The Sustainability of Tilapia Fish Farming in Ghana

Divya Rao1,2, Elizabeth S. Perrino1, and Elizabeth Barreras∗1

1Blue Kitabu Research Institute, Boston MA2University of Southern California Dornsife, Los Angeles CA

April 16, 2012

Abstract

Fish are a primary source of protein for thecommunities of the Central Region of Ghana.Fish farming occurs on a commercial level aswell as on a home-based level and methodsof farming vary widely. The sustainabilityof each of these methods was analyzed andcompared to determine the most effective, en-vironmentally sustainable farming methodsavailable. Recommendations are also madeto improve sustainability and to conduct fu-ture research.

1 Introduction

“Eaters must understand that eating takesplace inescapably in the world—and that howwe eat determines—how the world is used.”Wendell Berry, farmer and writer, crosses thets and dots the is of a basic truth about foodand how our relationship with food affects the

∗elizabeth@bluekitabu.org

environment. The current problem is thatwhen people procure food they often do soin a way that damages the environment, of-tentimes inadvertently, in ways that may notbe immediately evident. However, the longterm cumulative effects of these damages canbe catastrophic in the future.

During my time in Ghana, I studied thesustainability of tilapia farming, as tilapia isa main food source for Ghanaians.. Accord-ing to the textbook used by students at theAsuansi Farm Institute, fish supplies about60-70% of the protein in a typical coastalGhanaian diet [15]. Aquaculture, or fishfarming, also provides food security to smallfarmers because there is a constant supply ofprotein available [3]. Although there are afew subsistence farms in the Central region,in order to fill the demand of the village, fishis imported from Akosombo, which is wherecommercial fisheries are located in the East-ern region [17]. Each small to mid-size saltedtilapia, called koobi, costs around 3 Ghana

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Cedi, or $1.86 American dollars, and thereare no fresh tilapia available in these smallvillages [17]. In one mid-size village, thereare 20 koobi vendors, however on market daythere are 130 vendors, which demonstratesthe demand for tilapia in Ghanaian commu-nities [17].My project has two important sectionse-

ducation and development. From an educa-tion standpoint, the problem of sustainabilityand maintaining the environment stems froma lack of knowledge concerning proper fishfarming methods and the environment, so Idecided to look at how aquaculture is taughtin Ghana. From the development standpoint,knowledge is great as long as you can put itto use in developing the country, thereforeI assessed both subsistence and commercialtilapia farms to study current practices andto determine what could be done more sus-tainably.In order to determine what is a sustainable

practice and what is not, it is imperative tofirst define sustainability for this study. Mydefinition of sustainability is in the contextof the environment. In this study sustainablemeans that there are low to no negative im-pacts on the environment as a result of pro-ducing a certain product, in this casetilapia,so that future tilapia farming may be contin-ued without any disruptions due to a lack ofnatural resources or the destruction of a nat-ural environment. A further indicator of sus-tainability is if a farm has the ability to pro-duce the same results year after year withoutdamaging the habitat or products. In lookingat tilapia aquaculture there are certain fac-tors that need to be taken into account when

determining the sustainability of farms. Sim-ply put, these factors are: the type of farm-ing (method), feed (use of marine resources),disease/parasites, pollution and habitat ef-fects, management effectiveness, escapes (fishthat escape the farm and infiltrate the localecosystem), farming intensity, and in certaincasesgenetics [14]. In this study I focused onthe method of farming, feed, pollution andhabitat effects, escapes, and farming inten-sity.

Many of these factors are straight-forward,however I will review a few, as well as providea general overview of the state of tilapia farm-ing in Ghana before discussing my study indepth. Overall, I have found that tilapia hasa lot of potential for development in Ghana.The commercial farms in the Eastern regionhave far more environmental risks than thesmall-scale subsistence farms found in otherregions. From the research I conducted, Ihave found that it would be good for theGhanaian government to put more effort intoaquaculture education, funding, and regula-tion.

Tilapia Farming Overview Before I ar-rived in Ghana and conducted my field re-search, I first began with an extensive lit-erature review covering the basics of tilapiaaquaculture to specific studies looking at thepossibilities for aquaculture in Ghana. In or-der to learn generally about how tilapia isfarmed, and what factors to consider in deter-mining sustainability of farms the MontereyBay Aquariums Seafood Watch Seafood Re-port on Farmed Tilapia was a good guide.

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Figure 1: A man-made, land-contained fish farming facility in the Central Region of Ghana.

