Defenses to Divorce .............................................................188 D. No-Fault Divorce .................................................................189

CHAPTER 6. CIVIL PROCEDURE ............................................191

I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................191 A. Introduction to the Law of Civil Procedure .........................191 B. The Hierarchy of Sources of Civil Procedural Law .............192 C. The Structure of the Federal Court System ..........................193

II. SUBJECT MATTER JURISDICTION .................................................195 A. Introduction ..........................................................................195 B. Federal Jurisdiction I: the U.S. as a Party ............................195 C. Federal Jurisdiction II: Federal Question .............................196 D. Federal Jurisdiction III: Federal Diversity ...........................198 E. Supplemental Jurisdiction in Federal Question Cases .........204 F. Supplemental Jurisdiction in Diversity Cases ......................206 G. Removal Jurisdiction ...........................................................207

III. PERSONAL JURISDICTION AND VENUE .........................................209 A. Introduction ..........................................................................209 B. Constitutional Limitations on Personal Jurisdiction ............210 C. Statutory Limitations on Personal Jurisdiction ....................216 D. Transient Jurisdiction and the Internet .................................219


E. Venue and Transfer of Actions ............................................ 220 IV. STATE LAW IN FEDERAL COURT.................................................. 223

A. The Evolution of the Doctrine for Determining what Law

Applies ................................................................................. 223 B. Hanna’s Modern Approach ................................................. 225 C. Determining the State Law to Apply ................................... 227 D. Federal Law in State Court .................................................. 228

V. PLEADINGS AND MOTIONS .......................................................... 228 A. An Overview of Pleadings ................................................... 228 B. Requirements of the Complaint ........................................... 231 C. Veracity in Pleading ............................................................ 233 D. Defendant’s Options in Response to the Complaint ............ 235 E. Defending for Lack of Personal and Subject Matter

Jurisdiction ........................................................................... 238 F. Impleader (Third-Party Practice) (Rule 14) ......................... 239 G. Amended Pleadings (Rule 15) ............................................. 241

VI. PARTIES, JOINDER, AND SUPPLEMENTAL JURISDICTION ............... 245 A. Introduction.......................................................................... 245 B. Claim Joinder by Plaintiffs and Defendants (Rule 18) ........ 245 C. Compulsory Joinder (Necessary and Indispensable Parties)

(Rule 19) .............................................................................. 247 D. Permissive Party Joinder by Plaintiffs (Rule 20) ................. 248 E. Claim Joinder by Defendants ............................................... 250

VII. DEPOSITIONS AND DISCOVERY .............................................. 254 A. Introduction.......................................................................... 254 B. Overview of Discovery Devices .......................................... 254 C. Scope of Discovery (Rule 26(b)) ......................................... 256 D. Timing and Pretrial Disclosures, Conferences, and Orders . 259 E. Sanctions (Rule 37) .............................................................. 260

VIII. TRIALS, ADJUDICATION AND ENFORCING JUDGMENTS .......... 261 A. The Right to a Jury (Rule 38) .............................................. 261 B. Summary Judgment (Rule 56) ............................................. 263 C. Second-Guessing Juries (Rules 50, 59) ............................... 265 D. Attorneys’ Fees .................................................................... 267 E. Enforcing Judgments ........................................................... 268

IX. PRECLUSION DOCTRINES ............................................................. 270 A. Collateral Estoppel (Issue Preclusion) ................................. 270 B. Res Judicata (Claim Preclusion) ......................................... 271

CHAPTER 7. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW .................................. 273

I. FIRST AMENDMENT SPEECH ........................................................ 273 A. Overview.............................................................................. 273


B. Prior Restraint and Criticism of the Government ................273 C. Public Forums: the Three Categories of Government-Owned

Property ................................................................................273 D. Government Speech .............................................................275 E. Termination of Public Employees as a Result of Speech ....276 F. The Impermissibility of Government Content and Viewpoint

Discrimination ......................................................................277 G. Commercial Speech .............................................................277 H. Words versus Conduct .........................................................278 I. Adult Entertainment .............................................................279 J. Expressions of Hate .............................................................280 K. Free Speech Rights in Public Schools..................................281 L. Freedom of Speech and the Press ........................................281 M. Speech within Private Associations .....................................282

