THE TRUTH AND DEATH OF INDEXICALITY

PHOTOGRAPHY, PHILOSOPHY AND CINEMA

By

KATHERINE V. PETTIT

B.F.A., Simon Fraser University, 1998

Diploma i n Film Production,

University of B r i t i s h Coluirtbia, 2 0 0 0

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

In

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Department of Theatre, Film and Creative Writing—Film Program)

We accept t h i s thesis as conforming to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

September 2002

© Katherine V. P e t t i t , 2002

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced

degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it

freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive

copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written

permission.

The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada

Date

DE-6 (2/88)

A B S T R A C T

T h i s t h e s i s t r a c e s the c o m p l i c a t e d and c o n t r a d i c t o r y -

h i s t o r i c a l o n t o l o g y o f photography by examining the myths o f

t r u t h and death t h a t s u r r o u n d the medium. M u l t i p l e examples

from contemporary n a r r a t i v e cinema o f d i v e r s e n a t i o n s , t ime

p e r i o d s and genres are used t o e l u c i d a t e the t h e o r e t i c a l and

p h i l o s o p h i c a l i s s u e s t h a t photography a t t r a c t s .

In the f i r s t h a l f o f t h i s t h e s i s , the " t r u t h " o f

p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i n d e x i c a l i t y i s e v a l u a t e d . In Chapter 1, the myth

o f t r u t h i s d i s c u s s e d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f the h i s t o r i c a l

development o f r e a l i s m . R e a l i s m and " t r u t h " are shown t o be

m y t h i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s , which i s demonstrated by the s e l e c t e d

f i l m s t h a t focus on the p e r s o n a l use o f photography . C h a p t e r 2

examines the use o f photography as an i n s t i t u t i o n a l t o o l o f

power. The f i l m s o f t h i s c h a p t e r show t h a t power and

c o r r u p t i o n can be synonymous. In Chapter 3 , the m u l t i p l e

a s s o c i a t i o n s o f death t h a t s u r r o u n d photography are d i s c u s s e d .

The i n d e x i c a l i t y o f photography i s shown t o occupy a t e m p o r a l

d e a t h . In C h a p t e r 4 , the s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s and

s i m i l a r i t i e s between photography and f i l m are r a i s e d w i t h i n the

c o n t e x t o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p . F i n a l l y , Chapter 5 examines the

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f death i n p h o t o g r a p h i c c o n t e n t . The V i c t o r i a n

c r a z e f o r s p i r i t and post -mortem photography r e v e a l s the s t r o n g

p r e o c c u p a t i o n i n t h a t s o c i e t y w i t h i m m o r t a l i t y . In sum, i t i s

the i n t e g r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i n d e x i c a l i t y t h a t both p r e v e n t s

photography from p o s s e s s i n g an autonomous and s i n g u l a r i d e n t i t y

w h i l e p e r m i t t i n g the medium t o have m u l t i p l e meanings i n

d i v e r s e c o n t e x t s .

i v

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Abstract i i

Table of Contents i v

Acknowledgements v

Introduction. The Truth and Death of Indexicality 1

Chapter I. Photography as i t Concerns Truth,

Realism and Self-Authentication 15

Chapter I I . The Ethics of the Archive 34

Chapter I I I . Photography's Multiple Associations

With Death 56

Chapter IV. Narrative Death 73

Chapter V. Metamorphic Death: Post-mortem and

S p i r i t Photography i n Narrative Cinema 94

Epitaph 1.15

Filmography 121

Bibliography 122

V

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

T h i s work c o u l d not have been e i t h e r begun o r f i n i s h e d

w i t h o u t the i n s p i r a t i o n and i n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o t i o n a l

suppor t o f the f o l l o w i n g p e o p l e . I would l i k e t o express my

deepest a p p r e c i a t i o n t o Karen Benbassa t , Z o s i a Dorcey , the

Edwards f a m i l y , D r . Mark H a r r i s , Gwen Haworth, Mark J u r i c ,

Ranko and A g i c a J u r i c , P r o f e s s o r E . Ann K a p l a n , Sharon

McGowan, P r o f e s s o r B r i a n M c l l r o y , P r o f e s s o r John 0'B r i a n ,

Heather O'Hagan, G a i l O e l k e r s , Andrew P e t t i t , I a i a n P e t t i t ,

and R i d l e y . You have a l l p l a y e d i n v a l u a b l e r o l e s t h a t

c o n t r i b u t e d t o the c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s . I d e d i c a t e

t h i s work t o the memory o f my mother and f a t h e r .

1

Introduction. The Truth and Death of Indexicality

My i n i t i a l d u a l i n t e r e s t i n photography and f i l m o c c u r r e d

w h i l e I was c o m p l e t i n g the f o u r t h y e a r o f my B a c h e l o r o f F i n e

A r t s Degree . We were i n s t r u c t e d to deve lop one p r o j e c t f o r the

e n t i r e y e a r , and thus a s i g n i f i c a n t t o p i c o r i s s u e had t o be

s e l e c t e d . I d e c i d e d t o e x p l o r e the t o p i c , "the e t h i c s o f

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " , i n response t o my t r i p t o A f r i c a the p r e v i o u s

summer. On my t r i p , we v i s i t e d many remote t r i b e s t h a t were

s l o w l y i n t e g r a t i n g i n t o modern s o c i e t y . The t r a d i t i o n s and

customs o f these s m a l l e r t r i b e s were becoming l o s t t o

u r b a n i z a t i o n . As a p h o t o g r a p h e r , I f e l t compe l l ed t o

photograph the peop le due t o t h e i r unique and q u i c k l y

d i s a p p e a r i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e s . A t the same t i m e , I f e l t

t h a t as a Western t o u r i s t , I had the power o f m o b i l i t y . In

o t h e r words , I had the a b i l i t y t o e n t e r and l e a v e a c o u n t r y ,

w h i l e some t r i b e s were e x p e r i e n c i n g extreme d e s t i t u t i o n , p a r t l y

due t o t h e i r l i m i t e d o p t i o n s . On the one hand, I f e l t t h a t I

had a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y as a photographer and a r t i s t t o c a p t u r e

a r c h i v a l images o f d e c l i n i n g t r i b a l t r a d i t i o n s , so t h a t some

t ime i n the f u t u r e , a f t e r t h e i r customs had d i s a p p e a r e d , t h e i r

c u l t u r e s would l i v e on through my images . On the o t h e r hand, I

f e l t t h a t I was o b j e c t i f y i n g the peop le because I had the power

and p r i v i l e g e t o photograph them when and where I chose . I was

2

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n "the s a l v a g e paradigm", y e t e t h i c a l l y t r o u b l e d

by r e p r e s e n t i n g the "Other" .

I expres sed my concerns r e g a r d i n g the e t h i c s o f

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n the f i l m Kenya . F o r t h i s p r o j e c t , I f i l m e d

the s t i l l images t h a t I took i n Kenya , and wrote a v o i c e - o v e r

n a r r a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g these i s s u e s . I "married" the v o i c e - o v e r

w i t h the s t i l l images, and c r e a t e d a f i l m . T h i s p r o j e c t a l l o w e d

me t o r e a l i z e the i n t r i n s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between photography

and f i l m . A t the most b a s i c l e v e l , f i l m i s t w e n t y - f o u r s t i l l

photographs per second . Even though f i l m would not e x i s t

w i t h o u t photography , t h e r e are d i f f e r e n c e s between the two

mediums. Photographs are taken from t i m e , and movies take t i m e .

I t i s the n a r r a t i v e sweep o f mot ion t h a t a l l o w s us t o f o r g e t

the i n t r i n s i c and dependent r e l a t i o n s h i p between f i l m and

photography . But what happens when a f i l m i s about

photography , o r photographs are used w i t h i n the f i l m ?

Suddenly , a s e l f - r e f l e x i v e moment o c c u r s , where the f i l m pays

homage t o i t s b a s i c form of b e i n g , the p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l

image.

When I began my r e s e a r c h on the t o p i c o f photography i n

f i l m , i t was d i f f i c u l t t o f i n d w r i t i n g on the r o l e photography

p l a y e d when used i n the c o n t e x t o f a mot ion p i c t u r e . I found

two sources t h a t d i r e c t l y addressed t h i s t o p i c , G a r r e t t

S t e w a r t ' s Between F i l m and Screen and an i s s u e o f Wide A n g l e ,

3

c a l l e d "On Photography and F i l m " . Other we l l -known photography

and f i l m t h e o r i s t s such as Ro land B a r t h e s , Susan Sontag and

C h r i s t a i n Metz b r i e f l y compare and e v a l u a t e the two mediums.

But t h e i r t e x t s are f o r the most p a r t focused on photography o r

f i l m , not b o t h . With l i t t l e f i l m r e s e a r c h t o draw o n , I

approached my t o p i c by d e l v i n g i n t o p h o t o g r a p h i c t h e o r y . I

a p p l i e d the i s s u e s and concepts o f t h i s d i s c o u r s e t o f i l m s t h a t

i n c o r p o r a t e p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l s . I have p r o v i d e d a n a l y s i s o f

the p h o t o g r a p h i c t h e o r i s t s such as John Tagg , Ro land B a r t h e s ,

Susan Sontag , A l l a n S e k u l a and G e o f f r e y Batchen and used t h e i r

concepts as a s p r i n g b o a r d f o r my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f

f i l m s t h a t use photography .

These t h e o r i s t s take d i v e r s e s t a n d p o i n t s i n t h e i r

i d e o l o g i c a l approaches ; f o r example, Tagg a l i g n s h i m s e l f w i t h

the M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e as i t concerns photography , w h i l e

B a r t h e s takes a c o n t r a d i c t o r y phenomenolog ica l a p p r o a c h . Tagg

i s p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h the s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and

e t h i c s o f the c a p i t a l i s t system as i t engages photography i n an

exchange o f power. B a r t h e s n e g o t i a t e s the i n d i v i d u a l

i n t e r p r e t i v e p r o c e s s o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c v i e w e r . W h i l e the

i d e o l o g i c a l camps o f these two t h e o r i s t s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d

d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed, t h e i r i d e a s can s t i l l be a p p l i e d t o

a r t i c u l a t e the c e n t r a l p o i n t t h a t photography has a m u l t i -

4

f a c e t e d i d e n t i t y and t h i s s l i p p e r y i d e n t i t y a l l o w s the medium

t o be used i n d i v e r s e ways f o r numerous p u r p o s e s .

Without combin ing p h o t o g r a p h i c and f i l m i c d i s c o u r s e , I

would not be a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y and comprehens ive ly d i s c u s s the

c o m p l i c a t e d medium o f photography . F i l m i s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

m u l t i p l e a r t forms—combining drama, l a n d s c a p e , music and

p h i l o s o p h y i n t o one c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t . F o r t h i s r e a s o n ,

n a r r a t i v e f i l m i s the i d e a l medium t o demonstrate the m u l t i p l e

uses o f photography . W h i l e t h e r e are o t h e r f i l m genres b e s i d e s

the n a r r a t i v e f i l m t h a t c o u l d be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o my t h e s i s ,

such as documentary and e x p e r i m e n t a l c inema, these genres a lone

cannot demonstrate the complex use o f photography as a medium.

The documentary f i l m form i s l i m i t e d i n i t s use o f photography ,

which i s u s u a l l y f o r h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h c l a i m p u r p o s e s , whereby

b l a c k and whi t e p h o t o g r a p h i c i n s e r t s are used t o a u t h e n t i c a t e

p a s t e v e n t s . E x p e r i m e n t a l f i l m s o f t e n c h a l l e n g e dominant

c u l t u r a l myths , but t h e r e are v e r y few e x p e r i m e n t a l f i l m s t h a t

i n c o r p o r a t e the use o f photography , the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f these

f i l m s i s l i m i t e d , and a g a i n t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e c r i t i c a l

w r i t i n g i n t h i s f i e l d . By r e l y i n g on the d i v e r s i t y o f

n a r r a t i v e f i l m s t o demonstrate the v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s

t h a t s u r r o u n d photography , I am a b l e t o t a n g i b l y argue the

impact and c u l t u r a l r e c e p t i o n o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s m u l t i p l e

i d e n t i t i e s .

5

I have used t h e o r i s t s w i t h c o n t r a d i c t o r y p e r s p e c t i v e s t o

d i s c u s s a c o n t r a d i c t o r y medium, and I have c r o s s b r e d

p h o t o g r a p h i c and f i l m i c d i s c o u r s e t o demonstrate the power and

i n f l u e n c e o f the p h i l o s o p h i c a l i s s u e s o f the t r u t h and death o f

i n d e x i c a l i t y . I have t r i e d t o r e c o n s i d e r the concepts o f

photography and f i l m t h e o r i s t s by u n i f y i n g the two d i s c o u r s e s

under the p h i l o s o p h i c a l u m b r e l l a o f T r u t h and D e a t h .

