the three levels of analysis in international relations
DESCRIPTION
The individual-state-system-levels of analysis are the foundation of the International Relations study. A summary from Rourke's "International Politics on the World Stage" explanation on the levels of analysis.TRANSCRIPT
SUMMARY AND COMMENTARIES ON
‘LEVELS OF ANALYSIS AND FOREIGN POLICY’
From the book “International Politics on the World Stage, 12e, John T. Rourke”1
SUMMARY
This chapter is divided into three major parts; each discusses a level of analysis
regarding a state’s foreign policy.
A. Individual-Level Analysis
This level of analysis looks at the people who make the policy. This level of analysis
involves understanding on how is the process of policy making.
The basic question regarding this level of analysis is on how do basic human
traits influence policy, which is a discussion on human as a species. There are clearly
several factors that determine how a human being takes a certain policy. Among
them:
1. Cognitive factors. Human beings are bounded by a certain limitation
cognitively in making certain decision. There are external boundaries, which
include missing or unknown information; and internal boundaries, that
include human physical frailties. In coping with this problem decision makers
tend to seek cognitive consistency by discounting ideas that contradict their
existing views. Another way is self-justification or conviction that the choice
will eventually succeed, or known as wishful thinking. The third way is to
use what is known as heuristic device, which allows us to avoid gathering
considerable information and thorough analysis. Some examples of these
heuristic devices would be stereotypes and analogies (a certain comparison
between new situations and an earlier situations someone had experienced).
2. Emotional factors. This is one factor that determines the condition of the
decision maker in making decision. While it is easy to imagine that the
decision maker would be rational enough in taking the decision, in reality
decision maker will find him/herself under pressure, sad, angry, or depressed.
3. Psychological factors. There are psychological traits shared by humans that
explain why their feelings and decisions are usually less than fully rational.
1 John T. Rourke, International Politics on the World Stage, 12th Edition (New York City, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2008).
One of the approaches is frustration-aggression theory, which argues that
individuals and societies that are frustrated sometimes become aggressive.
4. Biological factors. While controversial, there are various theories that explain
how human decisions are often not fully rational. One of them is biopolitics,
which tries to explain the relations between physical nature and political
behavior of human. The comparison between animal and human behavior that
often used in explaining the way humans act is ethology. One example of this
ethology is as mentioned by Ardrey (pp. 12-14), that “territoriality – the drive
to gain, maintain, and defend the exclusive right to a piece of property – is an
animal instinct.” The difference may also be caused by gender2 differences.
The issue of this gender differences have created the gender opinion gap that
political scientists are just beginning to examine. This gender problem has
derived manliness, which states that aggressive behavior is closely related to
sex.
5. Perceptions. The ancient debate on perceptions is philosophical, to determine
whether there is an objective world or whether everything is only what we
perceive to be. There are four common characteristics of perceptions:
1. We tend to see opponents as more threatening than they may actually
be (e.g. how the United States are really alarmed by North Korean
nuclear threat).
2. We tend to see the behavior of others as more planned and coordinated
than our own.
3. We find it hard to understand why others dislike, mistrust, and fear us.
4. Others and we tend to have similar images of one another.
Another common characteristic of human is that human beings tend to think
and act differently in collective settings than they do as individuals. This is the
discussion of organizational behavior.
Human beings play a variety of roles based on attitude about the status we
have and the behaviors we adopt in them. The script for a role is derived from a
combination of self-expectation (how we expect ourselves to act) and external
expectations (how others expect us to behave).
2 The author has managed to distinct the idea of sex and gender, in which sex is biological, and gender is behavioral. See Rourke, p. 69.
When people give advices and make decisions within an organization, they not
only have to consider that they think but also how others will view their opinions and
decisions in the organization. The calculation tends to promote groupthink. In groups
as such, the image of a devil’s advocate is a rarity, in part because those who take this
approach get forced out.
The third approach to individual-level analysis focuses on idiosyncratic
analysis, that studies how each leader’s personal characteristics help shape his or her
decisions. This is the discussion of leaders and their individual traits. There are five
of many possible factors to consider:
1. Personality. Under this factor scholars examine a leader’s basic orientations
toward self and toward others, behavioral patterns, and attitudes about such
politically relevant concepts as authority. The most well known scheme will
place political personality along an active-passive scale and a positive-
negative scale. Active leaders are innovators, while passive leaders are
reactors. Positive personalities enjoy the contentious political environment,
while negative personalities are apt to feel burdened, even abused, by political
criticism. The worst combination is said to be the active-negative combination
(since active leaders receive more criticism, yet negative personalities are
prone to assume that opponents are enemies).
2. Physical and mental health. A leader’s physical and mental health can be
important factors in decision making. How physical health proved to be
important was as the example of F. D. Roosevelt, who was ill from
hypertension while was at the office of the presidency. How psychological
problems proved to be important was as the example of Adolf Hitler, who was
arguably suffer from ailments from a mixture of illness and medications.
3. Ego and ambition. A leader’s ego and personal ambitions can also influence
policy.
4. Political history and personal experiences. Decision makers are also
affected by their personal experiences.
5. Perceptions and operational reality. Decision maker’s images of reality
constitute a fifth idiosyncratic element that influences their approach to
foreign policy. Perceptions form an operational reality, that is, policy makers
tend to act based on perceptions, whether they are accurate or not.