II. DUE PROCESS ..............................................................................283 A. Introduction ..........................................................................283 B. Procedural Due Process .......................................................284 C. Substantive Due Process: the Protection of Unenumerated

Rights ...................................................................................287 III. EQUAL PROTECTION ....................................................................297

A. Introduction ..........................................................................297 B. Strict Scrutiny ......................................................................300 C. Intermediate Scrutiny ...........................................................304 D. Rational Basis Scrutiny ........................................................307

IV. ECONOMIC LIBERTY ....................................................................308 A. The Protection of Economic Liberty ....................................308 B. Substantive Economic Due Process .....................................308 C. Privileges and Immunities Clause (Article IV) ....................310 D. Privileges or Immunities Clause (Fourteenth Amendment) 311

V. RELIGIOUS FREEDOM...................................................................313 A. The Public Affirmation of God and the Importance of

Religion ................................................................................313 B. The Establishment Clause ....................................................315 C. The Free Exercise Clause .....................................................321 D. The Decline in the Protection of the Free Exercise Clause ..324 E. Legislative Action in Response to Smith .............................325 F. Applying Free Exercise Today ............................................326

CHAPTER 8. CRIMINAL LAW AND PROCEDURE ..............327

I. CONSTITUTIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE ...................................327 A. The Exclusionary Rule in Searches and Seizures ................327 B. Obtaining, Challenging, and Executing Search Warrants ....334


C. The Fifth Amendment Double Jeopardy Clause.................. 339 D. The Fifth Amendment Self-Incrimination Clause ............... 346 E. Sixth Amendment Trial Rights ............................................ 359 F. The Sixth Amendment Confrontation Clause ...................... 368 G. The Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel ............................. 373

II. THE ELEMENTS OF A CRIME ........................................................ 382 A. Elements that the Prosecution Must Prove .......................... 382 B. Actus Reus: a Criminal Act .................................................. 383 C. Mens Rea: a Criminal Mind ................................................. 386

III. JUSTIFICATION AND EXCUSE ....................................................... 393 A. Introduction to the Three Forms of Defenses ...................... 393 B. Justification .......................................................................... 394 C. Situational Excuse ............................................................... 401 D. Excuse at the Individual Level ............................................ 403

IV. COMPLICITY ................................................................................ 410 A. Introduction.......................................................................... 410 B. Parties in a Crime at Common Law ..................................... 410 C. The Conduct Required for Complicity ................................ 411 D. The Culpability Required for Complicity ............................ 412 E. Guilt of the Principal ........................................................... 412 F. Renunciation ........................................................................ 413

V. CRIMES AGAINST THE PERSON .................................................... 413 A. Introduction to Homicide ..................................................... 413 B. Murder ................................................................................. 415 C. Voluntary Manslaughter ...................................................... 422 D. Involuntary Manslaughter .................................................... 426 E. Causation ............................................................................. 428 F. Rape ..................................................................................... 430

VI. CRIMES AGAINST PROPERTY ....................................................... 431 A. Larceny ................................................................................ 431 B. Embezzlement ...................................................................... 432 C. False Pretenses ..................................................................... 433 D. Robbery................................................................................ 433

VII. CRIMES AGAINST THE HABITATION ...................................... 433 A. Arson.................................................................................... 433 B. Burglary ............................................................................... 434

APPENDICES 435

THEMATIC INDEX .............................................................................. 437 TABLE OF CASES ............................................................................... 445 GLOSSARY ......................................................................................... 459

ABBREVIATIONS

A Grantee (for present estate/ future interest hypotheticals)

AGI Adjusted gross income

AP Adverse possession

B Buyer

C Constitution

CIF Cause-in-fact

Cl. Clause

CLEO State Chief Law Enforcement Officer

Court (cap.) United States Supreme Court

CP Court of Pleas (UK)

CR Contingent remainder

CSD Common Scheme of Development

CSI Compelling state interest

Ct. Court

Ct. App. Court of Appeals

Ct. Chan. Court of Chancery (England)