To demonstrate the c o m p l e x i t y o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between

photography and f i l m , we can examine a n a r r a t i v e f i l m t h a t

concerns the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a f i l m from photographs . In B r i a n

De Pa lma's Blow-Out (1981) , a sound d e s i g n e r , Jack T e r r i , makes

h i s l i v i n g by r e c o r d i n g sound e f f e c t s f o r h o r r o r movies . When

he a c c i d e n t a l l y r e c o r d s an automobi le c r a s h t h a t k i l l s a

p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e , Jack q u i c k l y d i s c o v e r s a p o l i t i c a l

c o n s p i r a c y . W h i l e J a c k i s l i s t e n i n g t o the sound tape t h a t

r e c o r d e d the a c c i d e n t , he t h i n k s t h a t he hears two l o u d s h o t s .

The f i r s t sound i s a gunshot and the second sound i s the

blowout o f the t i r e . There i s no way of c o n f i r m i n g h i s

s u s p i c i o n s u n t i l he watches the news h e a d l i n e s t h a t s t a t e t h a t

a photographer was a t the scene o f the a c c i d e n t . The

photographer was t h e r e l a t e t h a t n i g h t , and took a s e r i e s o f

p i c t u r e s as the c a r swerved o f f the b r i d g e i n t o the r i v e r . The

photographs were s o l d and p u b l i c l y p r i n t e d i n a magazine .

6

Jack buys the magazine and c u t s out each i n d i v i d u a l frame

of every p h o t o g r a p h . I n i t i a l l y , he makes a f l i p b o o k o f the

images, thumbing through them t o c r e a t e a crude i l l u s i o n o f

m o t i o n . He then r e c o r d s each p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l image on f i l m

w i t h an a n i m a t i o n camera. When the f i l m i s p r o c e s s e d , he

s y n c h r o n i z e s the soundtrack r e c o r d e d from the t ime o f the

a c c i d e n t w i t h the p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l s o f the a c c i d e n t t h a t are

now i n f i l m form. When he s y n c h r o n i z e s the two mediums, h i s

s u s p i c i o n s are c o n f i r m e d . A t the sound o f the f i r s t s h o t ,

which Jack thought sounded l i k e a gunshot , t h e r e i s a f l a s h o f

l i g h t i n one frame. In the next frame, the f l a s h o f l i g h t

d i s a p p e a r s . The f l a s h o f l i g h t i s i n s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n w i t h the

sound of the f i r s t l o u d s h o t . T h i s l eads Jack t o b e l i e v e t h a t

the f l a s h o f l i g h t i s g u n f i r e , aimed a t the wheel o f the c a r ,

which caused the c a r t o c r a s h . Jack d i s c o v e r s a p o l i t i c a l

c o n s p i r a c y by r e c r e a t i n g the a c c i d e n t scene from p h o t o g r a p h i c

s t i l l s and r e c o r d i n g sound i n t o a f i l m form. T h i s example

demonstrates how the p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l was r e - c o n t e x t u a l i z e d .

T h i s r e - c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l i n t o a

f i l m form demonstrates the i n t e g r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between

photography and f i l m . However, t h i s example a l s o demonstrates

how the i n d e x i c a l power o f photography and i t s r h e t o r i c o f

t r u t h are c a r r i e d over i n t o the f i l m form t o prove a p o l i t i c a l

c o n s p i r a c y . Photography , h e r e , s erves a d u a l p u r p o s e . As John

7

Tagg e x p l a i n s , i t i s p h o t o g r a p h y ' s l a c k o f a s i n g u l a r i d e n t i t y

t h a t a l l o w s the medium t o be used i n d i v e r s e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y

ways. He w r i t e s : "Photography as such has no i d e n t i t y . I t s

s t a t u s as a t e c h n o l o g y v a r i e s w i t h the power r e l a t i o n s which

i n v e s t i t . I t s n a t u r e as a p r a c t i c e depends on the i n s t i t u t i o n s

and agents which d e f i n e i t and se t i t t o work" (63) . Tagg takes

on a M a r x i s t p e r s p e c t i v e t o demonstrate how the i n s t i t u t i o n a l

use o f photography f u n c t i o n s as a t o o l f o r u n e t h i c a l power

d i s p l a y s . W h i l e i t i s not my i n t e n t i o n t o e n t i r e l y take on

such an i d e o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h , I do agree w i t h Tagg ' s premise

r e g a r d i n g p h o t o g r a p h y ' s l a c k o f a s i n g u l a r , "true" meaning.

Whi l e Tagg ' s concept i s a c e n t r a l premise i n my t h e s i s , I agree

more w i t h the tone o f G e o f f r e y B a t c h e n ' s l e s s dogmatic

p e r a m b u l a t i o n s . He w r i t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no n e u t r a l ground where

photography can speak f o r i t s e l f , where i t can emit some

e s s e n t i a l , u n d e r l y i n g "true" meaning. Wi th no f i x e d i d e n t i t y o r

h i s t o r i c a l u n i t y , photography p o t e n t i a l l y be longs t o e v e r y

i n s t i t u t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e but i t s own ( 6 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o A l l a n

S e k u l a , "Because o f t h i s i n d e x i c a l p r o p e r t y , photographs are

fundamenta l ly grounded i n cont ingency" (Batchen 9). In o t h e r

words , as an i n d e x , the photograph i s never i t s e l f , but always

by i t s v e r y n a t u r e , a t r a c i n g o f something e l s e . As my t h e s i s

w i l l demonstrate , photography o c c u p i e s many f u n c t i o n s and

purposes and i t i s used i n d i v e r s e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y ways.

8

The s t a t u s o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s i s due t o

the medium's i n e s c a p a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i n d e x i c a l i t y .

P h o t o g r a p h y ' s i n d e x i c a l i t y a l l o w e d the medium t o be a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h the two p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y c a t e g o r i e s o f t r u t h

and d e a t h . In t h i s t h e s i s , C h a p t e r 1: "Photography as i t

Concerns T r u t h , R e a l i s m and S e l f - A u t h e n t i c a t i o n " t r a c e s how,

h i s t o r i c a l l y , a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t r u t h were a t t a c h e d t o

photography . P h o t o g r a p h y ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e c h a n i c a l

i n d e x i c a l i t y r e n d e r e d images o f r e a l i s m . R e a l i s m was

c o n s i d e r e d o b j e c t i v e and , t h e r e f o r e , t r u e . However, the

r h e t o r i c o f o b j e c t i v e t r u t h t h a t surrounds photography i s

e a s i l y d e f l a t e d when the s u b j e c t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f photography

are acknowledged. The t h r e e f i l m s t h a t I have chosen f o r t h i s

c h a p t e r , P r o o f (1991), d i r e c t e d by J o c e l y n Moorhouse, Memento

(2000), d i r e c t e d by C h r i s t o p h e r N o l a n , and Blade Runner (1982),

d i r e c t e d by R i d l e y S c o t t , demonstrate how the p r o t a g o n i s t s , i n

o r d e r t o overcome t h e i r p e r c e i v e d i n a d e q u a c i e s , use the

e v i d e n t i a l f o r c e o f p h o t o g r a p h i c t r u t h . However, i n a l l t h r e e

f i l m s , the " t r u t h " c l a i m s o f photography prove t o be f i c t i o n a l

and e l u s i v e .

Whi l e C h a p t e r 1 e x p l o r e s the myth o f t r u t h and how t h i s

myth has had i n f l u e n c e s i n the p r i v a t e sphere , Chapter 2: "The

E t h i c s o f the A r c h i v e " examines how the myth o f t r u t h i s used

i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h photography i n the p u b l i c s p h e r e . Chapter 2

9

looks at the role of photography i n the d i s c i p l i n a r y

i n s t i t u t i o n . At the time of the b i r t h of photography, a

changing s o c i a l demographic brought on the need for the

i n s t i t u t i o n a l p olice force. The unethical power display of the

p r i v i l e g e d over the Other i s demonstrated by the way

photography was used to ensure order and control. Photography

was used to i d e n t i f y criminals and the archived images created

an information system of surveillance which strengthened the

power of the i n s t i t u t i o n . I r o n i c a l l y , the films I have chosen

for t h i s section, Peter Weir's Witness (1985), Paul Verhoeven's

Basic Instinct (1992) and Spike Lee's Clockers (1995), reveal

that photography worked to i d e n t i f y criminals who were not

outside the i n s t i t u t i o n but within the i n s t i t u t i o n .

Both Chapters 1 and 2 focus on the myth of truth that

rests i n photography's q u a l i t y of i n d e x i c a l i t y . While some

equated i n d e x i c a l i t y with truth, others equated i t with death.

Photography's a b i l i t y to r e p l i c a t e r e a l i t y , or to create a

double, caused the c u l t u r a l reception of the process to

associate i t with mortality, the occult and the supernatural.

In Chapter 3: "Photography's Multiple Associations With Death,"

I outline the seminal essays that concern photographic theory.

I discuss the metaphysical death presented by photography due

to the medium's unique rela t i o n s h i p to time and space. This

tenuous representational q u a l i t y of temporal i n d e x i c a l i t y

10

causes the p h o t o g r a p h i c v i ewer t o e x p e r i e n c e m o r t a l

v u l n e r a b i l i t y . The t h r e e f i l m s I d i s c u s s h e r e , C h r i s M a r k e r ' s

L a J e t e e (1962), M i c h e l a n g e l o A n t o n i o n i ' s Blow-Up (1966), and

Roger S p o t t i s w o o d e ' s Under F i r e (1983), demonstrate the

m e t a p h y s i c a l death o f photography and i t s components o f

t e m p o r a l i t y , memento m o r i and s p e c t a t o r phenomenology.

Chapter 4: " N a r r a t i v e Death" examines the s t r u c t u r a l

d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s between photography and f i l m as

they r e l a t e t o t i m e , space and h i s t o r y . When the two mediums

are p l a c e d t o g e t h e r , as i n the case o f a m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c

n a r r a t i v e w i t h i n the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e , t h e r e i s a p r o c e s s

o f s p e c t a t o r r e c o i l t h a t o c c u r s . In a l l t h r e e f i l m s , T e r r e n c e

M a l i c k ' s Badlands (1973), A l a n J . P a k u l a ' s P a r a l l a x View

(1974), and Tom Tykwer ' s Run L o l a Run (1998), I demonstrate

t h a t the m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e echoes the p h i l o s o p h i c a l

c o n t e n t o f the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e , which i s concerned w i t h a

p r e v a l e n t death d r i v e .

In Chapter 5 : "Metamorphic Death: Postmortem and S p i r i t

Photography i n N a r r a t i v e C inema ," I d i s c u s s the m a t e r i a l

q u a l i t i e s o f p h o t o g r a p h i c death work. The V i c t o r i a n phenomenon

of posthumous photography and s u p e r n a t u r a l photography r e v e a l

the p r e v a l e n t need i n t h a t s o c i e t y t o a c h i e v e i m m o r t a l i t y v i a

the image. P h o t o g r a p h y ' s m e c h a n i c a l and i n d e x i c a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l e a d t o the uncanny a s s o c i a t i o n s o f the d o u b l e .

11

The t e c h n o l o g y o f the camera was thought t o possess

s u p e r n a t u r a l powers . The immorta l d r i v e o f death i n

p h o t o g r a p h i c c o n t e n t i s shown i n The Others (2000) d i r e c t e d by

A l e j a n d r o Amenabar, The Asphyx (1973) d i r e c t e d by P e t e r

Newbrook, and R i n g (1999), d i r e c t e d by Dong-g in K i m .

F i n a l l y , I c o n c l u d e w i t h an e p i t a p h on p h o t o g r a p h y ' s

growing s t a t u s as a d y i n g medium due t o the r a p i d development

o f d i g i t a l i z a t i o n . The p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f d i g i t a l imaging and i t s

p r o c e s s o f manufacture t h a t does not depend on a r e f e r e n t

q u e s t i o n s p h o t o g r a p h y ' s a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t r u t h and r a i s e s

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l concerns on e t h i c s , knowledge and c u l t u r e . The

f i l m t h a t I use t o demonstrate the complex in terweave o f t r u t h

and death o f d i g i t a l imaging i s RoboCop (1987), d i r e c t e d by

P a u l Verhoeven .

P h o t o g r a p h y ' s q u a l i t y o f i n d e x i c a l i t y a l l o w e d f o r the

medium t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c o n t r a d i c t o r y q u a l i t i e s o f

T r u t h and Death . The f i l m s t h a t I have chosen demonstrate the

d i v e r s e uses o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c image. As John Tagg w r i t e s , we

cannot go through a day w i t h o u t s e e i n g a photograph (34).

A d v e r t i s i n g h o a r d i n g s , news photographs , magazine c o v e r s ,

window d i s p l a y s and p o s t e r s o f a l l k i n d s s u r r o u n d u s . We c a r r y

photographs i n our w a l l e t s , c o l l e c t them i n albums, and s t i c k

them i n our p a s s p o r t s , bus passes o r s tudent c a r d s . They are

images o f o u r s e l v e s , our f a m i l y , and our f r i e n d s - p o r t r a i t s

12

w i t h meanings and v a l u e s t h a t l i e i n numerous s o c i a l exchanges

and r i t u a l s , which would now seem i n c o m p l e t e w i t h o u t

photography . These v a r i o u s s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s are c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y

e n r i c h e d by photography . The d i v e r s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n which

photography i s used demonstrates the medium's m u l t i p l e

i d e n t i t i e s . With m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s t h a t c a r r y d i v e r s e

meanings , photography can be used i n p o w e r f u l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y

ways and i t can take on many d i f f e r e n t meanings .