While this study did not directly concernGhanaian tilapia aquaculture, it providedgeneral factors to consider when looking attilapia farming in Ghana such as method offarming, feed, and pollution or habitat effectsas well as explanations as to what is sustain-able versus what is not sustainable [14]. Thento learn more about the state of aquaculturein Ghana, I looked at a review studying thepotential for African aquaculture. This study

found that although there is a lot of poten-tial for African aquaculture, development isbeing slowed down by government inefficien-cies [3]. This study stated that fish is ex-tremely important in the African diet, mak-ing up 17.4% of the protein intake overall inAfrica [3]. Still, aquaculture is not well inte-grated into African governments, and there isa general lack of fisheries legislation. Africangovernments are more focused and concerned

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with critical social services such as health-care, and education [3]. However, market andeconomic growth models that would help de-velopment rely on government support [3]. IfAfrican food markets could develop synergieswith aquaculture then a few of the benefitswould include employment, food, infrastruc-ture development, and economic growth.In order to understand the type of farming

that occurs in Ghana today, it is important tofirst gain perspective on the different types oftilapia farming. Farming can be either landbased or water based. Land based systemsare in the form of raceways, re-circulatingsystems, or ponds [7]. Raceways are systemswhere some water is diverted from a naturalrunning body of water directed through chan-nels with fish and then filtered before beingdirected back into a natural waterway. Re-circulating systems are enclosed tanks wherewater is filtered and re-circulated. Ponds en-close fish in a body of water, which can beman-made or natural. Water based systemsare either net pens or cages [7]. Net pens andcages essentially work the same waythey arelocated off shore in natural bodies of water.They are usually large, and weighted down.[See Appendix A]Fish can be managed with different lev-

els of intensity such as extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive with each of thesefarming methods. Extensive is the mostnatural method of farming fish are notfed anything supplementary. Increased in-tensification uses up more natural resourcesand causes greater environmental degrada-tion [14]. Semi-intensive farming requiressome supplementary feeds and fertilizer in-

puts. Intensive farming relies heavily on for-mulated pelleted feeds known as completefeeds, where a large amount of this feed re-mains uneaten as waste [14]. Additionallythere is often direct discharge of food andother wastes into natural bodies of water,which is harmful for general water systemhealth. With increased intensity comes morenitrogen and phosphorous from the excessfeed and wastes causing eutrophication innatural bodies of water [14].Thus, semi-intensive and intensive farming

both are less sustainable than extensive farm-ing. Intensive farming requires high input,high fish density, and results in high output-therefore this type of farming is often seencommercially. Therefore, small scale inte-grated pond cultures without access to nat-ural bodies of water are generally consideredsustainable. Meanwhile, semi-intensive to in-tensive cage cultures in natural bodies of wa-ter are generally considered unsustainable. InGhana, there is significant commercial cageculturing in the Eastern and Volta regions;while throughout the rest of Ghana there issubsistence pond culture. In this study pondcultures from the Central region, and cagecultures from the Eastern region have beeninspected [4].

2 Field Research

During this project I visited three subsistencefarms and two commercial farmsone of whichwas a specialized hatchery. Of these, somesustainable practices were evident in bothtypes of farms, while other practices were

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Figure 2: The inside of a Tilapia farming facility in the Volta Region.

found in one or the other. Some of the sec-tions I reviewed in assessing farms were:

1: Method of Farming Generally, sus-tainable aquaculture practices tend to beland-based systems such as ponds, and re-circulating systems. These systems are sus-tainable because they are separate from natu-ral bodies of water, treat waste properly, andreduce the risk of escapes, diseases, and par-

asites [14]. Unsustainable practices tend tobe net pens, and cage cultures that are innatural bodies of water, where there is littleto no water quality control, or disease, es-cape, or parasite prevention [14]. Escapedfish from fisheries are unhealthy for ecosys-tems because most of the time the fish be-ing farmed is a different species from the fishin the habitat and when released can wreakhavoc by disrupting critical relationships in

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the environment. Oftentimes, these intro-duced species can outcompete the originalspecies and cause the extinction of that race,which in turn affects other organisms in theenvironment negatively [2].In Ghana, many of the subsistence farms

are pond cultures, which are land-based sys-tems. These farms are also environmentallyfriendly because they are integrated withagricultural farms and can often be used toirrigate certain crops, such as plantains, dur-ing times of drought. Also, after harvest-ing all the fish, the nutrient rich sedimentcan be used as fertilizer for crops [9]. Thescraps from the farm such as cassava peelsand groundnut husks can then be used as sup-plementary feed for the tilapia farms. Pondsaverage 20m by 20m, but can be either big-ger or smaller depending upon the respec-tive farmers resources. These pond culturesmake use of swampy, waterlogged areas wheremanmade depressions fill naturally with wa-ter from the water table [9]. Usually these ar-eas are unusable for vegetable crops and otheragricultural practices.Inlets and outlets are incorporated into the

pond design allowing for easy drainage andmovement of water. These pipes generally arecovered with netting to prevent fish escapes,which in natural bodies of water can havenegative consequences. Additionally, beforeadding tilapia to the ponds they are oftenfertilized with sacks of poultry droppings todevelop phytoplankton that the fish can feedupon [8]. One farm also made sure to Lymethe water before adding fish to reduce themilkiness of the water that had come from thenatural underground source [1]. Oftentimes,

the tops of the ponds dykes are planted withgrasses and other plants to prevent soil ero-sion during the rainy season when a majorityof the land is flooded [9].The commercial farms located in the East-