ED Emotional distress

EI Executory interest

Eng. England

ES Equitable Servitude

FLSA Fair Labor Standards Act

FMLA Family and Medical Leave Act

FQJ Federal question jurisdiction

FRAP Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure

FRCP Federal Rules of Civil Procedure

FRCrP Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure

FRE Federal Rules of Evidence

FS Fee simple absolute (fee simple)

FSCS Fee simple on condition subsequent

FSD Fee simple determinable

FS EL Fee simple on executory limitation

FT Fee tail

H.L. House of Lords (England)

JMOL Judgment as a matter of law

JNOV Judgment non obstante veredicto

JT Joint tenant/tenancy

K Knowledge (criminal law) or Contract (all other law)

K.B. King’s Bench (UK)

L Loss in value

L1 First landlord

Lat. Latin

LE Life estate


LED Life estate determinable

LLC Limited liability company

LLP Limited liability partnership

LRM Least restrictive means

MPC Model Penal Code

MSAJ Motion to set aside the judgment

N.B. Nota bene

O Original owner, or grantor (in present estates and future

interests)

P Purpose or purchaser

PJ Personal jurisdiction

PJI Pattern Criminal Jury Instruction

Q.B. Queen’s Bench (UK)

R Recklessness

RAP Rule against perpetuities

RC Real Covenant

Restatement Restatement (of Contracts, Torts, Judgments, etc.)

RFRA Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993

RLUIPA Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act

RPP Reasonable prudent person

Rule Federal Rule of Evidence or Federal Rule of Civil Procedure

§ Section

S Sublessee or seller

S.Ct. Supreme Court or U.S. Supreme Court Reporter

SJ Summary judgment

SMJ Subject matter jurisdiction

SP Specific performance

T1 First tenant

TE Tenant/tenancy by the entireties

UCC Uniform Commercial Code

US United States of America or United States Reports (compilation

of U.S. Supreme Court opinions)

USC United States Code

VR Vested remainder

VR SD Vested remainder subject to divestment

CHAPTER 1. LANDLORD / TENANT LAW

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Leasehold Estates

A leasehold estate is one where the possessor (tenant) has only

possession, and full title (including possession) will spring back to the

owner (landlord) at the conclusion of the leasehold estate.

In a freehold estate, in contrast, the possessor is the owner of the

property (at least for a temporary period of time).

1. Historical origins

In feudal times, the king owned all of the land. Nobles that were

loyal to him were able to use parts of the land. They then were able to

parcel land out to serfs and peasants.

Today, this many-layered system of tenancy continues to exist. For

example, in commercial shopping centers, sections of a store may be

parceled out to merchants many times over.

Later, leaseholds were established as collateral for loans. The

tenant would “lend” the landlord the money in exchange for the use of

the land. Rather than pay the loan back with interest, the landlord

would simply grant the tenant use of the land. Eventually, the law

began to recognize leaseholds as interests in land in and of themselves.

B. Three Kinds of Leaseholds

1. Tenancy for Years

a. Characteristics

A tenancy for years is a discreet lease with a determined beginning

and end date. If there is a provision clause in the lease, then a second,

separate one-time renewal lease may be established.

When there is a renewal clause in the lease, it is evidence of a

tenancy for years, since periodic tenancies and at-will tenancies

require no renewal to continue.

b. How It Is Created


A tenancy for years is created formally; it requires a clear end date.

The end date need not be explicitly expressed, if the expiration of the

lease could be determined. The following clause, for example, would

be sufficient: “the lease will begin on Jan 1, 2000 and will expire three

years later.”

According to some authorities, there must also be a set start date.

Under the majority view, however, it does not need to be fixed. The

clause “the lease begins when the construction has ended” would be

sufficient.

Under the modern law Statute of Frauds, any lease for more than

one year must be in writing to be enforced.

c. How It Is Terminated

A tenancy for years ends automatically at the end of the term. The

lease may provide the possibility of renewal. In such a case, a court

would allow the new lease. Except for when a provision of the original

contract (lease) is illegal, unclear or for some other reason against

public policy, the original contract controls all matters in the new

lease.