Perhaps the f i l m t h a t most o v e r t l y and p o i g n a n t l y

a r t i c u l a t e s the m u l t i p l e uses o f photography and the medium's

importance i n our everyday l i v e s i s the v e r y r e c e n t One Hour

Photo (2002), d i r e c t e d by Mark Romanek. The c e n t r a l

p r o t a g o n i s t , "Sy, the photo guy", works i n a s m a l l one-hour

p h o t o g r a p h i c p r o c e s s i n g l a b i n a suburban m a l l . He has worked

as a p h o t o g r a p h i c p r o c e s s i n g c l e r k and t e c h n i c i a n f o r over t e n

y e a r s , and he has taken h i s job o f p r o c e s s i n g , d e v e l o p i n g , and

p r i n t i n g n e g a t i v e s f o r h i s customers v e r y s e r i o u s l y . The r o l e s

o f f i l m h i s customers b r i n g t o him t o be deve loped form an

i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h i s i d e n t i t y , so much so , t h a t h i s f a n t a s i e s

are f o s t e r e d by o b s e r v i n g the f a m i l y photographs o f one young

f a m i l y o f t h r e e : mother , f a t h e r and son . He keeps t r a c k o f the

young f a m i l y ' s growth and development over the course o f t e n

y e a r s by o b s e s s i v e l y p i n n i n g c o p i e s o f a l l o f t h e i r p r i n t s on

13

h i s l i v i n g room w a l l a t home and c r e a t i n g a v o y e u r i s t i c mura l

i n t o t h e i r p e r s o n a l l i v e s .

The importance o f the r o l e photography p l a y s i n the

r i t u a l s o f our everyday l i v e s , as Tagg n o t e s , i s r e i t e r a t e d i n

S y ' s v o i c e over n a r r a t i o n . He s e n t i m e n t a l l y s t a t e s :

F a m i l y photographs d e p i c t s m i l i n g f a c e s , b i r t h s , weddings , h o l i d a y s , k i d s ' b i r t h d a y p a r t i e s . People take photographs o f the happy moments i n t h e i r l i v e s . Someone l o o k i n g through our f a m i l y photo albums would c o n c l u d e t h a t we l i v e joyous happy l i v e s . No one takes a photograph o f something they want t o f o r g e t .

Even though Sy r e a l i z e s t h a t peop le are c r e a t i n g a f i c t i v e

i l l u s i o n o f f a m i l y happiness by s e l e c t i v e l y p h o t o g r a p h i n g

p o s i t i v e moments, he p e r s i s t e n t l y imagines h i m s e l f as a member

of the young f a m i l y and d e s p e r a t e l y wants t o be a p a r t i c i p a n t

i n the moments they choose t o c a p t u r e . Sy f u r t h e r expresses

the importance o f h i s c a r e e r by p r o v i d i n g the l o g i c a l argument

t h a t "When p e o p l e ' s houses are on f i r e , what i s the f i r s t t h i n g

they save a f t e r t h e i r f a m i l y and pe t s? T h e i r f a m i l y

photographs" . T h u s , Sy has observed t h a t photography i s h i g h l y

v a l u e d and t r e a s u r e d i n s o c i e t y .

Sy a l s o a r t i c u l a t e s the p r o l i f i c use o f photography i n

s o c i e t y by n o t i n g the d i v e r s i t y o f peop le who r e g u l a r l y r e q u i r e

h i s s e r v i c e s . There i s one woman who b r i n g s i n a r o l e o f f i l m

every week of her c a t s . There i s the i n s u r a n c e a d j u s t e r who

c o n s i s t e n t l y b r i n g s i n r o l e s o f f i l m t h a t c o n t a i n images o f c a r

a c c i d e n t s . There are the p a r e n t s o f a newborn baby who drop

o f f dozens o f r o l l s o f f i l m a f t e r e v e r y weekend. There i s the

nurse from the cosmet i c c l i n i c down the s t r e e t , who b r i n g s i n

b e f o r e and a f t e r shots o f cosmet i c s u r g e r y . A n d , o f c o u r s e ,

t h e r e i s always the amateur p o r n o g r a p h i c a r t i s t .

S y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s o f the types o f photographs peop le take

and the d i v e r s i t y o f peop le who take photographs demonstrates

t h a t photography c r o s s e s many s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d b o u n d a r i e s ,

such as c l a s s , r a c e and gender . I t i s p h o t o g r a p h y ' s s l i p p e r y

q u a l i t y o f i n d e x i c a l i t y t h a t p e r m i t s the medium t o be used

a c r o s s oppos ing c o n t e x t s . The wide scope o f f u n c t i o n s and

purposes t h a t photography o c c u p i e s , t h e n , suggests as Tagg has

t h e o r i z e d , t h a t photography has a c o m p l i c a t e d and m u l t i f a c e t e d

i d e n t i t y .

15

Chapter I. Photography as i t Concerns Truth, Realism and Self-Authentication

"The photo gives a l i t t l e t ruth" (Barthes 103).

The h i s t o r i c a l ontology of photography i s complicated and

contradictory. In t h i s chapter, I w i l l investigate the myth of

truth that has been attached to photography from i t s e a r l i e s t

beginnings. I w i l l deconstruct the r e a l i s t myth of truth that

surrounds photography by locating the h i s t o r i c a l ontology of

the s t i l l photograph i n the nineteenth century. I w i l l then

demonstrate how these myths of truth are s t i l l associated with

photography and are presently employed i n contemporary

narrative cinema. S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n t h i s chapter, I w i l l examine

how the photograph i s used within the private, rather than the

public realm.

The contradictory myth of the h i s t o r i c a l ontology of

photography has been ca r r i e d forward to the b e l i e f s about

photography i n contemporary Western culture. Since cinema i s a

c u l t u r a l product and an accumulation of diverse mediums and

ideas, i t works very well to demonstrate current notions that

surround the photographic image. In the three films that I have

chosen - Proof, Memento, and Blade Runner - the protagonists of

inte r e s t share a commonality of personal impairment. In Proof,

Martin i s a b l i n d photographer; therefore, he never sees the

photographs he takes. But v i a the act of photographing, he

16

f e e l s t h a t he i s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the v i s u a l w o r l d o f t r u t h ,

and t h i s i s an attempt t o bypass h i s f e e l i n g s o f inadequacy f o r

b e i n g b l i n d . In Memento, She lby s u f f e r s from a n t e r i o r g r a d e

amnes ia . He has no s h o r t - t e r m memory, so he takes P o l a r o i d s o f

everyone he meets and every p l a c e he t r a v e l s . He takes notes

on the photographs i n o r d e r t o c o n s t r u c t h i s own p r i v a t e

a r c h i v e - an e x t e r n a l memory o f s o r t s . In B lade Runner , Rebecca

p r o v i d e s f a m i l y photographs f o r Deckard t o prove t h a t she i s

human. In a l l t h r e e f i l m s , the p r o t a g o n i s t s use the myth o f the

t r u t h o f photography f o r s e l f - a u t h e n t i c a t i o n due t o t h e i r

u n c e r t a i n t y o f t h e i r own i d e n t i t i e s .

The a u r a o f t r u t h t h a t surrounds the p h o t o g r a p h i c image

can be u n d e r s t o o d by l o o k i n g t o Western systems o f i d e a s and

the ways knowledge and e x p e r i e n c e are o r d e r e d . The o r i g i n o f

e q u a t i n g v e r a c i t y t o the p h o t o g r a p h i c image can be c o n s i d e r e d

i n a h i s t o r i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t ( L i s t e r 10-14). As

John Tagg a s s e r t s i n The Burden o f R e p r e s e n t a t i o n (1985), the

photograph came t o s tand as ev idence by a s o c i a l , s e m i o t i c

p r o c e s s , not by any n a t u r a l o r e x i s t e n t i a l f a c t o f the medium

(4). To unde r s tand the a s c r i b e d e v i d e n t i a l f o r c e o f

photography , we must f i r s t l o o k a t the d e s i r e f o r a c h i e v i n g

"rea l i sm" i n p a i n t i n g , a s t y l e which was most n o t a b l e d u r i n g

the Rena i s sance w i t h the i n v e n t i o n o f the camera o b s c u r a .

V i c t o r B u r g i n observes t h a t the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l system of

17

photography i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f c l a s s i c a l p a i n t i n g

because both depend on the camera-obscura ( q t d . i n Batchen 19).

As Andre B a z i n w r i t e s , i n the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Western

p a i n t i n g s h i f t e d from p r i v i l e g i n g s p i r i t u a l e x p r e s s i o n i s m t o

want ing t o a c h i e v e a complete i m i t a t i o n o f the w o r l d . The

o b j e c t i v e o f t o t a l " i m i t a t i o n " was r e a l i z e d w i t h the camera

o b s c u r a , the f i r s t s c i e n t i f i c , m e c h a n i c a l system o f v i s u a l

r e p r o d u c t i o n . The camera o b s c u r a p r o v i d e d the p a i n t e r w i t h the

a b i l i t y t o r e n d e r s u b j e c t mat ter i n the t h r e e - p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e

o f A l b e r t i a n o p t i c s , thus a p p r o a c h i n g a more a c c u r a t e and

r e a l i s t i c l i k e n e s s t o the o u t s i d e w o r l d . The i l l u s i o n o f t h r e e -

d i m e n s i o n a l space on a two d i m e n s i o n a l p l a n e appeared as our

eyes p e r c e i v e the w o r l d (10-11). T h u s , the r e p l i c a t i o n o f our

own p e r c e p t i o n was c o n s i d e r e d more r e a l i s t i c and " t r u t h f u l "

when compared t o the t w o - p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e r e n d e r e d i n Western

p a i n t i n g up u n t i l the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

B a r t h e s w r i t e s t h a t Rena i s sance p a i n t e r s have o f t e n been

g i v e n c r e d i t f o r i n v e n t i n g photography , as the photograph

u t i l i z e s Rena i s sance f r a m i n g , t h r e e - p o i n t p e r s p e c t i v e and the

o p t i c s o f the camera o b s c u r a (80). However, B a r t h e s d i s a g r e e s

w i t h t h i s l i n k a g e , as does John B e r g e r , who a t t a c h e s the

i d e o l o g y o f p o s i t i v i s m and the development o f the camera

t o g e t h e r , due t o t h e i r s imul taneous b i r t h s i n the n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y (Barthes 80; q t d . i n Robins 33). K e v i n Robins notes

18

B e r g e r ' s p o i n t t h a t when the camera was i n v e n t e d i n 1839,

Auguste Comte was c o m p l e t i n g h i s Cours de P h i l o s o p h i e P o s i t i v e

(33). P o s i t i v i s m and the camera grew up t o g e t h e r , and what

s u s t a i n e d them as p r a c t i c e s "was the b e l i e f t h a t o b s e r v a b l e ,

q u a n t i f i a b l e f a c t s , r e c o r d e d by s c i e n t i s t s and e x p e r t s , would

one day o f f e r man such a t o t a l knowledge about n a t u r e and

s o c i e t y t h a t he would be a b l e t o o r d e r them both" (33). Robins

c o n t i n u e s by s t a t i n g t h a t photography r e p r e s e n t e d a p r i v i l e g e d

means f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the " t r u t h " about the w o r l d , i t s n a t u r e

and i t s p r o p e r t i e s (34). He r e f e r e n c e s M i t c h e l l , who notes

t h a t the camera has been r e g a r d e d as "an i d e a l C a r t e s i a n

i n s t r u m e n t - a d e v i c e f o r use by o b s e r v i n g s u b j e c t s t o r e c o r d

supremely a c c u r a t e t r a c e s o f the o b j e c t s b e f o r e them" (28).

Wi th the removal o f human i n t e r v e n t i o n i n the p r o c e s s o f

r e g i s t e r i n g and r e c o r d i n g an a c c u r a t e image, photography was

c o n s i d e r e d t o be o b j e c t i v e l y n e u t r a l . As M i t c h e l l s t a t e s , "The

p h o t o g r a p h i c p r o c e d u r e , l i k e . . . s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e d u r e s , seems t o

p r o v i d e a guaranteed way o f overcoming s u b j e c t i v i t y and g e t t i n g

a t the r e a l t r u t h " (28). P o s i t i v i s m can be seen as an attempt

t o r a t i o n a l i z e the image.

A i d e d by the camera o b s c u r a , Western p a i n t e r s were d r i v e n

t o " imi ta te" the w o r l d . S c i e n c e and a r t appeared t o c o a l e s c e .