ern Region of Ghana are primarily cage cul-tures. Currently, there are around forty farmson the Volta Lake. Both farms that I visitedalso had pond cultures for brood-stockwhichare the parents for the fish that will befarmed, and separate artificial hatcheries foreggs and fry. The pond cultures were con-nected to the natural water body, the VoltaLake, as was the hatchery for the commer-cial farm. The commercial hatchery, how-ever, is a complete re-circulating system witha filter that is not connected to the VoltaLake [16]. Since the pond cultures were builton land that was not waterlogged but sandy,they have a lot of seepage and need to befilled continually, using up precious water re-sources [5]. Both fisheries use hapa-based sys-tems, which are small 1m by 1m cages, intheir ponds for the brood-stock.The cage cultures are located directly in

the Volta Lake, without much managementconcerning water quality, waste, and excessfood. The commercial farm that I visited hadfifty cages, each of which measured 5m by5m by 5m. Currently they have a stockingdensity of 40-60 fish per cubic meter, how-ever in the future they plan on maximizingthe density to 70 per cubic meter [5]. As thestocking density is maximized so is the riskof escapes, parasites, and disease. The reasonbehind maximizing the volume of the cages isso that the commercial fisheries can attemptto harvest as many times a year as possible.

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Figure 3: Tilapia hatchery at Malekha Farms, a commercial farm on the Volta

Currently, the fastest farms are able to growfish to market size in around four months [5].The farm I visited is currently able to harvestevery 7-8 months [5]. The cage cultures re-quire divers to first remove the weights tyingthe cage down, before using boats and ironpipes to haul the entire cage onto land to har-vest [5]. This means that commercial farmsare required to harvest a minimum of 1-2 tonsdue to the size of the nets because they can-not harvest sections of one cagesthey musteither harvest it all or harvest nothing [5].

2: Feed The most environmentally friendlyfeed in aquaculture is no added feedits al-ways more sustainable if the fish are raisedon what is naturally available to them in thepond such as phytoplankton [14]. As soon asyou place food from outside the natural habi-tat, it automatically becomes less sustainablebecause the input is not native to the environ-ment. Unfortunately, it is almost impossibleto feed a significant population without sup-plementing food for fish because it will taketoo long for them to grow to a marketablesize. Furthermore, its difficult to encourage

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phytoplankton to grow rapidly without plac-ing other inputs such as fertilizer, which isconsidered less sustainable than letting theplankton grow naturally.In subsistence farms there are some sup-

plementary feeds. However, these feeds tendto be whatever food scraps or farm scrapsthat farmers have around. In one of the threefarms I visited, these feedings were fairly ir-regularthe tilapia are fed cassava leaves andgroundnut peels from the farm scraps when-ever available [8]. The other two subsistencefarms I visited had fairly more regular feed-ing schedules for the fishtwice a day everyday [9] [1]. However, in one farm the feedwas natural and from the available resources:groundnut peels, maize, wheat bran, and cas-sava starch [9]. The other farm, which was alittle more prosperous, fed fish kitchen scraps,wheat bran, and special pellets all blendedtogether [1]. While supplementary feedingis not considered the most sustainable op-tion, it is the most sustainable viable optionwhen considering that this industry is sup-plying a good portion of the protein demandfor a country. Still a line for environmen-tal consciousness can be drawn with the typeof supplementary feedsubsistence farms pro-viding kitchen and farm scraps is more sus-tainable than feed from commercial fisheries,which is nutrient rich and pelleted.The commercial fisheries both purchase im-

ported pelleted feeds, also known as formu-lated or complete feeds for their fish. Also,when the fish are very young fry, they arefed a specially mixed hormone pelleted feed.They prepare the feed by mixing a little bit ofhormone with alcohol, which they mix with

the formulated feed, and then allow to dry inthe sun so that the alcohol evaporates [16].This hormone feed is key for the hormonesex reversal that the commercial farms relyupon. By changing the sex of all the fish tomale, commercial fisheries are able to speedup the growing process because all the foodconsumed will go towards growth in fish sizerather than reproduction. This hormone feedis fed to the fry five times a day, every day,for 21 days [16].

3: Pollution and Habitat Effects Theamount of pollution is mainly dependentupon the method of farming. The most en-vironmentally friendly method of farming,primarily considering pollution, comes fromusing integrated systems., which are pondcultures that are merged with agriculturalfarms [14]. Those that have moderate risksare pond cultures and re-circulating systems.Methods that pose the highest risk of pol-lution to the environment are raceways, netpens, and cages.

The subsistence farms that I visited wereall pond cultures. However, two of them wereintegrated rather nicely into the agriculturalcomponents of the farms. Poultry droppingsfrom the farm are used to fertilize the ponds,and sediment from the pond can be used asa fertilizer for the ponds [9]. None of thesefarms were directly connected to a naturalbody of water, so there is no damage to exter-nal water sources. Additionally, these pondcultures prevent soil erosion due to all theplants and grasses that are planted into thedykes. One problem mentioned by one of the

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fish farmers was that an oily substance accu-mulates on the top of the ponds due to thefeed after a couple of weeks, and they have touse a net to remove that substance [13].

The commercial farms did have pond cul-tures, but most of the business is vested inthe cage cultures. Because these farms alsouse pelleted feeds, there is a greater chancefor pollution. When all of the pelleted feed isnot eaten it sinks to the bottom of the cage,and the accumulation of this high protein willlead to ammonia buildup. This is danger-ous because ammonia causes oxygen deple-tion, which can not only cause fish kills butalso is bad for lake health [14]. Although theeffects of this buildup are not evident yet, thefarms are aware that there might be problemsin the future so they monitor water quality ona monthly basis, and rely upon the turbinesat a local dam to aerate the water [5].

