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The speech critic looks atcontemporary Americanpressure groupsE. Samuel Dudley aa Assistant Professor of Speech , University ofAlabamaPublished online: 01 Apr 2009.

To cite this article: E. Samuel Dudley (1961) The speech critic looks atcontemporary American pressure groups, The Southern Speech Journal, 27:1,62-67, DOI: 10.1080/10417946109371627

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THE SPEECH CRITIC LOOKS AT CONTEMPORARYAMERICAN PRESSURE GROUPS

E. SAMUEL DUDLEY

A UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY

FOR YEARS POLITICAL SCIENTISTS have been examining the pres-sure group and have almost unanimously agreed that this is one

of the most potent elements on the American political scene. Booksand journal articles written by students of government express theview that, increasingly, "American politics is the politics of organizedgroups."

They do not seem to feel that this is undesirable, since one groupserves to balance the pressure applied by another. Also, in a repre-sentative democracy the individual is more effective as a memberof an organized pressure group. Through such membership the citi-zen actively joins in the great American debate which never ceasesand gives us a government worthy of our concern.

The political scientists have recently begun to evaluate theirpast research on pressure groups and they have concluded that manyareas need further study. Henry W. Ehrmann writes:

In order to understand the role of organized groups in relation topublic policy it will be necessary to study the efforts which interestgroups are making to win a favorable audience with the public atlarge.i

Later in the same article he points out that,

Different groups will develop different propaganda activities eitherto win support or at least to neutralize opponents. . . . What audi-ences do the groups strive to reach and what are the characteristicsof their appeal?. . . . Interesting . . . also [are] such more technicalbut connected questions as the relationship of interest groups to press,to radio . . .2

Unintentionally, perhaps, the political scientist is inviting the

Mr. Dudley (Ph.D., University of Michigan, 1960) is Assistant Professor ofSpeech at the University of Alabama.

1Henry W. Ehrmann, "The Comparative Study of Interest Groups,"Interest Groups on Four Continents (Pittsburgh: University- of PittsburghPress, 1958), p. 3.

2Ibid., p. 4.

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Critic Lacks at Contemporary American Pressure Groups 63

speech critic to join him in the investigation of contemporary pres-sure groups. The "efforts which interest groups are making to wina favorable audience with the public at large," and the audiences"the groups strive to reach," and the "characteristics of their ap-peal" are all matters in which the speech critic is vitally interested.More important, the speech scholar should be the most competentperson for such study.

Above all, the student of contemporary public address would finda challenge in studying contemporary pressure groups, because rep-resentatives of such organizations contribute an important segmentof today's speaking. As one of our own speech men, Stewart JudsonCrandell, stated in 1946:

. . . even though the fame and influence of the speakers involved

. . . are insufficient to warrant individual study; collectively, theirinfluence may have been immeasurably greater than a single orator ofnote.3

WHAT ARE "PRESSURE GROUPS"?

The search for a conclusive definition of the term "pressuregroups," or, as they are frequently called, "interest groups," hasbeen going on for years. For the purposes of this report it is notimportant that we join the dispute. The following definition is onlyto help generally clarify the type of group being discussed: "Thoseformally organized associations of people with some common inter-est, which as a regular part of their planned activity attempt toinfluence government policy." Such groups may apply pressureseither by direct contact with government leaders or indirectlythrough appeals to the voters. Labor unions, the National Associa-tion of Manufacturers, the National Association for the Advance-ment of Colored People, the Women's Christian Temperance Union,and the National Education Association are but a few examples ofthe groups that fit the definition.

How SHOULD PRESSURE GROUPS BE STUDIED?

Unlike the many fine examples we have of rhetorical analysesof significant historical or contemporary speakers, we do not have

3Stewart Judson Crandell, "Social Control Techniques in the Speeches ofthe Woman's Christian Temperance Union," Ph. D. dissertation, School ofSpeech, Northwestern University, June, 1946.

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64 Southern Speech Journal

a long list of studies on contemporary pressure groups. We do, how-ever, have a few, some of which are quite good. I am sure that theauthors of these studies would join me in saying, "Let's hope thatthey will be used as stepping stones to more and finer investigationsof this type."

Each study will probably suggest its own limitations, but severalgeneral approaches are possible. These include study of:

1. The speaking by a single pressure group.2. The speaking activities of the interest groups concerned with one

particular issue.3. Many types of interest groups to discover the degree of consistency

in their speaking activities.

The following are some factors that might be considered in usingany of these three general approaches:

1. Who are the chief spokesmen for the group?2. Who does their speaking? National officers? Volunteer spokesmen?

Paid representatives?3. What role do the individual members of the group play in the speak-

ing campaigns?4. What kind of ground work is laid for the speakers?5. To whom do they speak? What kinds of audiences are attracted by

the appeals of these groups?6. What is the basis for the ethical appeal of the group? Of the individual

spokesmen?7. What are the main emotional appeals used? Are more emotional ap-

peals used in the speeches than in the printed matter?8. What are the main lines of argument used in their promotional at-

tempts?9. Do all of the speakers use basically the same arguments? Does the

printed material distributed by the group use the same arguments?10. Are the speeches standard throughout the organization? Are they

written by the central headquarters or by each speaker?11. How well are the speeches coordinated with other promotional acti-

vities? Are press releases used? Is most of the speaking done inde-pendently, or in conjunction with a major campaign in which allpromotional devices are used?