The p h i l o s o p h y of p o s i t i v i s m determined the i d e o l o g y o f

o b j e c t i v i t y , which f u e l e d the merger o f e m p i r i c i s m w i t h

19

photography , and i t s myth o f t r u t h . Wi th the s c i e n t i f i c o r i g i n s

o f photography , o b j e c t i v i t y was assumed due to the m e c h a n i c a l

r e n d e r i n g o f space and o f d e t a i l . H u l i c k quotes W i l l i a m I v i n s :

"The n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y began by b e l i e v i n g what was r e a s o n a b l e

was t r u e and i t wound up by b e l i e v i n g t h a t what i t saw a

photograph o f was a l s o t r u e " (420). The myth o f t r u t h i s

e l u c i d a t e d by B a z i n and r e i t e r a t e d by H u l i c k , who both s t a t e

t h a t the F r e n c h word f o r l e n s i s o b j e c t i f , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t the

eye o f the camera, o r l e n s , sees o b j e c t i v e l y ( B a z i n 13; H u l i c k

420). Moreover , i t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o n o t e , as H u l i c k p o i n t s

o u t , t h a t v i s u a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g s u b j e c t mat ter i n n i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y photography was s c i e n t i f i c i n n a t u r e (425). The i d e a o f

p h o t o g r a p h i c documents as t r u t h f u l r e p o r t s may be seen as

f u n c t i o n a l t o the c u l t u r e t h a t i n v e n t e d i t : "Chemica l

p h o t o g r a p h y ' s temporary s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f

the p r o c e s s o f image making e f f e c t i v e l y s e r v e d the purposes o f

an e r a dominated by s c i e n c e , e x p l o r a t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n "

( M i t c h e l l 49).

Diana H u l i c k e v a l u a t e s the d i s c o u r s e on r e a l i s m and the

a e s t h e t i c s equated w i t h t r u t h . She w r i t e s t h a t p h o t o g r a p h y ' s

a b i l i t y t o reproduce t e l l i n g d e t a i l s was a h a l l m a r k o f the

V i c t o r i a n age (419). She notes t h a t Jerome Bump w r i t e s : " T h i s

l o v e o f l i t e r a l r e a l i s m " was p a r t o f the s c i e n t i f i c

c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the age (420). In p a i n t i n g , R e a l i s m ,

2 0

Symbolism and P r e - R a p h a e l i t i s m c o n v i n c e the v iewer o f the

r e a l i t y o f a p a r t i c u l a r v i s i o n through d e t a i l . R e a l i s m , as

e x e m p l i f i e d by the work of Gustave Courbe t and Edouard Manet ,

was a t i t s h e i g h t d u r i n g the f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f p h o t o g r a p h i c

p r o d u c t i o n . The a e s t h e t i c s o f o b j e c t i v e , e m p i r i c a l t r u t h are

m a n i f e s t i n the form o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y V i c t o r i a n r e a l i s m .

As Tagg w r i t e s , R e a l i s m o f f e r s a f i x i t y i n which the s i g n i f i e r

i s t r e a t e d as i f i t were i d e n t i c a l t o a p r e - e x i s t e n t s i g n i f i e d

and i n which the r e a d e r ' s r o l e i s p u r e l y t h a t o f consumer (99).

I t i s t h i s r e a l i s t mode w i t h which we are c o n f r o n t e d when we

l o o k a t the photograph as e v i d e n c e .

F u r t h e r , the camera's m e c h a n i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c q u a l i t i e s

a l l o w e d the image i t r e p r o d u c e d t o occupy a s p e c i a l v e r a c i t y

and e v i d e n t i a l f o r c e . M a r t i n L i s t e r w r i t e s t h a t r e a l i s t

t h e o r i e s gave p r i o r i t y t o the m e c h a n i c a l o r i g i n s o f the

p h o t o g r a p h i c image ( 1 0 ) . The m e c h a n i c a l arrangement o f the

p h o t o g r a p h i c camera means t h a t " P h y s i c a l o b j e c t s themselves

p r i n t t h e i r image by means o f the o p t i c a l and c h e m i c a l a c t i o n

of l i g h t " ( q t d . i n L i s t e r 1 0 ) . Photos are spoken o f as "co-

s u b s t a n t i a l w i t h the o b j e c t s they r e p r e s e n t " , " p e r f e c t

ana logons" , " s t e n c i l s o f f the r e a l " , " t r a c e s " , o r as " r e c o r d s "

of o b j e c t s o r o f "images" o f o b j e c t s ( q t d . i n L i s t e r 1 0 ) . As

B a r t h e s w r i t e s , "that has been" was p o s s i b l e o n l y on the day

when a s c i e n t i f i c c i r c u m s t a n c e (the d i s c o v e r y t h a t s i l v e r

21

halogens were sensitive to l i g h t ) made i t possible to recover

and d i r e c t l y p r i n t the luminous rays emitted by a l i g h t object

(80) . Thus, a guaranteed causal l i n k with the physical world

i s strongly asserted; photographic images are automatically

produced and are passive i n the face of r e a l i t y . I t i s t h i s

q u a l i t y of the photographic image that Barthes c a l l s i t s " t h i s -

has-been" (107) . This i s the indexical source of the

photographic image's special force as evidence ( L i s t e r 10) .

Realism contends that the indexical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

photography provides the accuracy of veracity. However,

r e a l i s t truth claims can be deconstructed with great f a c i l i t y .

Susan Sontag reveals many q u a l i t i e s that contradict the r e a l i s t

assertion of photographic truth. She writes: "The camera's

a b i l i t y to transform r e a l i t y into something beautiful derives

from i t s r e l a t i v e weakness as a means of conveying tr u t h "

(112) . The presence of subjective interpretation thus

destabi l i z e s the grasp of o b j e c t i v i t y . Barthes also

acknowledges that photography i s both a l i m i t l e s s technique for

appropriating the objective world and an unavoidable expression

of the s e l f (103) . Every p o r t r a i t of another person i s a

" s e l f - p o r t r a i t " of the photographer. Once the s u b j e c t i v i t y of

the photographer i s recognized, the mechanics of the camera can

be seen to occupy non-objectivity.

22

Hulick writes that the unquestioning acceptance of a

photographic r e a l i t y ignores the s e l e c t i v i t y of the lens. She

notes that the a v a i l a b i l i t y of diverse f o c a l lengths of lenses

can render very d i f f e r e n t images of the world. Also, the optics

are based on Renaissance perspective theory. As well, the

random d i s t r i b u t i o n of the s i l v e r halides on the f i l m negative

varies with changing chemistry and l i g h t . She further states

that analog photography i s neither a true, nor an unchanging

facsimile of the world. A true facsimile would reproduce a l l

the v i s u a l l y apprehensible q u a l i t i e s of the object

photographed, creating a complete one-to-one reproduction (421-

2 2 ) . Furthermore, Geoffrey Batchen s i m i l a r l y notes that every

photograph involves intervention and manipulation. He states

that photography i s a manipulation of l i g h t l e v e l s , exposure

times, chemical concentrations, and tonal ranges. Therefore,

a r t i f i c i a l i t y of one kind or another i s an inescapable part of

photographic l i f e (212) .

Photographic Realists maintain a singular objective

i l l u s i o n of truth by attaching e v i d e n t i a l force to the

reproduced image. Yet, objective truth can e a s i l y be

dest a b i l i z e d by the acknowledgement of the s u b j e c t i v i t y of the

photographer and the many choices the camera has available i n

rendering diverse perspectives. But perhaps the f a u l t of the

Rea l i s t l i e s i n generalizations of photographic i n d e x i c a l i t y .

23

While s u b j e c t i v i t y must be accepted as a dominant presence i n

the photographic process, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of photography's

o b j e c t i v i t y cannot be completely denied. The photograph must be

said to reference a r e a l i t y , rather than the r e a l i t y . The

boundary of i n d e x i c a l i t y can be found temporally. In fact, the

photograph does not depict the truth of an object i n the world,

but a truth of a time i n the world. Barthes writes: "the

photograph possesses an ev i d e n t i a l force, and that i t s

testimony bears not on the object but on time" (89). The

photographic p r i n t projects a temporal truth, rather than an

objective truth.

In On Photography, Susan Sontag puts forth that " a l l

photographs", because they underline t h e i r subject's mortality

(or temporality) by momentarily freezing i t , "are memento

mori", and she l a t e r claims, "This l i n k between photography and

death haunts a l l photographs of people" (70). Additionally,

Bazin i s echoed by Sontag's reference to the photographic image

as "a trace, something d i r e c t l y s tenciled o ff the r e a l , l i k e a

footprint or a death mask" (154). Barthes gives great

importance to the topic of photography and death i n Camera

Lucida, writing that the photographic referent, or Spectrum,

retains "that rather t e r r i b l e thing which i s there i n every

photograph: the return of the dead" (9). Barthes evaluates the

q u a l i t i e s of photographic reproduction to be unique. He writes

t h a t the r e f e r e n t o f the photograph i s not the same as o t h e r

systems o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , but r a t h e r , i t i s the r e a l e n t i t y

t h a t has been i n f r o n t o f the l e n s . Without the r e f e r e n t t h e r e

would be no p h o t o g r a p h . In photography , i t cannot be d e n i e d

t h a t the t h i n g "has been t h e r e " . B a r t h e s ' w r i t i n g s on t e m p o r a l

t r u t h w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n Chapter 3 .

F o r the t ime b e i n g , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o note the d u a l i t y o f

t r u t h and death t h a t o c c u p i e s photography due t o i t s unique

o n t o l o g y o f i n d e x i c a l i t y . The V i c t o r i a n r e a l i s t s a s s e r t e d t h a t

t h i s i n d e x i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f photography gave the medium a

s p e c i a l s t a t u s o f t r u t h and v e r a c i t y . As B a r t h e s has p o i n t e d

o u t , t h e r e i s indeed a q u a l i t y o f t r u t h t o the p h o t o g r a p h i c

image; however, the t r u t h o f photography i s t e m p o r a l , not

m a t e r i a l . The myth o f t r u t h and i t s p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e w i t h i n

the p r i v a t e r e a l m i s demonstrated i n the t h r e e f i l m s t h a t I

have chosen .

In P r o o f , M a r t i n i s a photographer who has been b l i n d from

b i r t h . He meets Andy, who i s a s h o r t o r d e r chef a t a r e s t a u r a n t

where M a r t i n f r e q u e n t l y d i n e s . The two men meet c o i n c i d e n t a l l y

by way o f an a l l e y c a t . I t seems t h a t M a r t i n , w h i l e w a l k i n g

down an a l l e y , knocked over garbage t h a t f e l l on the c a t . When

Andy sees M a r t i n a g a i n , he shows M a r t i n the c a t and then they

take i t t o a v e t t o g e t h e r . A t t h i s p o i n t i n the f i l m , the

audience i s f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d t o M a r t i n ' s hobby o f photography .

25

He takes a p i c t u r e o f Andy i n the v e t ' s w a i t i n g room where, as

a b a c k d r o p , t h e r e i s a w a l l o f photographs o f the

v e t e r i n a r i a n ' s c l i e n t s and t h e i r p e t s . Andy i n s t r u c t s M a r t i n t o

p o i n t the camera down and t o the l e f t so t h a t he i s i n the

frame. A f t e r t h i s photograph i s t a k e n , t h e r e i s a montage o f

snapshots c r e a t e d o f Andy w i t h the c a t , Andy w i t h the c a t and

o t h e r pet owners w i t h t h e i r p e t s , and the c a t w i t h the v e t who

i s examining the a n i m a l . The photographs are a l l i n f o c u s , as

M a r t i n i s u s i n g an automat ic camera, but the f raming i s always

c r o o k e d , w i t h h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s askew, and the c o m p o s i t i o n s

p r e s e n t the s u b j e c t e i t h e r i n the bottom o f the frame o r too

f a r t o the s i d e .

In the next scene , Andy and M a r t i n d r i v e home from the

v e t e r i n a r i a n c l i n i c . Andy remarks t h a t i t ' s g r e a t t h a t M a r t i n

i s p r o d u c t i v e and has a hobby, r a t h e r than b e i n g u n p r o d u c t i v e

and f e e l i n g s o r r y f o r h i m s e l f . M a r t i n e x p l a i n s t h a t h i s mother

gave him a camera when he was a young boy . Andy t h i n k s t h a t

t h i s i s c r u e l , but M a r t i n s t a t e s : "I thought i t would h e l p me

to see ." Perhaps by engaging i n an a c t t h a t r e q u i r e s v i s i o n ,

M a r t i n ' s b l i n d n e s s d i d not seem as d i s m a l l y t e r m i n a l .

In the next scene , the audience l e a r n s why M a r t i n takes

the photographs and what he does w i t h them. M a r t i n e n t e r s the

r e s t a u r a n t t o show Andy the r e c e n t l y deve loped p r i n t s from the

day a t the v e t e r i n a r i a n c l i n i c . He asks Andy t o d e s c r i b e the

26

photographs i n less than ten words. Together, they formulate a

descriptive sentence of each image, for example, "Andy holding

limp cat i n waiting room at vet." Martin then uses a b r a i l

machine to punch i n the words and then s t i c k s the sentence to

the back of the p r i n t to l a b e l i t . Andy i s surprised and

confused and asks Martin why he labels his photographs. Martin

bluntly r e p l i e s : "Proof." Andy r e t o r t s : "Of what?" Martin

explains: "That...what's i n the photograph, i s what was there...I

was there Andy. I probably know more about what was i n that

vet's waiting room than you would...but t h i s i s proof that what I

sensed i s what you saw. The truth."