However, there is a pollution issue beyondthe food waste, which is the accumulationof fish wastes, which is left untreated andswept into other sections of the lake. This willonly become a larger problem as the commer-cial farms expand and maximize their stock-ing density. Also, because both commercialfarms are using hormone sex reversal, thereis the danger of a mishap and some hormonegetting into the environment, which couldhave negative consequences. However, it isimportant to note that the commercial hatch-ery, which is equipped with a re-circulatingsystem, does have a filter for waste and ex-cess feed [16].

4: Farming Intensity The risk of escapesis a serious threat to any environment wherethe species is not local because that speciescan expand and take over an ecosystem. Therisk of escapes is large when it comes to cages,and net pens in large natural bodies of wa-ter, and low in farms that have no access tonatural water [14]. In Ghana, the species oftilapia used is specially created to optimizegrowth by a private hatchery, therefore thisspecies is a mix of several different types oftilapia[2]. If this genetically modified tilapiaescaped from a farm then there would be agood chance it would outcompete the speciesnative to the habitat, which would disruptthe food web and organism interactions.

The subsistence farms have no risk of es-capes because they have no access to naturalbodies of water. Furthermore, they are care-ful to line their inlet and outlet pipes withnetting. However, the commercial farms arecage cultures that do have a high risk of es-cape. One of the commercial farms has in-stalled underwater cameras so that they canmonitor the fish. Still, it would be difficult toreclaim an escaped fish.

5: Pollution and Habitat Effects Asdiscussed in the tilapia farming overview,extensive farming is the most sustainablemethod of farming. Semi-intensive farming ismore environmentally friendly than intensivefarming but still more harmful than extensiveand integrated farming. Intensity increaseswith the use of fertilization, and supplemen-tary feeds, and usually causes more nitrogenand phosphorous pollution [14].

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Even though farms can be labeled as semi-intensive or intensive, this means very differ-ent things for each farm, which makes inten-sity an abstract quality of fish farming. Semi-intensive farming is a range of practices start-ing from throwing tilapia a piece of bread justonce or twice during the entire farming pro-cess to providing cassava starch mixed withpellets and groundnut husks a few times aweek. Therefore, there is also the issue ofperspective when it comes to semi-intensity.Is it really so bad for the environment ifone or two loaves of bread are thrown in a10m by 10m pond? Some authorities such asthe Monterey Bay Aquariums Seafood Watchprogram would say yes, but others would sayno, especially not if you are trying to providean entire country with fish. My stance is thatsemi-intensive farming is generally acceptabledependent upon the feedif it is natural andcoming from scraps off the farm I do not be-lieve there is too much harm done, however Ido believe that intensive farming is harmfulfor the environment.Subsistence farms in Ghana are generally a

mix of integrated and semi-intensive farmingpractices. Two of the three I visited were in-tegrated with agricultural components of thefarms. However, they still use poultry drop-pings to fertilize the ponds and create phyto-plankton rich water [8]. These farms also dosemi-regular feedings of whatever is availablefrom their farm or kitchen scraps [9]. Thecommercial farms in Ghana are a mix of semi-intensive and intensive farming practices [5].They do fertilize the pond cultures that theyhave for brood-stock and fry, however theydo not fertilize the cage cultures. What re-

ally increases the intensity of the farming isthe feed. The commercial farms provide for-mulated complete feeds for the tilapia thatare not as sustainable for the environmentbecause these are nutrient rich, dense pelletsthat tend to sink to the bottom of the habi-tat when they are not consumed and causeeutrophication [14]. A portion of this feedis mixed with hormones to help the fry growwhich is unnatural, and risky for the environ-ment [16]. Additionally, the excess food andwaste is not cleared by the farms but allowedto mix into the rest of the lake, somewhatpolluting the waters.

6: Genders and Breeding While thereare no specific environmental threats fromraising fish that are one gender or the other,or similarly from breeding, there are conse-quences from raising mono-sex cultures ver-sus mixed gender cultures. First of all to geta mono-sex culture hatcheries farmers eitherhave to hand-sex fingerlings or perform hor-mone sex reversal [9]. Hand sexing, whichis the separation of both genders of fish byhand is clearly the more sustainable method,however with commercial fisheries that haveenough capital, they will choose the foolproofhormone reversal method. The risks fromhormones come mainly from the risk of es-cape of treated fish or the risk of pollutionfrom the hormone itself. Raising mono-sexcultures also allow for more harvests, since allmale fish grow faster than mixed gender cul-tures. All of the growth is going towards gain-ing weight and not towards reproduction [9].Subsistence farms often try to get mono-sex

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Figure 4: Open-water Tilapia farming facilities used in the Volta River.

cultures but cannot afford the hormone sexreversal so they often receive a few females,causing spawning and natural reproductionin the pond [8]. This ultimately makes itmore difficult to harvest the fish and assessthe marketability of the stock.