Human decisions are mixtures of rational and irrational inputs. This underlines
how policies are actually mixtures of rational and irrational factors. This view of
how individuals and groups make policy choices is called poliheuristic theory. This
theory depicts decision making as a two-stage process, the use of shortcuts to
eliminate unacceptable policy options, and then setting aside domestic politics and
personal factors and concentrate on strategic, realpolitik considerations.
B. State-Level Analysis
Policymaking is significantly influenced by the fact that it occurs within the context
of a political structure, in which countries are the most important.
The type of government, the situation, and the type of policy determines
making foreign policy.
1. The type of government and the foreign policy process. The more
authoritarian a government is, the more likely it is that foreign policy will be
centered in a narrow segment of the government. Foreign policy making in
democracies is much more open with inputs from legislators, the media, public
opinion, and opposition parties.
2. The type of situation and the foreign policy process. Policy is made
differently during crisis and non-crisis situation. Crisis policy making is likely
to be dominated by the political leader and a small group of advisers.
3. Type of policy and the foreign policy process. How foreign policy is
decided also varies according to the nature of the issue area involved. Issues
that have little immediate or obvious impact on citizens of a certain country
can be termed pure foreign policy. By contrast, foreign policy that has an
immediate and obvious domestic impact on citizens of a certain country is
called intermestic policy.
Culture also determines the foreign policy making. Each country’s foreign
policy tends to reflect its political culture. This concept represents a society’s widely
held, traditional values and its fundamental practices that are slow to change
(Paquette, 2003; Jung, 2002).
There are some policy-making actors:
1. Heads of government and other political executives. Some important
factors regarding to the political executives are chief executive’s formal
powers (grants of authority given by constitution and laws); informal powers;
and leadership capabilities. Yet, bureaucrats often do not agree with the
country’s foreign policy. They try to influence the policy themselves by
filtering information, giving recommendations, and implementation.
2. Legislatures. In all countries, the foreign policy role of legislatures play a
lesser role compared to the executive branch. Yet it does not mean that all
legislatures are powerless. Legislatures play a larger foreign policy role in
democracies, yet it still constrained by several factors: extensive legal powers,
tradition, the belief that a unified national voice is important to a successful
foreign policy, and legislators tend to focus on domestic policy.
3. Interest groups. Interest groups are private associations of people who have
similar policy views and who pressure the government to adopt those views as
policy. There are several kinds of interest groups, among them: cultural
groups, economic groups, issue-oriented groups, and transnational interest
groups.
4. The people. The public plays a highly variable role in foreign policy. Public
opinion is a marginal factor in authoritarian regimes, yet the role is more
complex in democracies.
C. System-Level Analysis
While countries are free to make any foreign policy decision they want, practically
they have to make choices that are reasonable within the context of the realities of the
international system.
Every system has its own structural characteristics. Two of particular
relevance to this analysis is on the organization of authority and the scope and level of
interaction among the actors in the system.
1. The organization of authority. The structure of authority for making and
enforcing rules, for allocating assets, and for conducting other authoritative
tasks in a system can range from hierarchical (vertical) to anarchical
(horizontal). Most systems tend to be hierarchical. However, the international
system is mostly horizontal. Thus, the international system is largely anarchic,
in which there is no higher authority than the states.
2. Scope, level, and intensity of interactions. Another structural characteristic
of any political system is the scope (range), frequency, and intensity (level) of
interactions among the actors. In the international system, the scope,
frequency, and level of interaction among the actors have grown extensively
during the last half-century, mainly due to economic interdependence.
The second factor that determines the policy making under this analysis is the
power relationships. Countries are restrained by the realities of power in the
international system. The conduct of the international system is heavily influenced by
power considerations such as the number of powerful actors and the context of power.
The international system has been defined in part by how many powerful actors
each has (Wilkinson, 2004). Such an actors can be a single country or empire, global
IGOs, or regional IGOs. These poles are particularly important to the realists in
relations with the balance of power. It underlines the theory that all states are power
seeking, the states/blocs will seek to become hegemonic, and the others will try to
block such effort. Power relationships are also determined by the context of power.
System-level analysis contends that the economic realities of the international
system help shape the choices that countries make. Again, this is the same in systems
from the global to local level. Interdependence is one of the economic facts of life that
influences states’ behavior. Natural resource production and consumption patterns
also influence the operation of the system.
Norms influence the actions within the international system. It is hard to
accept that norms exist in a world in which horrendous things sometimes happen; yet
it would be far to say that there is anything near a universal standard of behavior.
Commentaries
This elaboration on levels of analysis should have been elaborated more with some
other levels of analysis. Another book, International Relations, Eighth Edition
(Joshua S. Goldstein and Jon C. Pevehouse, 2009: pp. 17-19) added some levels of
analysis:
1. The individual level, concerns the perceptions, choices, and actions of
individual human beings.
2. The domestic (or state or societal) level, concerns the aggregations of
individuals within states that influence state actions in the international arena.
3. The interstate (or international or systemic) level, concerns the influence of
the international system upon outcomes.
4. The global level, seeks to explain international outcomes in terms of global
trends and forces that transcend the interaction between states itself.
Among many other level of analysis, the individual-level analysis could be
one of the most interesting. To say the least, Indonesian leaders can be judged by
many of their individual traits. And to compare, I personally see that Indonesian
politics is mostly related to leaders’ individual traits. For example, how the
charismatic Soekarno ignited the spirit of Indonesians on the international politics of
Konfrontasi, or how the current president, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s attitude on
politics which created quite a weak stance on dealing with interstate conflict, as in the
2010 conflict with Malaysia.
Matthew Hanzel
Department of International Relations, 2009
043 2009 0015