Thus, by creating his own personal archive of labeled

images, Martin believes that he i s accessing the v i s u a l world

of truth, despite his blindness. Yet, he must t r u s t that Andy

i s t e l l i n g the truth. This l a t e r becomes an issue when Martin

photographs C e l i a , Martin's wicked housekeeper, and Andy

together i n the park. Martin does not know that Andy and C e l i a

are sleeping together, so when Andy must describe the

incriminating image to Martin, he l i e s . Martin l a t e r finds out

about the deception, but forgives Andy when he r e a l i z e s that

truth i s not a stable, singular e n t i t y . There i s no objective

truth, as the r e a l i s t s mythologized, but multiple meanings and

interpretations of the world. Taking photographs does not allow

27

M a r t i n t o know the t r u t h about the v i s u a l w o r l d . M a r t i n

r e a l i z e s t h a t i t i s not t r u t h t h a t he i s s e e k i n g ; i t i s t r u s t .

M a r t i n ' s o r i g i n a l m o t i v a t i o n i n t a k i n g photographs was t o

prove t h a t h i s mother l i e d t o h im, "because she c a n . " M a r t i n

f e l t t h a t h i s mother l i e d t o him because she was ashamed o f

h a v i n g a b l i n d son . P e r h a p s , he a l s o wanted to take photographs

t o prove t h a t he c o u l d do the same t h i n g s t h a t s i g h t e d c h i l d r e n

c o u l d d o . In one key f l a s h b a c k moment, M a r t i n ' s mother i s

d e s c r i b i n g the gardener and the garden t o h im. M a r t i n d e c l a r e s

t h a t t h e r e i s no g a r d e n e r , and accuses h i s mother o f l y i n g t o

h im. She i n s i s t s t h a t M a r t i n l i s t e n c l o s e l y , and he w i l l hear

the gardener r a k i n g the l e a v e s . M a r t i n does not b e l i e v e h e r .

In another f l a s h b a c k scene , M a r t i n ' s mother says t h a t she i s

s i c k and t h a t she w i l l d i e soon . M a r t i n t h i n k s t h a t she i s

l y i n g so t h a t she d o e s n ' t have t o l o o k a f t e r her v i s u a l l y

i m p a i r e d son anymore. Even when she i s dead , he knocks on the

c o f f i n w i t h h i s cane , and s a d l y sa y s : " I t ' s h o l l o w . " In the

end , M a r t i n asks Andy t o d e s c r i b e the f i r s t photograph t h a t he

ever t o o k . He s i m p l y s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s a man r a k i n g l e a v e s

i n a g a r d e n .

The myth o f t r u t h r i n g s t r u e - M a r t i n ' s mother was t e l l i n g

M a r t i n the t r u t h , and the photograph proves i t . Y e t , the image,

which we do not see , does not prove t h a t t h e r e i s a s i n g u l a r

o b j e c t i v e v i s u a l t r u t h , which M a r t i n so d e s p e r a t e l y s eeks . The

28

photograph proves that Martin's mother loved him. Here, a

meaningless image of a gardener deflated Martin's suspicions

about his mother's love for him. Thus, the image did not

authenticate the v i s u a l r e a l i t y of truth; instead i t

authenticated Martin's search for t r u s t .

In Christopher Nolan's Memento, Shelby has anteriorgrade

amnesia. He suffered a head injury while t r y i n g to defend his

wife. He remembers everything up u n t i l the accident, and his

mission i s to avenge the murder of his wife. His amnesiac

state questions the s t a b i l i t y of memory and i d e n t i t y . The

confused state of his i d e n t i t y i s suggested by the narrative

structure of the f i l m . The movie begins with a man being k i l l e d

by a point-blank p i s t o l shot, with the v i o l e n t action moving

backwards. I t i s preceded by a Polaroid photograph i n reverse

motion, displaying an image of the k i l l i n g before fading to

blankness and retreating back into the camera that took i t . The

narrative i s structured i n reverse, so that the audience learns

the clues of the past experiences of the protagonist i n the

ignorance mimicked by his memory loss .

Shelby r e l i e s on photographs and tattoos to discover the

truth about his wife's murderer. The realism of photography i s

denied, as his Polaroids work to confuse him more than help

him. Every time he learns something new, he documents i t , but

what he learns may not be the truth. He takes Polaroids of

29

peop le and p l a c e s and w r i t e s e i t h e r f a c t s o r m i s i n f o r m a t i o n on

the back of each snapshot . The p h o t o g r a p h i c c l u e s and t a t t o o s

c l u t t e r h i s r e a l i t y , p e r p e t u a t i n g h i s s t a t e o f c o n f u s i o n . In

the end , i t i s r e v e a l e d t h a t he has k i l l e d h i s w i f e ' s murderer

many t imes o v e r , but cannot remember because he has f o r g o t t e n

t o document the key e v e n t . T h u s , photography i s a s s e r t e d t o be

o n l y a p a r t i a l t r u t h , v u l n e r a b l e to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

The photographs o f peop le and p l a c e s t h a t She lby r e l i e s on

are fragments o f a p a s t r e a l i t y , but they are dead c l u e s i n

t h a t he cannot c o n t e x t u a l i z e o r i n t e r p r e t t h e i r t r u t h s . As he

r e f e r e n c e s each photograph i n o r d e r t o c l i n g t o a p a s t t r u t h ,

h i s own m o r t a l i t y i n the p r e s e n t becomes more v u l n e r a b l e . He

c o n t i n u e s t o confuse t r u t h and f i c t i o n by r e l y i n g on the

" r e a l i s m " o f photography , which p r e v e n t s him from c o n s t r u c t i n g

a s t a b l e s e l f - i d e n t i t y . Wi th the j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f amnesia and

photography , Memento suggests the i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n s i s t e n t

i d e n t i t y c o n s t r u c t i o n , a l i n e a r p a s t and a s i n g u l a r t r u t h .

Whi l e the myth o f the t r u t h o f photography i s employed by

the p r o t a g o n i s t s i n P r o o f and Memento t o compensate f o r t h e i r

p e r s o n a l impairments o f b l i n d n e s s and memory r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

R a c h a e l , i n B l a d e Runner , uses the f a m i l y snapshot t o

a u t h e n t i c a t e her p e r s o n a l memories and t h u s , her "human"

i d e n t i t y . In B lade Runner , bounty hunters are employed t o f i n d

and k i l l " r e p l i c a n t s " i n the t echno-env ironment o f f u t u r i s t i c

3 0

Los A n g e l e s . " R e p l i c a n t s " are a r t i f i c i a l humanoids e n g i n e e r e d

t o be i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from n a t u r a l human b e i n g s . They have

been manufactured t o serve as s l a v e s on space s t a t i o n s and are

c o n s i d e r e d t o be dangerous i f they escape t o e a r t h . R e p l i c a n t s

are programmed t o have a l i f e span o f f o u r y e a r s and are g i v e n

memories , language , and i n t e l l e c t u a l s k i l l s . The r e p l i c a n t ,

R a c h a e l , r e a l i z e s s l o w l y and p a i n f u l l y t h a t she i s an a n d r o i d ,

and t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s when the myth o f the t r u t h o f

photography c o l l a p s e s .

Rebecca v i s i t s the apartment o f D e c k a r d , the B lade Runner

who i s a s s i g n e d t o " r e t i r e " f o u r r e p l i c a n t s who have escaped t o

E a r t h . Rebecca asks D e c k a r d : "You t h i n k I 'm a r e p l i c a n t , d o n ' t

you?" She then p r e s e n t s Deckard w i t h a photograph o f a l i t t l e

g i r l and a woman s i t t i n g t o g e t h e r on the p o r c h s teps o f a

house . She says : "Look, i t ' s me w i t h my mother ." D e c k a r d ' s

r e p l y i s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s o f Rebecca ' s

c h i l d h o o d memories, from " p l a y i n g doc tor" w i t h her b r o t h e r t o

watch ing a nes t o f s p i d e r s b e i n g born and s u b s e q u e n t l y e a t i n g

t h e i r mother . Rebecca c o n c u r s w i t h the d e t a i l s t h a t Deckard

has d e s c r i b e d . He c o n t i n u e s by s t a t i n g : "Implants , those

a r e n ' t your memories, t h e y ' r e somebody e l s e ' s . T h e i r T y r e l l ' s

n i e c e ' s . " Rebecca c r i e s w i t h the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t she i s not

human. When she l e a v e s , Deckard looks once more a t the snapshot

o f "Rebecca w i t h her mother ." He proceeds t o peruse through h i s

31

own f a m i l y p h o t o s . Wi th the r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t photographs had

been used as a u t h e n t i c a t i o n f o r Rebecca ' s a r t i f i c i a l memories,

i t i s suggested t h a t perhaps D e c k a r d ' s f a m i l y photographs are

a l s o i n a u t h e n t i c . The myth o f t r u t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

photography had c o n v i n c e d Rebecca t h a t she was human. When

Deckard s t a t e s t h a t her memories are i m p l a n t s , so too are the

photographs i m p l a n t s . The photographs are props t o c o n s t r u c t an

a r t i f i c i a l memory a r c h i v e t h a t worked t o shape Rebecca ' s

i d e n t i t y as a human. Her l a c k o f awareness o f b e i n g a r e p l i c a n t

suggests t h a t perhaps D e c k a r d , t o o , i s a r e p l i c a n t , as he has

memories and photographs j u s t l i k e Rebecca . Thus ,

d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t the photographs are a r t i f i c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s

u s i n g the myth o f t r u t h f o r s e l f - a u t h e n t i c a t i o n , r a i s e s l a r g e r

m e t a p h y s i c a l i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g what i t means to be human. I f

p e r s o n a l f a m i l y photographs are not a u t h e n t i c , then what i s ?

The boundar i e s o f the r e a l i t y o f n a t u r e v e r s u s a r t i f i c i a l i t y

are thrown i n t o q u e s t i o n . Perhaps we are a l l r e p l i c a n t s ,

s u p p l i e d w i t h g e n e r i c memories and fake photographs t o su p por t

the i l l u s i o n o f b e i n g human, w i t h q u a l i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,

o r i g i n a l i t y , and u n i q u e n e s s .

As i t i s my t h e s i s t o examine the m u l t i p l e and

c o n t r a d i c t o r y o n t o l o g i e s o f photography , i t i s hoped t h a t the

t h r e e f i l m s d i s c u s s e d have s p e c i f i c a l l y e l u c i d a t e d t h a t

c o n c e r n i n g the V i c t o r i a n i d e o l o g y o f r e a l i s m , t h e r e are v a r y i n g

32

degrees o f t r u t h t h a t can be a p p l i e d t o the use o f the

p h o t o g r a p h i c image. In P r o o f , photography does not p r o v i d e

M a r t i n access t o the s i n g u l a r t r u t h o f v i s i o n t h a t he so

d e s p e r a t e l y t r i e s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n . But photography , i n

c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the t r u s t o f h i s f r i e n d , a l l o w s M a r t i n t o

r e a l i z e t h a t he must f i n d the t r u t h w i t h i n h i m s e l f . In

Memento, She lby uses photography i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h hand

w r i t t e n notes and t a t t o o s t o c o n s t r u c t an e x t e r n a l a r c h i v a l

memory t o compensate f o r the impairment o f h i s s h o r t - t e r m

memory. However, h i s photographs and notes c r e a t e an a r c h i v e

o f c o n f u s i o n , r a t h e r than c l a r i t y . He does not know i f what he

documents i s t r u e o r f a l s e , but he t h i n k s the mere a c t o f

documentat ion w i l l b r i n g him the t r u t h . I n s t e a d , he c r e a t e s an

a r c h i v e o f h a l f - t r u t h s , and r e l e n t l e s s l y c a r r i e s on w i t h h i s

s e a r c h f o r the k i l l e r o f h i s w i f e . The myth of t r u t h

c o m p l i c a t e s S h e l b y ' s l i f e , due t o the h i g h l e v e l o f c r e d i b i l i t y

he g i v e s t o p h o t o g r a p h y ' s a u t h e n t i c i t y . F i n a l l y , i n B lade

Runner , Rebecca has memories and f a m i l y photographs t o v e r i f y

them, j u s t l i k e any o t h e r human b e i n g . Y e t , when Deckard

d e c l a r e s the a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f her memories, the photographs

l o s e t h e i r s t a t u s o f a u t h e n t i c a t i o n as v a l i d documenta t ion .

The a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f the photographs changes Rebecca ' s i d e n t i t y

from human t o c y b o r g . The myth o f t r u t h p r o p e l l e d her t o

b e l i e v e t h a t she was human, and when the power o f the

33

a u t h e n t i c a t i o n o f photography was d e f l a t e d , Rebecca l e a r n e d

t h a t she was not who she thought she was.

34

Chapter II. The Ethics of the Archive

In the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , I o u t l i n e d the h i s t o r i c a l

o n t o l o g y o f photography t h a t shaped the modern myth o f t r u t h

t h a t surrounds the medium. I demonstrated t h a t the V i c t o r i a n

i d e o l o g y o f R e a l i s m a t t a c h e s p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i n d e x i c a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o the e m p i r i c a l T r u t h c l a i m s o f o b j e c t i v i t y .