7: Financial Stability Financial sta-bility also does not have an immediate ordirect effect on the health of the environ-

ment, however there is a strong indirect ef-fect. Logically, it would be impossible toenvironmentally sustain anything if you can-not even financially sustain yourself. Frommy research, financial stability in Ghana goesperfectly hand in hand with government sup-port. Many subsistence fish farmers beganfarming fish because the government had setaside some financial support for them [8].Still today, fish farmers can procure a loan

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from the ministry of agriculture, albeit withsome difficulty, if they have some form of col-lateral and need the money [9]. The prob-lem is that there are so many sectors inagriculture now, and the money has to beevenly allocated for each sector, making it dif-ficult for the aquaculture sector to get enoughmoney [12].Another problem with government pro-

visions for small-scale farmers is with thepromise of all male fingerlings to begin fish-ponds. Due to the lack of money and humanresources the government provided fingerlingsthat were hand-sexed, which unfortunately isnot always accurate. All of the subsistencefarmers I visited ended up with females in theoriginal shipment. This has resulted in natu-ral breeding and has made harvesting the fishrather difficult because there are continuallynew young fish in the pond, which cannot betaken to market.However, there is interest in aquaculture

because it is an economically viable industrythat still has to be developed. The Kufuorgovernment, elected in 2001, promoted aqua-culture and sent people to Israel and Asia tostudy semi-intensive and intensive farming inorder to develop a national policy on integrat-ing rice and fish farming [6]. The governmentalso provides extension services from the min-istries to help farmers [12]. Extension serviceis essentially a group of people sent out bythe ministry to work as intermediaries be-tween the government and the farmerstheycheck on policies and also make sure that thefarmers are doing well. Additionally, the gov-ernment holds aquaculture workshops everyyear. One of the farmers I interviewed was

able to go to a workshop in Kumasi in 2005,where he was able to learn new pond aquacul-ture techniques [8]. Another part of financialstability for small-scale subsistence farmersis the ability to retain land to work on. Oneproblem I learned about was that the govern-ment and chiefs or traditional rulers of townsoften fight over land and power by claimingland that belongs to citizens so that they canretain some wealth [9]. Without a clear dis-tinction and respect for farmers land it willbe nearly impossible to achieve sustainableintegrated subsistence farms.

3 Education Research

In order to get an education in agriculture oraquaculture students have to progress to theupper levels of educationundergraduate andgraduate studies. Students need to either re-ceive a degree from an accredited universityor go to specific vocational schools that of-fer an agricultural degree. Even though stu-dents are pursuing an agricultural educationat a higher level there are not that many re-sources available to students. Some of thesections I reviewed in assessing the aquacul-ture education system were:

1. What is environmental sustainabil-ity? Two of the teachers that I talked todiscussed what environmental sustainabilitymeans to them as well as the capacity inwhich sustainable methodology is taught tostudents. Eric Nyamteh, teacher at theAsuansi Farm Institute, defined sustainabil-ity as the ability to balance forces of supply

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and demand, in terms of balancing our de-mand of Earths resources so that we can con-tinue to use those resources indefinitely [9].He noted that people must have the abil-ity to maintain the scale of equilibrium be-tween what resources they need and what re-sources they must replenish [9]. Another pro-fessor discussed environmental sustainabilityin terms of environmental degradation andthe specific risks from agricultural and aqua-cultural practices such as pollution. He alsodiscussed how students are taught about sus-tainability through the principles of aquacul-ture: making sure that the two are not mu-tually exclusive, but that sustainable tenetsare incorporated into the aquaculture cur-riculum [11]. He noted that if Ghanaianfarmers treat the environment properly, andmanage resources sustainably then aquacul-ture would not need to be performed on alarge scale in Ghana [11].Two of the students I interviewed stated

that environmental sustainability requiressupporting ecosystems and the balance of na-turein essence trying to protect the environ-ment. They believe that the government andthose in power should focus more on sustain-ing the environment, especially with farmingbecause it is so important to Ghana. Thestudents said that there need to be specificplaces for forests and for farming, in otherwords a proper allocation of land. Therefore,in their minds, a sustainable farms opera-tions do not affect the environment negative-lyno destructive practices like using chem-ical pesticides instead of organic and nat-ural pesticides [13]. Furthermore, farmingshould occur in appropriate placesmaking use

of flooded lands, and preventing overflow thatcan cause the deterioration of vegetable bedsas well as soil erosion [13]. Most importantlyto them, a sustainable farm is one that hasbeen managed and productive economicallyfor many years because sustainable farmingautomatically makes people think about eco-nomics and not the environment.