2. Periodic Tenancy

a. Characteristics

A periodic tenancy is an indefinite lease. There is no need for

renewal.


A periodic tenancy may be created by the parties in an express

agreement (e.g., “This lease is from month-to-month.”). In addition, it

may be created by law.

If the parties attempt to create a tenancy for years, but a period is

mentioned (e.g., “rent will be paid each month”) and no end date is

determined, then a periodic tenancy is presumed.


Either party may end a periodic tenancy with proper notice (unlike

tenancies at will, which do not require proper notice). For periods of

one or more years, six months of notice is usually required. For

CHAPTER 1. LANDLORD / TENANT LAW 21

periods of less than one year, notice equal to one full period (generally

measured by payment periods) is required.

Generally, notice of termination must be in writing and delivered.

Example: the tenant rents from a landlord in a monthly periodic

tenancy. The tenant gives notice to the landlord on July 15 that he

wishes to leave. Until when must the tenant pay rent?

Since the tenant must have one full month of rent paid before

vacating, all of August must be paid before leaving. Thus, the tenant

is responsible for rent up until August 31.

3. Tenancy at Will

a. Characteristics

A tenancy at will may be terminated at any time.


It is usually created by operation of law; if a tenancy for years is

attempted, but there is no clear end date and no basis for ascertaining a

period, then a tenancy at will is presumed.

Examples of tenancies where there is no basis for ascertaining a

period:

- The landlord agrees to allow his tenant to live on the property

on the condition that the tenant keeps up the property and pays

the taxes and insurance.

- The tenant is an employee-at-will of a landlord who furnishes a

home as part of the compensation.


Under the common law, a tenancy at will can be ended at any time.

In the modern era, many state statutes protect tenants, by requiring, for

example, at least ten days of notice prior to the landlord’s termination

of the tenancy.

II. DISCRIMINATORY PREFERENCES AND RELIGIOUS

LIBERTY ISSUES

A. The Evolution of Regulations on Landlords


Under the common law, a landlord could select whichever tenants

or purchasers he wanted for his housing or land. Later, statutes

prohibited landlords or sellers from discriminating on the basis of race,

color, religion, sex, familial status, age, handicap or national origin.

One example of such a statute is the federal Fair Housing Act.

The Fair Housing Act prohibits:

- Discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex,

familial status, age, handicap or national origin for the basis of

choosing a tenant or buyer; and

- The publication or indication of a preference as to any of the

above categories in choosing a buyer or tenant.

The subjective intent of the owner or landlord is irrelevant; what is

controlling is whether a reasonable person from one of the protected

groups would interpret an indication as expressing a preference.

See Jancik v. Department of Housing and Urban Development (7th Cir. 1995), where the Seventh Circuit held that the landlord

violated the Fair Housing Act by indicating his preference for a

“mature person,” which a reasonable person would take to mean a

middle-aged tenant without small children, thus violating the statute

on familial status. He also violated the statute by saying that he did

not want any teenagers and by inquiring as to race with a

discriminatory purpose. Damages and an injunction were affirmed.

Many states have adopted stricter versions of this federal act.

Massachusetts, for example, has adopted statutes that also prohibit

discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.

Regulations are usually more lax for the rental of rooms attached

to the owner’s abode (e.g., a landlord may chose a tenant based on

gender).

B. Modern Statutes and Religious Liberty

Many state and federal statutes prohibit familial status

discrimination. Such statutes do not necessarily prohibit landlords

from discriminating against unmarried cohabitants. See State v. French

(Minn. 1990).

Since there is no federal law protecting against marital status

discrimination, claims for marital status discrimination fall to the

states, whose regulations vary widely.


- Most states have either: (i) not passed statutes prohibiting

discrimination based on marital status; or (ii) passed legislation

prohibiting discrimination based on marital status, but

explicitly exclude unmarried couples from protection.

- Other states have passed legislation protecting against marital

status discrimination, but not specifically protecting unmarried

cohabitants.