The f i l m s I s e l e c t e d t o e l u c i d a t e the use o f the photograph f o r

a u t h e n t i c a t i o n demonstrated p e r s o n a l o r p r i v a t e methods o f

overcoming s e l f - p e r c e i v e d impairment . In t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l

ex tend the d i s c u s s i o n o f T r u t h i n t o the p u b l i c r e a l m o f

i n s t i t u t i o n a l power. In the l a s t c h a p t e r , i t was shown how the

p r o t a g o n i s t s o f the f i l m s used photography f o r s e l f -

a u t h e n t i c a t i o n , but what happens when one group o b j e c t i f i e s

another? Q u e s t i o n s o f power, p r i v i l e g e and e t h i c s immedia te ly

come i n t o p l a c e . The photograph has been used as a t o o l o f

power t o m a n i p u l a t e and oppress d i v e r s e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d g r o u p s -

- t h e c o l o n i z e d , the i n s a n e , women and c r i m i n a l s have a l l been

e x p l o i t e d s u b j e c t s o f e m p i r i c a l s c i e n t i f i c v o y e u r i s m .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l examine the h i s t o r y o f

the development o f the c r i m i n a l body t o d i s c u s s the u n e t h i c a l

power h i e r a r c h i e s t h a t are a t p l a y w i t h the use o f photography .

The t h r e e cr ime genre f i l m s t h a t I w i l l be u s i n g as examples t o

examine the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f photography a r e : W i t n e s s ,

B a s i c I n s t i n c t , and C l o c k e r s .

35

John Tagg i n s i s t s t h a t t o d i s c u s s the use o f photography

by any p a r t i c u l a r i n s t i t u t i o n , the i n s t i t u t i o n must f i r s t be

e v a l u a t e d . In the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e was a p r o l i f e r a t i o n

o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s e d d i s c o u r s e s i n

the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , such as a n t h r o p o l o g y , c r i m i n o l o g y , m e d i c a l

anatomy, p s y c h i a t r y , p u b l i c h e a l t h , urban p l a n n i n g , and

s a n i t a t i o n . These d i s c i p l i n e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s used

photography f o r i t s p r i v i l e g e d s t a t u s o f e v i d e n t i a l f o r c e . Tagg

w r i t e s t h a t , l i k e the s t a t e , the camera i s never n e u t r a l . I t

produces h i g h l y coded r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o w i e l d power by those

who use i t . The p h o t o g r a p h ' s i n d e x i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l ends i t

the power o f a u t h o r i t y t o r e c o r d and s u r v e i l (11) .

Tagg b u i l d s on F o u c a u l t ' s i d e a t h a t power i s p r o d u c t i v e

(87) . In the case o f photography , i n s t i t u t i o n s use the medium

as an i n s t r u m e n t o r t o o l t o f a c i l i t a t e the i m p o s i t i o n o f power.

Those i n power, such as agents o f the s t a t e , use i t on those

w i t h o u t power, such as m a r g i n a l i z e d g r o u p s . Photography serves

as a c o n d u i t t o a l l o w power less s u b j e c t s t o be r e p r e s e n t e d and

oppressed by p o w e r f u l s u b j e c t s as o b j e c t s o f knowledge,

a n a l y s i s and c o n t r o l . The work ing c l a s s e s , c o l o n i z e d p e o p l e s ,

the c r i m i n a l , p o o r , i l l housed, s i c k o r insane became the

o b j e c t s o f knowledge because they were c o n s i d e r e d p a s s i v e and

p o w e r l e s s . U n d e r p r i v i l e g e d groups were s u b j e c t e d t o the

s c r u t i n i z i n g gaze o f s u r v e i l l a n c e and o b s e r v a t i o n . T h e i r b o d i e s

3 6

were p a t h o l o g i z e d and measured and c a l c u l a t e d t o p r e s e r v e the

s e c u r i t y o f the a u t h o r i t y o f s t a t e power. The Other p r o v i d e d

the d a t a f o r the p o s i t i v i s t cont inuum. The o p p r e s s i o n t h a t

o c c u r s due t o the i n s t i t u t i o n a l employment o f p h o t o g r a p h i c

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n goes u n n o t i c e d due t o the e m p i r i c a l t r u t h - v a l u e s

o f p o s i t i v i s m . Wi th the p h ot ograp h , o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i s

n a t u r a l i z e d because o f i t s s t a t u s as n e u t r a l machinery (Batchen

8 ) .

I t f o l l o w s t h e n , t h a t i f the photograph was c o n s i d e r e d t o

be n e u t r a l and t r u e , the i n t e n t i o n f o r these images was t o

c r e a t e a master a r c h i v e , a t o t a l c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f v i s u a l d a t a ,

an e x t e n s i o n o f the p o s i t i v i s t agenda. But as I p r e v i o u s l y

ment ioned , the p h o t o g r a p h ' s s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h p o s i t i v i s m

a l l o w e d the photograph t o be used " n e u t r a l l y , " even though

t h e r e was a severe h i e r a r c h i c a l power imbalance a t work between

those who photographed and those who were photographed . T h i s

v i s u a l o p p r e s s i o n , o r the e t h i c s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , becomes

p a i n f u l l y c l e a r when i t i s r e c o g n i z e d who has c r e a t e d the

a r c h i v e and why. As Tagg s t a t e s : "the c o u p l i n g o f e v i d e n c e and

photography i n the second h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was

bound up w i t h the emergence o f new i n s t i t u t i o n s and new

p r a c t i c e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n and r e c o r d - k e e p i n g [...]" ( 5 ) . New

t e c h n i q u e s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n were deve loped w i t h the growth o f

d i s c i p l i n a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s — t h e p o l i c e , p r i s o n s , asy lums ,

37

h o s p i t a l s , and departments o f p u b l i c h e a l t h , s c h o o l s and the

modern f a c t o r y system. The new t e c h n i q u e s o f s u r v e i l l a n c e and

r e c o r d i n g s e r v e d as a new s t r a t e g y o f governance f o r the

d i s c i p l i n a r y i n s t i t u t i o n .

Power can be the c e n t r a l i s s u e when c o n s i d e r i n g

p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on c l a s s , r a c e o r gender

h i e r a r c h i e s . The d i s c i p l i n a r y i n s t i t u t i o n used the power and

a u t h o r i t y g r a n t e d t o the s t a t u s o f the documentary p h o t o g r a p h ' s

t r u t h e f f e c t s t o m o b i l i z e a h i e r a r c h y o f dominat ion and

s u b o r d i n a t i o n (Tagg 12) . T h i s i s why i t i s so c r i t i c a l t o

r e c o g n i z e t h a t the documentary photograph i s not o b j e c t i v e and

n e u t r a l , as i t s u s e r s c l a i m i t t o be . N e u t r a l i t y i s , i n f a c t ,

v a l u e - l a d e n . The power g r a n t e d t o the documentary photograph

was a f u n c t i o n o f s o c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n (Tagg 21 ) . The

development o f a new s o c i a l body generated new k i n d s o f

knowledge v i a means o f power and c o n t r o l . The body o f the

Other produced d a t a w i t h the aim of g a i n i n g knowledge f o r the

p r i v i l e g e d . F o u c a u l t c a l l s t h i s the p o l i t i c a l t e c h n o l o g y o f the

body (Tagg 70) .

I t has been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t the photograph was a t o o l

used by the s t a t e t o s erve a p o s i t i v i s t agenda o f c o l l e c t i n g

d a t a t o o b t a i n a s i n g u l a r t r u t h o f the w o r l d , and t h a t t h i s

p r a c t i c e i n v o l v e d s e r i o u s e t h i c a l i s s u e s . We can now t u r n our

a t t e n t i o n t o the development o f a s p e c i f i c d i s c i p l i n a r y

38

i n s t i t u t i o n . In the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the growth o f a p o l i c e

f o r c e was i n t e g r a l t o the p r o c e s s o f change i n the s h i f t o f

power from the monarch t o the s t a t e . The i n s t i t u t i o n o f the

p o l i c e f o r c e o f f e r e d a means o f c o n t r o l . S u r v e i l l a n c e s e r v e d

as a s t r a t e g y o f power t o m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l over the u n r u l y

masses.

In the atmosphere o f p a n i c t h a t f o l l o w e d the F r e n c h

R e v o l u t i o n o f 1789, t h e r e was a f e l t need i n B r i t a i n f o r a more

e f f e c t i v e p o l i c e f o r c e . There was a c a l l f o r o r d e r ,

submiss iveness and the e r a d i c a t i o n o f v i c e . Reformers pushed

f o r a more e f f e c t i v e p r e v e n t i v e p o l i c e f o r c e t o guard over

p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y . The common law u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a s o c i a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r keep ing the peace i n the community was no

l o n g e r f u n c t i o n i n g i n the new urban i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s . The

i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n c r e a t e d a new a r c h i t e c t u r e o f l i f e and

work and caused the d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f o l d s o c i a l p a t t e r n s .

The i d e a deve loped t h a t "man" was the t r u e o b j e c t o f the s t a t e ,

r a t h e r than the monarch. Thus , t h e r e were demands f o r new k i n d s

o f r e g i m e n t a t i o n to e s t a b l i s h o r d e r and c o n t r o l (Tagg 72).

In 1829, the M e t r o p o l i t a n P o l i c e F o r c e , by A c t o f

P a r l i a m e n t , was e s t a b l i s h e d i n London. Under the A c t , t h r e e

thousand b l u e - u n i f o r m e d men, i n s p e c t o r s and sergeant s were

g i v e n j u r i s d i c t i o n over the a r e a o f a s e v e n - m i l e r a d i u s around

C h a r i n g C r o s s . In 1835, the p o l i c e f o r c e expanded t o a l l urban

39

areas o f E n g l a n d and Wales . In 1856, an A c t o f P a r l i a m e n t

a p p o i n t e d p o l i c e t o the r u r a l a r e a s . By t h i s same A c t , the

c e n t r a l government took on p r o v i s i o n s t o p r o v i d e one q u a r t e r o f

the c o s t o f pay and equipment , and a r e g u l a r i n s p e c t o r was s e t

up t o r e p o r t on the e f f i c i e n c y o f the d i s p e r s e d c o n s t a b u l a r i e s .

The h i e r a r c h y o f the p o l i c e f o r c e was d e r i v e d from the a n c i e n t

common law o f E n g l a n d . The p o l i c e c o n s t a b l e was a member o f a

d i s c i p l i n e f o r c e , s u b j e c t t o s t r i c t codes o f conduct and a

h i e r a r c h y o f i n s p e c t i o n and s u p e r v i s i o n (Tagg, 72 ) .

The r a p i d growth o f r u r a l and urban communi t ies , due to

the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n , demanded a complex system of

o b s e r v a t i o n and s u r v e i l l a n c e by the p o l i c e f o r c e . As a r e s u l t ,

a system o f documentary o r g a n i z a t i o n was deve loped t o m a i n t a i n

s t r i c t c o n t r o l . U n t i l 1832, i n F r a n c e , the method o f

i d e n t i f y i n g c r i m i n a l s was t o brand them w i t h a r e d - h o t i r o n . In

1840, photographs were f i r s t used t o i d e n t i f y c r i m i n a l s . T h i s

immense p o l i c e t e x t t h a t began t o take shape was d i f f e r e n t from

the t r a d i t i o n a l methods o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e w r i t i n g . A permanent

account o f i n d i v i d u a l s ' b e h a v i o r was r e g i s t e r e d — e v e r y t h i n g

from forms o f conduct t o a t t i t u d e s and s u s p i c i o n s (Tagg 73) .

F u r t h e r m o r e , the e a r l y development o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c

p r o c e s s took p l a c e a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same t ime as the

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f the p o l i c e s e r v i c e i n A m e r i c a . F o r more than

one hundred y e a r s , bo th p r o g r e s s e d i n tandem. The photograph

40

p l a y e d a c o m p l i c i t r o l e i n the growth o f the p o l i c e f o r c e w i t h

the i n f o r m a t i o n i t produced t o amass an a r c h i v e o f d a t a . The

p o l i c e r e a l i z e d t h a t the photograph c o u l d be v e r y u s e f u l f o r

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p u r p o s e s . From 1840 onwards, the p o l i c e employed

c i v i l i a n photographers t o p r o v i d e p o r t r a i t s o f c r i m i n a l s . Not

o n l y d i d the photographs c a r r y the assumption o f a c c u r a c y , due

t o the r e a l i s t myth o f t r u t h , but they a l s o o f f e r e d a p r o c e s s

t h a t was both q u i c k and cheap (Tagg 73).

Between 1880 an 1910, the a r c h i v e became the dominant

i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a s i s f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c meaning. P h o t o g r a p h i c

a r c h i v e s were seen as c e n t r a l t o a range o f e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y f o r p o l i c e purposes (Seku la 55). Photography became

paramount f o r the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s a f t e r 1901, when S i r

Edward Henry i n t r o d u c e d an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n system by means o f

f i n g e r p r i n t s a t New S c o t l a n d Y a r d . The o n l y way to r e c o r d

f i n g e r i m p r e s s i o n s found a t the scene of the cr ime was t o

photograph them. T h i s system o f f i l i n g p h o t o g r a p h i c

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p i c t u r e s w i t h f i n g e r p r i n t s i s s t i l l used t o d a y .