2. Aquaculture Theory Students ofaquaculture study the subject in two sec-tionstheory and practical. Aquaculture tech-niques and principles are of chief concern dur-ing the theory portion of study [10]. How-ever, the professors that I talked to said thatwhile some environmentally sustainable prac-tices were impressed, being environmentallyfriendly is not focus of the study. They toldme that many principles of aquaculture in-trinsically involve principles of sustainabili-tysuch as the prevention of escapes, althoughthe motivation for this is linked to financialreasoning [11]. Also, the governments per-spective on tilapia farming has an effect onthe education that students receive. So far,tilapia farming has not been that well devel-oped or provided for by the government, sothere is more concern about how to achieveeconomic stability with farming than how toprotect the environment while farming. Also,one professor I met with told me that he hasnot witnessed that great a change in the en-vironment due to subsistence pond culturesbecause it is almost an organic method offarming compared to the commercial farmsin the Volta region [9]. A better educationtherefore could be provided if there was more

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development of fish farming in the central re-gion, and if there was more attention on theoverfishing issues happening on the coast ofGhana.Many of the courses offered for students

of aquaculture also have theories of environ-mental sustainability built into them. Oneuniversity I visited offered courses on aquaticpollution, and integrated coastal zone man-agement. One of the main concerns of theseclasses is trying to focus on managing thenatural resources Ghana has available. Thisuniversity tries to make sure that undergrad-uate students gain a holistic understanding ofaquaculture and the environment [10].At one agricultural institute I sat in on

the class regarding Environmental Manage-ment and Aquaculture. In environmentalmanagement the class was focused upon thecauses of environmental degradation. Envi-ronmental degradation is the gradual deteri-oration of the environment leading to the in-ability for resources to support life, because ofthe overexploitation of natural resources [9].The class also discussed renewable and non-renewable natural resources, and how renew-able resources can only be regenerated ifthere is enough time allowed for the resourceto rest. The professor clearly stated that agri-culture, human settlement, use of forest re-sources, mining, and use of water resourcesare the chief causes of degradation [9]. Thesepractices, which can often include overgraz-ing, over-cultivation, and deforestation canlead to desertification. The class discussedGhanas dependency on forests for everything,and therefore they have to be careful to main-tain these precious natural resources.

Often the problem with an industry thatrequires natural resources is that after theprocess of farming or mining is carried out,nothing is done to reintegrate the land andrestore it to its natural state. The AsuansiFarm Institute professor talked about how afishmeal company in Tema was recently ar-rested for improperly disposing of waste [9].Furthermore, he added that the Environmen-tal Protection Agency, a branch of the gov-ernment, gave certification to a company thatis disposing of their industrial waste into ariver, making it unusable for a village thatrelied upon it [9]. When businesses and thegovernment cannot take the time to maintainthe natural resources that the country reliesupon, not only is this disastrous for futureeconomic stability but it is also precarious forenvironmental health.

3. Academic Perspective on CurrentTilapia Farming According to the profes-sors that I met with most tilapia farms inGhana today make use of semi-intensive cul-turing [11]. These farms are mainly semi-intensive because of the supplementary feedsfarmers provide to the fisha mix of pelletedfeeds imported from Asia and local farmscraps such as groundnut husks, wheat bran,and maize. There are, however, intensivefarms along the Volta in the Eastern re-gion. Foreigners, who have the capital to pro-cure huge cages and many workers, run thesefarms. Due to the influx of commercial farms,industrial hatcheries have been set up to sup-ply Ghanas farms with fry and fingerlings.

The professors also noted that starting

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these farms requires a large capital becausethey need constant electricity and a lot ofpower for the re-circulating systems. How-ever, this capital is turned over rather quicklybecause tilapia has a huge market in Ghana.Still, these farms are plagued by problemscommon to large commercial fisheriesjust lastyear there were fish kills due to a low oxygenlevel from the decomposition of plants andother organic material [11].

4. Resources In order to look at the re-sources available to students studying aqua-culture, I visited the libraries at both of theinstitutions I visited. At the university, Ifound that the aquaculture section was notvery large, around seventy books in total.Many of these books are outdated, and con-cerned with the fisheries management such asdealing with fish diseases. One book, Fish-ery Science: Its Methods and Applications,by George Rounsefell and W. Harry Everhart(year) discussed many environmental issuesthat are still prevalent today. These sub-jects included the effects of exploiting fish,the prevention of fish escapes, the effects ofpollution, and habitat improvement. Otherbooks also mention the maintenance of wa-ter quality from an ecological point of viewwith studies on the effects of pollution on fish.One continuous perspective that I noticed inreviewing the books was that all the biologi-cal considerations, hazards, and diseases areall addressed from a viewpoint where the fish-ery is attempting to get the highest economicyield and profit possible rather than lookingat the quality of fish produced.

Still, many of the books advocated for in-tensive fish culturing, which is not as envi-ronmentally friendly as semi-intensive farm-ing. There was discussion about supplemen-tary feedings, mono-sex cultures, and gendertreatments in this context. As well as bookswith chapters focused on genetics and repro-ductionwith the intent of hybridizing tilapiafor the fastest growing possible. Althoughthere is the commercial farming aspect, therewas also a lot of information on pond aqua-culture. Furthermore, there were books men-tioning that research needs to be done on theecological niche of hybrid tilapias, which isa good, sustainably concerned point. Over-all, this university did have a lot of resourcescompared to other institutions for aquacul-ture. Most of this information, however,was devoted to pursuing aquaculture frompurely an economic standpoint. There wereno books solely based on environmental sus-tainability. If there is more of an empha-sis on sustainability it will become easier tomaintain an environmentally friendly fisheryand there will be long-term economic stabil-ity. Also, many of these books were from the1980s or earlier and therefore need to be up-datedone book mentioned using DDT as apesticide or preventative aid in rearing fish.DDT is now well known as a toxic compound,illegal to use in the United States due to thesevere damage it can cause both to the envi-ronment and to humans.This was in many ways similar to and very

different from the other institution that I vis-ited. There were only three books on aqua-culture, including the textbook for studentsto rely upon. One of these books was an out-

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dated report discussing the status of aqua-culture in Ghana. The other was a shortguide to fish preservation, which did men-tion the overfishing problem along Ghanascoast, and some prevalent open water fishingpractices such as trawling and purse-seining.There was nothing specifically on fish farm-ing, which means there was really no chanceof having material on aquaculture sustain-ability.