12. To what extent is radio or television utilized? How does this lelateto the group's attitude toward the use of the other mass media?

13. What are some of the measurable results of the group's activities?14. Where do the greatest strengths of the speech programs of such groups

lie?15. What are the causes of their greatest weaknesses?16. How do the social and political factors of the period affect the

activities of these groups?

These are only a few of the questions that deserve study. Forcontinued study over a period of years, or for comparative studies,an investigator could prepare a set of standard questions with which

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Critic Looks at Contemporary American Pressure Groups 65

he might gather an abundance of pertinent information about manyinterest groups in a relatively short time.

CAN THIS PROBLEM B E STUDIED?

Would study of a pressure group make a good research prob-lem? To answer this question, the following criteria are conven-tionally used to determine the research potential of a given problem:

1. Has the subject been thoroughly and competently investi-gated?

Speech scholars have only begun to study these groups. Historians,political scientists, and social scientists have been working on suchorganizations for years, and we may find some of the answers weseek already in the publications of these other disciplines. It is ourresponsibility, however, to answer the numberless questions relatedto speech in which others are not interested. The political scientist,for instance, is primarily concerned with the effect of such groups onour overall political structure—while we want to know how theseorganizations achieve their results, especially those accomplishedpartly through public speaking.

2. Can a problem be clearly defined?This question is particularly vital to this type of study. Since

little research has been done on contemporary pressure groups, manyavenues remain to be investigated, and the temptation may be toexplore them all at the same time. The best answer to, "Can suchstudies be limited?" is that it has already been done successfully byStewart Judson Crandell in his W.C.T.U. study,* by Q. S. Lafforgein his study of the American Medical Association,5 and to a degree,at least, by this writer in his study of the United World Federalists.6

3. Is enough material available for this type of study?Materials are abundant, and more are being produced every day.

Their availability depends upon the resourcefulness of the individualresearcher. The willingness of an organization to turn over its filesor to grant interviews to an investigator will depend partly upon

4Crandell, op. cit.5Q. S. Lafforge, "A Study of Persuasion. Techniques Employed in the

American Medical Association's Campaign Against National Health Insurance,"Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1953.

6E. S. Dudley, "A History and Analysis of the Promotional Methods andPublic Speaking of United World Federalists, Incorporated, 1947-1957," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1959.

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66 Southern Speech Journal

how they think he will use information given him. Therefore, theirleaders need an assurance from the researcher of how he intends touse the information. And, if researchers expect to get more informa-tion from such groups, they must keep that trust.

Materials for such studies are found in numerous places. Someof the more obvious locations are:

a. the files of the organization's national office.b. national leaders' private files.c. library clipping files.d. newspaper accounts of the association's activities.e. correspondence with the national leaders of the group.f. interviews with the organiaztion's spokesmen and officers.g. literature distributed by the group.h. printed or recorded speeches by their spokesmen.i. biographical sketches of their speakers and news releases prepared by

the organization.j . books authored by leaders of the association.k. periodicals and newsletters published by the group.

Investigators should remember that lack of cooperation and/orsource material from the national office of an organization does notpreclude study of that group. Investigation of a local branch orchapter may eliminate costly and time-consuming travel, and mayserve to gain the initial respect of the group's leaders. This couldlead to more extensive future research concerning that organization.

4. Am I competent to do this study?Assuming that the investigator is well trained in the first place,

or that he will do his research under the direction of competentcritics, the question of personal bias still exists. For instance, shoulda scholar study a group of which he is a member? I say, "Whynot?" As a member he probably knows more about the organiza-tion than a non-member would. He may also have access to files,names and addresses, and other sources of information not availableto outsiders. Some might question the objectivity of a member. Acompetent scholar, however, should be objective in all of his research.The question of objectivity is involved in almost every researchproblem. Even if the student has no personal bias toward his sub-ject when he starts, he usually has one by the end of the study. Asone studies the social and political circumstances surrounding hisproblem, becomes intimately acquainted with the personalities in-volved, and probes deeply into the history and philosophy of theideas pertaining to his subject, it becomes increasingly difficult toremain aloof and beyond emotional involvement. Unwarranted bias,

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Critic Looks at Contemporary American Pressure Groups 67

however, must not slant the reporting. This is not to say that thereshould be no critical evaluation, but rather that the judgment mustbe based on evidence and sound reasoning rather than on the pre-judice of the writer.

In summary, the subject of contemporary American pressuregroups has not been thoroughly and competently investigated forour purposes. If care is taken to prevent the researcher from tryingto explore all aspects of this new territory at once, limitation anddefinition of very good studies on this question are clearly possible.If speech researchers are resourceful, tactful, persistent, and profes-sional, sufficient material is available for countless studies of con-temporary pressure groups. And, in the opinion of the writer, acompetent speech scholar should be able to study any pressure group,regardless of his affiliation with or bias toward the group. Thespeech profession has a real responsibility to fill some of the gapsin research on pressure groups; the responsibility is one for whichthe speech critic is well qualified. Here, for the student of contem-porary public speaking, is both an opportunity and a challenge.

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