In f a c t , governors o f p r i s o n s and d e t e n t i o n c e n t e r s are

r e q u i r e d by the C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e A c t o f 1948 t o r e g i s t e r and

photograph a l l persons c o n v i c t e d o f a cr ime (Tagg 75).

I t was not u n t i l 1938 t h a t the Committee o f Crime

D e t e c t i o n Repor t e s t a b l i s h e d an a e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d i z e d format

f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Photographs o f c r i m i n a l s were

41

to be f u l l - l e n g t h , f u l l - f a c e and p r o f i l e views. This was seen

as an e f f o r t to improve the qual i t y of prisoners' photographs

so that i d e n t i f i c a t i o n could be made more e a s i l y . As Tagg

observes, the standardization of the image i s more than a

picture to i d e n t i f y a criminal:

It i s a p o r t r a i t of the product of d i s c i p l i n a r y method: the body made object; divided and studied; enclosed i n a c e l l u l a r structure of space whose architecture i s the f i l e index; made docile and forced to y i e l d up i t s truth; separated and individuated; subjected and made subject (75).

The standardized aesthetics of photographing the criminal

body allowed for a more e f f i c i e n t image cataloguing system.

Photography's e v i d e n t i a l force served as a to o l to map out the

typology of deviance and s o c i a l pathology as the body of the

criminal became a newly defined s o c i a l phenomenon. However,

the standardization of photographic aesthetics intended for

archival purposes was not randomly assigned. These aesthetic

choices were heavily influenced by the ideologies of

physiognomy and phrenology. Both shared the assumption that the

surface of the body, e s p e c i a l l y the head and the face,

outwardly indicated signs of the inner being. Phrenology, which

emerged i n the f i r s t decade of the nineteenth century i n the

research of Franze G a l l , sought to discern correspondences

between the topography of the s k u l l and what were thought to be

s p e c i f i c , l o c a l i z e d mental f a c u l t i e s seated within the brain

(Lalvani 48). Phrenology proposed a map of the brain, which

42

i d e n t i f i e d s p e c i f i c p s y c h i c f u n c t i o n s . F o r example, H .

Lauvergne devoted h i s s tudy t o examining the c r a n i a l

p r o t u b e r a n c e s o f c o n v i c t e d c r i m i n a l s i n o r d e r t o v e r i f y whether

they d i s p l a y e d a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o cr ime ( L a l v a n i 4 8 ) . A l s o ,

i n h i s Essays i n Physiognomy, p u b l i s h e d i n 1789, Johann Kaspar

L a v a t e r a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e r e was a correspondence between

e x t e r n a l , v i s i b l e s u p e r f i c i e s and the i n t e r n a l , i n v i s i b l e

c o n t e n t s o f the person ( q t d . i n L a l v a n i 4 8 ) . The mora l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f physiognomy r e l i e d on f a c i a l f e a t u r e s , w h i l e

the s c i e n c e o f phreno logy r e l i e d on the c o r r e l a t i o n between

b e h a v i o r a l t r a i t s and c r a n i a l shape. In g e n e r a l , physiognomy

and more s p e c i f i c a l l y , p h r e n o l o g y , l i n k e d everyday non-

s p e c i a l i s t e m p i r i c i s m w i t h i n c r e a s i n g l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e at tempts

t o "medica l i ze" the s tudy o f the m i n d . Both s c i e n c e s sought t o

o r d e r h i e r a r c h i c a l l y the s o c i a l r e a l m a c c o r d i n g t o c l a s s and

mora l groupings ( L a l v a n i 4 8 ) . From these new s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ,

eugen ics was b o r n , whereby the i m a g i n a r y Other was seen t o be

g e n e t i c a l l y t h r e a t e n i n g t o the whi te p u r i t y o f a " l o s t A t h e n s " .

The Other c o n s t i t u t e d any m a r g i n a l i z e d o r u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d

group , but G a l t o n c l a s s i f i e d " c r i m i n a l s , s e m i - c r i m i n a l s ,

l o a f e r s " as the worst o f the e u g e n i c a l l y u n f i t , r e s i d i n g a t the

bottom one p e r c e n t o f the urban h i e r a r c h y ( q t d . i n S e k u l a 50 ) .

The i n t e n t i o n was t o v i s u a l l y prove a p a t h o l o g i c a l t y p e .

43

The images o f the a r c h i v e d are o f an a e s t h e t i c o f

o b j e c t i v e e m p i r i c i s m . Alphonse B e r t i l l o n , another p h o t o g r a p h i c

p r a c t i t i o n e r who h e l p e d e s t a b l i s h a t y p o l o g y o f O t h e r n e s s ,

r e a l i z e d t h a t the semant ic v a l u e o f the photograph l a y i n i t s

f u n c t i o n as c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e ,

aimed t o c r e a t e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the c r i m i n a l ' s body t h a t

was " n e u t r a l " . The headshot o f a c r i m i n a l p o r t r a y e d b l u n t

f r o n t a l i t y . The f o c a l l e n g t h o f the camera l e n s was

s t a n d a r d i z e d and the body o f the c r i m i n a l was exposed under

even and c o n s i s t e n t l i g h t i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , the problems posed

by c r i m i n a l s d i s t o r t i n g t h e i r faces f o r a p o r t r a i t so t h a t they

were l a t e r u n i d e n t i f i a b l e , were a v o i d e d by the a d d i t i o n o f the

p r o f i l e v i ew . The r e s u l t was t h a t w h i l e the p r o f i l e v iew s e r v e d

i t s purpose i n t h w a r t i n g an i n d i v i d u a l c r i m i n a l ' s e x p r e s s i v i t y ,

the f r o n t a l v iew e n a b l e d both ease o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and

d e t e c t i o n on the s t r e e t s by p a t r o l l i n g po l i cemen ( L a l v a n i 109-

13).

T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l system s i g n i f i e d b l u n t n e s s and

"natura lness" o f an u n c u l t u r e d c l a s s , but the s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n

o f the image i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s t a t i s t i c a l and phys iognomic

methods h e l p e d t o c a t e g o r i z e the c r i m i n a l body as a c l e a r l y

d e f i n e d and i d e n t i f i a b l e t e x t ( L a l v a n i 66). B e r t i l l o n deve loped

" a n t h r o p o m e t r i c a l s i gna lment" , which i n v o l v e d s u b j e c t i n g the

c r i m i n a l body t o e l e v e n measurements. The p a r t s o f the body

44

t h a t he measured were: the l e n g t h and b r e a d t h o f the head and

o f the r i g h t e a r ; the l e n g t h from the elbow t o the end o f the

m i d d l e f i n g e r and t h a t o f the midd le and r i n g f i n g e r s ; the

l e n g t h o f the l e f t f o o t and the s u b j e c t ' s h e i g h t ; the l e n g t h o f

the t o r s o and t h a t o f the o u t s t r e t c h e d arms from the midd le t o

the m i d d l e f i n g e r - e n d . U s i n g the s t a t i s t i c a l methods o f

Q u e t e l e t , B e r t i l l o n deduced t h a t the p r o b a b i l i t y o f two

i n d i v i d u a l s s h a r i n g the same e l e v e n measurements was one i n

f o u r . The s e r i e s o f measurements i n the " a n t h r o p o m e t r i c a l

s ignalment" were a l s o accompanied by a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f

i d e n t i f y i n g marks , such as s c a r s or warts and by a p a i r o f

photographs , one o f which p r o v i d e d a f r o n t a l v iew and the

o t h e r , a p r o f i l e o f the c r i m i n a l ' s head. ( L a l v a n i 109) .

F i n a l l y , the s t a n d a r d f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f the l a r g e

number o f c r i m i n a l photographs depended on Q u e t e l e t ' s average

man. B e r t i l l o n i n v e n t e d a f i l i n g system whereby the

" a n t h r o p o m e t r i c a l s igna lment" o f each c r i m i n a l was p l a c e d on

i n d i v i d u a l c a r d s . The c a r d s were o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o below

average , a v e r a g e , and above average measurements. T h i s

e f f e c t i v e system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a l l o w e d the s c i e n c e o f

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t o be p r a c t i c a l l y a p p l i e d . T h i s f i l i n g system,

as a t e c h n o l o g y o f knowledge and s u r v e i l l a n c e , p r o v i d e s a

p o w e r f u l means f o r m o n i t o r i n g and c l a s s i f y i n g the c r i m i n a l

body. The c r i m i n a l body w i t h a l l o f i t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f

45

p a t h o l o g i e s and v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t the s o c i a l body, i s seen w i t h

a he ightened view o f v i s i b i l i t y . The c r i m i n a l body becomes an

easy t a r g e t f o r r a t i o n a l i s t and d i s c i p l i n a r y p r a c t i c e s ( L a l v a n i

113-15).

The b i r t h o f the I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n brought on changes

i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l demographics . P o s t - I n d u s t r i a l

s u r v e i l l a n c e r e f l e c t e d the b e l i e f t h a t the pun i shed c r i m i n a l

r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n t i n u i n g danger t o the new s o c i a l body.

M o t i v a t e d by the d e s i r e t o s e p a r a t e the dangerous c l a s s e s from

the work ing c l a s s , the system o f s u r v e i l l a n c e p r e v e n t e d former

c r i m i n a l s from l i v i n g i n i n d u s t r i a l and m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e c t o r s ,

where they would l i k e l y f i n d work. As a r e s u l t o f the r i g i d

r e s i d e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t , the former c r i m i n a l was f o r c e d i n t o a

l i f e o f c r ime i n o r d e r t o s u r v i v e . Thus , the p e n i t e n t i a r y

became a p e n a l q u a r a n t i n e r a t h e r than an i n s t i t u t i o n o f

r e f o r m a t i o n . The system o f s u r v e i l l a n c e , i n e f f e c t , encouraged

the cr ime i t was t r y i n g t o e l i m i n a t e ( L a l v a n i 119).

F o u c a u l t argues t h a t w i t h the emergence o f the modern

s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , such as c r i m i n o l o g y , demographics , and

s t a t i s t i c s , the human b e i n g o c c u p i e s two b i n a r y p o s i t i o n s : an

o b j e c t o f knowledge and a s u b j e c t t h a t c r e a t e s knowledge. Human

be ings are e i t h e r i s o l a t e d o b j e c t s made v i s i b l e by the

o c u l a r c e n t r i c d i s c o u r s e s o f the s c i e n c e s , o r n e u t r a l

metasubjec t s o f knowledge engaging the v i s i b l e f i e l d o f the

4 6

s o c i a l ( q t d . i n L a l v a n i 197) . Human an imals became s u b j e c t s and

o b j e c t s o f knowledge and v i s i b i l i t y . F o r the f i r s t t ime i n

h i s t o r y , s o c i a l s c i e n c e p r a c t i c e s made the new s o c i a l o r d e r

v i s i b l e through the i s o l a t i o n and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f b o d i e s , but

a l s o produced s u b j e c t s who had p r i v i l e g e d access t o new l e v e l s

o f v i s i b i l i t y ( q t d . i n L a l v a n i 197) . In the p o s i t i v i s t ,

e m p i r i c a l agenda, p r o d u c i n g knowledge and power t h a t r e s u l t e d

from making the u n d e r p r i v i l e d g e d o f the new s o c i a l o r d e r

v i s i b l e would not have been p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t photography .

The i n t e g r a l r o l e o f p h o t o g r a p h i c d i s c o u r s e w i t h i n the

d i s c i p l i n a r y i n s t i t u t i o n o f p o l i c e enforcement i s demonstrated

i n many cr ime genre f i l m s . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t are W i t n e s s ,

B a s i c I n s t i n c t , and C l o c k e r s , not o n l y because photography i s

shown t o be a b a s i c component o f p o l i c e d e t e c t i v e work, but

because photography i n these t h r e e f i l m s r e v e a l s the cr ime and

c o r r u p t i o n t h a t o c c u r s w i t h i n the p o l i c e i n s t i t u t i o n .

Photography i s a p o w e r f u l t o o l used t o i d e n t i f y c r i m i n a l s , but

i n these t h r e e f i l m s , photography works a g a i n s t the i n s t i t u t i o n

by s e r v i n g as a means t o i d e n t i f y p o l i c e c o r r u p t i o n . The power

of photography t h a t was generated by the i n s t i t u t i o n t u r n e d

inward on i t s e l f . T h i s demonstrates p h o t o g r a p h y ' s s t a t u s as a

medium w i t h m u l t i p l e i d e n t i t i e s , which a l l o w s the medium t o be

a p p l i e d i n c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n t e x t s .