That being said, the textbook was newlyput together by a past teacher of the insti-tute and did contain a discussion of manyenvironmentally sound policies [15]. The firstof which promoted aquaculture for the veryreason that it allows for the enormous pres-sure on the dwindling fish stocks in the oceanto be reduced. Additionally, pond culturesmaximize the utilization of marshy landwa-terlogged areas where no plants can be cul-tivated can be used [15]. The textbook alsotalked about biological considerations whenmaking a fishpond, which includes keepingthe population density low so that there isenough oxygen, and food for the fish [15]. Ad-ditionally, population density should not behigh otherwise there would be cannibalism,and a higher risk of disease. This institu-tion needs to provide more new resources forstudents in addition to the textbook in orderto positively influence the next generation offish farmers.

5. The Next Generation of FarmersAt the second institution that I visited, Iwas able to interview some students aboutwhat they would practice after they gradu-

ated from the school in terms of fish farming.Across the board, all the students said thatthey would start out small with one pondaround 10m by 10m because fish farms areinitially very laborious and cost intensive [13].In this pond they would have 1000 fish. Af-ter achieving success they all said that theywould want to expand, and get as many assix ponds, which would be a similar size tothe first, for their respective farms [13]. All ofthe students said that before filling the pondswith fish they would fertilize the ponds withpoultry and pig droppings to increase theamount of phytoplankton in the ponds [13].The students all stated that they would

have a monoculture of tilapia that is all maleso that the fish can grow faster. However,because of hand sexing, which is what theywould only be able to afford, they realize thatthere will potentially be females in their firstbatch of fingerlings. Having an all-male fish-pond they would be able to harvest the fishevery six months [13]. Two students saidthat they would prefer to feed fish the pel-leted feed because they would be able to growfaster, but since it is so expensive and im-ported they would balance the costs with amaize and millet feed [13]. Two other stu-dents said that they would feed the fish amix of wheat bran, cassava, maize, and farmscraps. All the students said that they wouldfeed the fish twice a day, three times a weekfor best results. This would be consideredsemi-intensive fish farming, and is generallyenvironmentally friendly.One environmentally friendly practice that

all the students want to incorporate into theirfish farms is integration with the agricultural

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components of their farms. The students alsoplan on surrounding the fishpond with treesso as to provide shade for the fish, becausehigh temperatures make it harder for fish torest and grow [13]. The heat causes fish toconstantly move in search of colder waters,therefore all of the food the fish consumeis used up as energy and growth is stunted.They hope to store the excess water in case ofa drought. Furthermore, they would incorpo-rate an overflow pond, and set up the pondsso that they could direct the excess water intoother fishponds via inlets and outlets. Thesepipes would be covered with netting so thatthere would be no risk of escapes. In orderto prevent pests from getting into the pond,they would spray pesticides around the pondas well as cover the pond with nets to preventsnakes and frogs from entering.

4 Recommendation

During my weeks of research, I have man-aged to gain what I believe is a fairly com-prehensive review of tilapia farming in Ghanatoday. I was able to meet with several profes-sors, who are experts in the field, as well asvisit farms, and talk with teachers and stu-dents of aquaculture. In the future, Ghananeeds to become more aware of its natural re-sources and focus on conserving them so thatthey can build stable and successful indus-tries. From what I have learned, it is possiblefor individuals and NGOs to have an effect onfarminghowever it is my belief that for anysignificant, long-lasting change it is the gov-ernment that needs to first make the changes.

The Ghanaian Government ought to makemore policies on regulating fish farming inan environmentally sustainable manner, forexample monitoring the levels of nutrientsat commercial fisheries that leak into theenvironment when pelleted feed is not con-sumed. Also policies regarding waste man-agement, fertilizing, and pollution should beimplemented. They also need to make cor-rect bureaucratic decisions and should man-date a sustainable element to the curriculumsof agricultural students.

However, I do think that there is opportu-nity for NGOs to get involved and make a sig-nificant difference in the aquaculture indus-try in Ghana. Right now, a major problempreventing the expansion and developmentof tilapia farming is that subsistence farmerscannot afford to build ponds. Therefore, if amicrofinance operation was set up to providethat initial capital, around $250 US dollars,required to build a fish pond for enough farm-ers then the unsustainable commercial farm-ing dominating the Volta would be unneces-sary because these subsistence farmers wouldbe able to manage the demand. Along withthe money, should come a set of guidelinesthat the farms should be run onsuch as in-tegrating the fish pond with the agriculturalcrops, etc. Therefore, I recommend that mi-crofinance operations specifically modified forsubsistence farmers in rural areas be set up soas to develop and improve tilapia aquaculturein Ghana.