III. TENANT’S RIGHTS AND REMEDIES

A. Introduction

A tenant has four basic rights:

- Legal possession;

- Actual possession;

- The covenant of quiet enjoyment / constructive eviction; and

- The implied warranty of habitability.

Furthermore, he has certain remedies if the lease violates housing

regulations.

B. Legal Possession

All states recognize tenants’ right to legal possession. The landlord

must have title in order to enter into a lease.

C. Actual Possession

The landlord has a duty to deliver the actual possession of the

premises to the tenant. This duty prevents third parties, such as

holdover tenants, from preventing new tenants from taking actual

possession of the rented property.

English (majority) rule: the landlord has the duty of delivering the

actual possession of the property and of preventing third parties from

interfering with it.

- Some states that have adopted the English rule apply it only to

residential, not commercial, leases).

- In states that have adopted the English rule, the tenant’s

remedy for the landlord’s failure to deliver actual possession is

expectation damages. See Adrian v. Rabinowitz (N.J. 1936).


American (minority) rule: the new tenant is responsible for

obtaining possession of the property and for evicting holdover tenants;

the landlord is merely a title holder.

In states that have adopted the American rule, the tenant has no

remedy for the landlord’s failure to deliver actual possession.

D. The Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment and Constructive Eviction

The covenant of quiet enjoyment and constructive eviction deals

with the tenant’s actual and constructive continued possession of the

property after delivery. It is implied in all states except NJ.

There are two kinds of violations:

1. Actual (Full or Partial) Eviction

a. Overview

There are two kinds of actual eviction:

- Eviction for lack of title: a third party with superior title evicts

the tenant from the property.

- Wrongful eviction: the landlord evicts the tenant without cause.

The promises in a landlord-tenant relationship are independent

from one another. Thus, even if a lease is violated by a landlord, the

tenant is generally not relieved of the duty to pay rent. However, a

violation of the covenant of quiet enjoyment is the exception. Thus, if

a tenant is evicted from the property, he is excused of the duty to pay

rent.

b. Full and Partial eviction

Full eviction applies when a tenant is evicted from all of the

property. An eviction is partial when the tenant is evicted from only

part of the property. In either case, the covenant of quiet enjoyment

protects the tenant.

Since the lease is seen at common law as a transfer of all the

property, exclusion from any of the property is seen to be an eviction.

Thus, the remedy for partial eviction is similar to that for full eviction:

the obligation to pay rent is entirely excused until the tenant’s full

possession is restored. See Smith v. McEnany (Mass. 1897).

However, the restatement and many states take a different

approach: partial eviction proportionally reduces the rent that the


tenant must pay, but he is still obligated to pay rent for the portion of

the land from which he has not been evicted.

2. Constructive Eviction

Some violations of the lease may be so material that the tenant can

be considered to have been constructively evicted, even if he continues

to hold actual possession of the land.

The elements of constructive eviction are as follow:

- A material breach of the lease;

- That is chargeable to the landlord;

- Of which the landlord is given notice;

- With the opportunity to cure; and

- The tenant vacates the premises after a reasonable time.

Violations of peace and quiet can constitute violations of the

covenant of quiet enjoyment.

Example: the landlord leases a store to one tenant who opens a

bookstore. The landlord then leases adjacent space to a second

tenant, who opens up a gym that is always playing loud music. If the

music is so loud that it alienates all of the first tenant’s clients, the

first tenant may have a claim for constructive eviction.

Constructive eviction places a burden on the tenant to vacate the

premises and then bring an action to terminate the lease and the duty

to pay. The problem with this is that it is possible that the tenant vacate

the premises, sue, and lose. He will then be required to pay the rent,

even though he has vacated the premises.

3. Remedies for Violations of the Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment

At common law, the tenant is excused of the duty to pay rent (in

some states, if it is a partial eviction, he may do so while remaining in

possession of the property). In other states, the tenant is entitled to

money damages.

E. The Implied Warranty of Habitability

Because of the problems involving constructive eviction, some

states have recognized the implied warranty of habitability. This

warranty makes it easier for the tenant to recover damages when the

condition of the premises is so poor that the tenant is virtually

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