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5 Conclusion

There is a lot of opportunity in Ghana fortilapia aquaculturethe demand is high andtherefore it can be a lucrative practice forsubsistence farmers. Moreover, the expan-sion of tilapia farming can provide Ghana-ians with greater food security. However,this development needs to be accomplishedin an environmentally sound manner so thatthe future of the industry will remain eco-nomically stable. Therefore, in addition toworking with the government to develop amore environmentally conscious set of poli-cies and curriculum for agriculture students,a microfinance operation should be set up toprovide subsistence farmers with the supportthey require for building sustainable fish-ponds. The reason that an environmentallyconscious curriculum is necessary for futurefarmers is because the methods of farmingwhich students learn is what they will im-plement. Furthermore, if they are consciousof the natural resources that they have andmanage them correctly they will always be fi-nancially stable because those resources willthen never be depleted. That being said,there is definitely room for further research inGhanaian aquaculturefor example more canbe done on the science side of things by look-ing at the effects of commercial farming onthe Volta with water quality, and waste man-agement. I think more research can also bedone on the feeds provided to fishlooking atthe environmental implications of using dif-ferent feeds compared with what feeds opti-mize fish growth.

6 Acknowledgements andFunding

USC Dornsife Summer Undergraduate Re-search Fund (SURF), Asuansi Farm Insti-tute, Asuansi Technical Institute, Town ofNyame Dom, Ministry of Education, Ghana.

7 Glossary of Aquacul-ture Terms

1. Escapes: Farmed fish that manage toescape their enclosure and enter the en-vironment

2. Extensive farming: The most naturalform of farming, no inputs

3. Semi-intensive farming: Some inputssuch as fertilizer, and natural feeds

4. Intensive farming: Fertilizer used aswell as manufactured pelleted feeds

5. “Complete” feed: Manufactured pel-leted feed, often imported

6. Integrated culture: When a pond cul-ture is incorporated with the agriculturalcomponents of the farm

7. Re-circulating system: Enclosed sys-tem where water is filtered, and recycled

8. Hapa based system: 1m by 1m pensthat hold brood-stock, promote mating,and allow for the easy collection of fer-tilized eggs

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9. Fertilizer: In input used by farmers topromote the growth of phytoplankton

10. Stocking Density: The density of fishin nets, cages, or ponds

11. Hormone Sex Reversal: A treatmentused to turn all hatchlings into males sothat they grow faster, and prevent repro-duction

12. Mono-sex culture: A culture of allmale fish

13. Hand-sexing: Sorting the genders offish by hand instead of using hormones

14. Fingerlings: Young fish

15. Brood-stock: The parents of the fishthat are being farmed

16. Supplementary Feeding Feedingsthat are inputed by farmers, anythinggiven to the fish that is more than theplankton available in the habitat

17. Trawling: A drag net fishing methodused in the ocean

18. Purse-seining: A wall of netting, thebottom of which can be pulled close tocapture a school of fish

References

[1] Aggrey. Mr. Aggrey and Mr. Men-son from the Church of the Pente-cost in Edumfa, personal communica-tion/interview, 2011.

[2] Appleyard, S.A. and Mather, P.B.Genetic Characterization of CulturedTilapia in Fiji Using Allozymes andRandom Amplified Polymorphic DNA.Asian Fisheries Science, 15:249–264,2002.

[3] Brummett, R.E. and Lazard, J. andMoehl, J. African Aquaculture: Real-izing the Potential. Food Policy, 181(1-2):37–59, 2009.

[4] FAO. National Aquaculture SectorOverview: Ghana. Technical report,United Nations, 2011.

[5] Malekha Farms on the Volta River. per-sonal communication, 2011.

[6] J. Mills. The coordinated programme ofeconomic and social development poli-cies 2010 to 2016: An agenda for sharedgrowth and accelerated development fora better ghana. Technical report, Gha-nian National Government, 2010.

[7] Monterey Bay Aquarium Fish FarmingMethods Fact Cards. Reference, 2009.

[8] Mr. Ahensah, fisherman from Aseibu.personal communication, 2011.

[9] Mr. Eric Nyamteh, Teacher at theAsuansi Farm Institute. personal com-munication, 2011.

[10] Professor Aggrey-Fynn of Cape CoastUniversity, 2011. personal communica-tion.

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[11] Professor John Blay, Cape Coast Univer-sity. personal communication, 2011.

[12] S. K. Amoah, and Henry Fudwo: Exten-sion Officers for Asuansi-Aseibu Area.personal communication, 2011.

[13] Students at the Asuansi Farm Institute.personal communication, 2011.

[14] I. Tetreault. Farmed Tilapia. SeafoodWatch, Seafood Report. Monterey BayAquarium, pages 1–68, 2009.

[15] Textbook on Fish Farming from theAsuansi Farm Institute. personal com-munication, 2011.

[16] The Water Research Institute in Ako-sombo. personal communication, 2011.

[17] Village women at the Abakrampa Mar-kets. personal communication, 2011.

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