47

Witness opens w i t h an Amish c o u n t r y f u n e r a l . R a c h e l , newly

widowed, i s a young woman now f o r c e d t o r a i s e her e i g h t - y e a r -

o l d son , Samuel , a l o n e . They l e a v e the farm t o v i s i t her s i s t e r

and t o t r y t o r e c o v e r from t h e i r g r i e f . W h i l e i n the

P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s t a t i o n men's washroom, Samuel u n w i t t i n g l y

w i t n e s s e s the b r u t a l murder o f an undercover p o l i c e o f f i c e r .

When the p o l i c e f o r c e s a r r i v e a t the scene o f the c r i m e ,

d e t e c t i v e John Book r e q u e s t s t h a t he b r i n g Samuel t o the p o l i c e

s t a t i o n f o r q u e s t i o n i n g . T h i s i s the moment when photography

p l a y s a key r o l e i n the f i l m . F i r s t , Samuel observes a p o l i c e

l i n e u p o f s u s p e c t s , but he does not r e c o g n i z e any o f them as

the k i l l e r . Then , Book takes Samuel t o h i s desk , where they

l o o k a t a b i n d e r o f mug s h o t s , both p r o f i l e and f r o n t a l v i e w s .

W h i l e Book momentar i ly takes a phone c a l l , Samuel wanders

around the o f f i c e . He t a l k s t o Book's c o l l e a g u e , who has

c r i m i n a l photographs mounted on h i s desk i n the background . A

handcuf fed c r i m i n a l beckons the l i t t l e boy o v e r , o n l y t o r a t t l e

h i s c u f f s and s c a r e h im. Samuel wanders away and l o o k s a t a

g l a s s case w i t h t r o p h i e s commemorating the h i g h achievement o f

p o l i c e s e r v i c e . The c r i t i c a l moment o c c u r s when he n o t i c e s the

newspaper c l i p p i n g t h a t i s p i n n e d up , w i t h a h e a d l i n e t h a t

r e a d s , " N a r c o t i c s O f f i c e r McFee Honored f o r Youth P r o j e c t " . I t

i n c l u d e s a head shot o f McFee—not u n l i k e the s t a n d a r d i z e d

p o l i c e mug s h o t s , except h e r e , he i s s m i l i n g . As Samuel s t u d i e s

48

the image, the camera s l o w l y zooms i n . Book n o t i c e s t h a t Samuel

i s p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h something , and as he approaches the boy ,

Samuel p o i n t s t o the image o f McFee. Book lowers Samuel ' s

hand, and nods i n r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t McFee i s the k i l l e r Samuel

saw i n the P h i l a d e l p h i a t r a i n s t a t i o n washroom. I t t u r n s out

t h a t t h i s p o l i c e o f f i c e r has a r e c o r d of suspec ted cr ime and

c o r r u p t i o n . When Book t e l l s another c o l l e a g u e about McFee, he

suddenly f i n d s h i m s e l f i n s e r i o u s p e r s o n a l danger due t o a

p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p o l i c e c o r r u p t i o n , and he must f l e e t o Amish

c o u n t r y f o r s a f e t y .

The s u r v e i l l a n c e and p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f images o f the body

s erve the purposes o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , which was the o r i g i n a l

i n t e n t i o n o f p o l i c e photography . In W i t n e s s , i t i s i r o n i c t h a t

the s t a n d a r d i z e d p o l i c e photographs o f c r i m i n a l s were deemed

u s e l e s s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g the p e r p e t r a t o r o f t h i s murder .

A l t h o u g h the i d e n t i f y i n g image was not a p o l i c e p h o t ograp h , i t

was an a r c h i v e d image on v i s u a l d i s p l a y . Not o n l y d i d the

photograph work t o i d e n t i f y the c o r r u p t i o n o f one p o l i c e

o f f i c e r , as Book soon found o u t , i t a l s o l e d t o the knowledge

t h a t a number o f o f f i c e r s were i n v o l v e d i n the s c a n d a l .

Photography , which i s used by an i n s t i t u t i o n t o ensure power

and c o n t r o l , i n t h i s c a s e , worked t o d i s p l a y the c o r r u p t i o n o f

d i s c i p l i n a r y power.

49

A s i m i l a r s c e n a r i o o c c u r s i n B a s i c I n s t i n c t . Set i n San

F r a n c i s c o , the s t o r y beg ins w i t h c o i t a l murder . The v i c t i m

t u r n s out t o be a r e t i r e d r o c k s t a r and the prime suspec t i s

h i s g i r l f r i e n d , C a t h e r i n e , a r i c h and b e a u t i f u l n o v e l i s t . Her

l a t e s t book, Love H u r t s , happens t o be about a woman who

murders a r e t i r e d r o c k s t a r w i t h an i c e p i c k . N i c k , the

d e t e c t i v e i n charge o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , r e a l i z e s t h a t her

n o v e l ' s b l u e p r i n t f o r the murder both i m p l i c a t e s her and g i v e s

her an a l i b i - no k i l l e r would be t h a t o b v i o u s . He s p e c u l a t e s

t h a t perhaps the k i l l i n g was a c o p y c a t cr ime i n s p i r e d by the

book. Soon, o t h e r suspec t s emerge: Roxy, C a t h e r i n e ' s j e a l o u s

l e s b i a n l o v e r , and B e t h , a p o l i c e p s y c h i a t r i s t t r y i n g t o

r e i g n i t e her romance w i t h N i c k .

As N i c k i n v e s t i g a t e s C a t h e r i n e , C a t h e r i n e i n v e s t i g a t e s

N i c k . She b l i t h e l y in forms him t h a t she i s w r i t i n g her next

book "about a d e t e c t i v e who f a l l s f o r the wrong woman." Without

h i s knowledge, she p r i e s i n t o h i s dark p a s t , which i n c l u d e s

ep i sodes o f a l c o h o l , c o c a i n e — a n d an eager t r i g g e r f i n g e r t h a t

earned him the nickname "Shooter ." I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t i n the

s t o r y t h a t photography e n t e r s the scene . By f i n d i n g newspaper

c l i p p i n g s s c a t t e r e d on her l i v i n g room t a b l e , N i c k r e a l i z e s

t h a t C a t h e r i n e i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g h im. The v a r i o u s h e a d l i n e s w i t h

h i s j u x t a p o s e d image r e a d : " T o u r i s t K i l l e d by C o p , " " K i l l e r Cop

Faces P o l i c e Review," "Cop C l e a r e d o f T o u r i s t S h o o t i n g . " The

50

i n c l u s i o n o f these photographs communicates N i c k ' s tumultuous

p a s t and the f a c t t h a t C a t h e r i n e has m e t i c u l o u s l y dredged i t

up , p l a c e s him i n a v u l n e r a b l e p o s i t i o n w i t h a suspec ted

m u r d e r e r . These a r c h i v e d images and h e a d l i n e s move the p l o t

forward and add t o the c h a r a c t e r development o f bo th C a t h e r i n e

and N i c k .

The next p h o t o g r a p h i c e p i s o d e o c c u r s when N i c k

i n v e s t i g a t e s the r e c e n t l y deceased Roxy, C a t h e r i n e ' s l e s b i a n

l o v e r , who j e a l o u s l y at tempted t o r u n N i c k o f f the r o a d w h i l e

d r i v i n g l a t e one n i g h t . A t the o f f i c e , he d i s c o v e r s c o n c e a l e d

and h a u n t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about Roxy. The f i r s t photographs are

the s t a n d a r d i z e d p o l i c e images o f the p r o f i l e and f r o n t a l v iew

of Roxy, who a t age s i x t e e n murdered her t w i n b r o t h e r s . N i c k

then rev iews e i g h t by t e n b l a c k and whi te and c o l o r f o r e n s i c

photographs o f the murder scene . Two boys are l y i n g i n a

g r a s s y f i e l d , drenched i n b l o o d , due t o numerous s t a b wounds t o

t h e i r b o d i e s . I t i s a gruesome murder w i t h a weak m o t i v e : "She

j u s t s o r t o f d i d i t on i m p u l s e . The r a z o r j u s t happened t o be

t h e r e " r e p o r t s one policewoman who r e t r i e v e d the s e a l e d o f f ,

a r c h i v e d f i l e .

Not o n l y do the photographs r e v e a l t h a t Roxy was a

dangerous and d i s t u r b e d c h a r a c t e r , but they cause C a t h e r i n e t o

l o s e c r e d i b i l i t y , as Roxy was her l e s b i a n l o v e r . I t i s s l o w l y

r e v e a l e d t h a t C a t h e r i n e ' s f r i e n d s were a l l murderers a t one

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p o i n t i n t h e i r l i v e s , as N i c k ' s p a r t n e r p r o v o c a t i v e l y a s k s :

"Have you ever met a f r i e n d o f hers t h a t h a s n ' t k i l l e d

anybody?"

The next o c c u r r e n c e o f photography concerns B e t h , the

p o l i c e p s y c h i a t r i s t . Whi l e i n bed w i t h N i c k , C a t h e r i n e t e l l s

him about L i s a Hoberman, a g i r l from u n i v e r s i t y who s t a l k e d

h e r . N i c k i n v e s t i g a t e s the woman and, as i t t u r n s o u t , the

d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e p i c t u r e t h a t appears on the s c r e e n under the

L i s a Hoberman f i l e name i s o f B e t h , the p o l i c e p s y c h i a t r i s t and

N i c k ' s former l o v e r . When N i c k c o n f r o n t s B e t h , she t e l l s him

t h a t i t was C a t h e r i n e who s t a l k e d her a t u n i v e r s i t y . When N i c k

a n g r i l y l e a v e s her apartment , i t seems l i k e he b e l i e v e s

C a t h e r i n e ' s v e r s i o n o f the s t o r y .

F i n a l l y , i n the l a s t murder o f the f i l m , N i c k f i n d s h i s

p a r t n e r ' s murdered body a t the p o l i c e s t a t i o n head o f f i c e . The

o f f i c e i s d e s e r t e d , but Beth m y s t e r i o u s l y a p p e a r s , wear ing a

t r e n c h c o a t , and her hand i s s u s p i c i o u s l y g r o p i n g what l o o k s

l i k e a weapon. N i c k commands her t o s top and t o put up her

hands, but she p e r s i s t s on moving toward h im. He shoots and

k i l l s h e r , o n l y t o f i n d t h a t she was h o l d i n g a s e t o f k e y s .

However, when the p o l i c e a r r i v e on the scene they f i n d a w i g , a

San F r a n c i s c o P o l i c e Department r a i n c o a t and a b l o o d y i c e p i c k .

Photographs f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e t h a t Beth i s the s u s p e c t e d k i l l e r .

The p o l i c e d e t e c t i v e s i n v e s t i g a t e B e t h ' s apartment where they

52

f i n d numerous photographs taken d u r i n g her u n i v e r s i t y y e a r s .

There i s an e i g h t by t e n g r a d u a t i o n photograph , which shows

C a t h e r i n e s t a n d i n g i n the f i r s t row o f s tudent s and Beth

s t a n d i n g b e h i n d her i n the second row, over C a t h e r i n e ' s l e f t

s h o u l d e r . The next photograph i s an e i g h t by t e n b low-up o f the

same phot ograph , but the image i s a c l o s e - u p o f C a t h e r i n e ' s

f a c e , and B e t h ' s face b e h i n d h e r . T h i s b low-up r e v e a l s t h a t

perhaps Beth had o b s e s s i v e t e n d e n c i e s d i r e c t e d towards

C a t h e r i n e . T h i s would v a l i d a t e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t C a t h e r i n e has

s a i d about B e t h , g i v i n g her c r e d i b i l i t y .

Thus , a l l t h r e e i n s t a n c e s o f photography—the photos o f

N i c k t h a t were i n C a t h e r i n e ' s p o s s e s s i o n , those o f Roxy

c o n c e r n i n g the murder o f her b r o t h e r s , and those o f B e t h ,

i n c l u d i n g her d r i v e r l i c e n s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n photograph and

u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t i o n p h o t o g r a p h s , m a i n t a i n the ambigu i ty o f

the f i l m n a r r a t i v e . The use o f the f i r s t photographs suggested

t h a t C a t h e r i n e had o b s e s s i v e t e n d e n c i e s i n r e s e a r c h i n g and

i n v e s t i g a t i n g N i c k ' s p a s t . The f o r e n s i c photographs o f the

b r u t a l k i l l i n g s o f Roxy ' s b r o t h e r s i n d i c a t e d Roxy ' s d e s t r u c t i v e

n a t u r e and h o m i c i d a l t e n d e n c i e s , making her a suspec t f o r the

murders . But f i n a l l y , i t i s the d r i v e r ' s l i c e n s e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n photograph o f Beth t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h a t , not o n l y

d i d she change her name, but perhaps she had another i d e n t i t y .

Her photographs o f C a t h e r i n e c o n f i r m the s u s p i c i o n s o f B e t h ' s

53

c u l p a b i l i t y . She obsessed over C a t h e r i n e a t u n i v e r s i t y and i s

now i m i t a t i n g the murders d e t a i l e d i n C a t h e r i n e ' s book i n o r d e r

t o frame h e r . These a r c h i v e d images a l l s erve the purpose o f

c o m p l i c a t i n g an ambiguous p l o t and ad d in g a deeper d imens ion t o

the c h a r a c t e r development . And much l i k e i n W i t n e s s , the

i d e n t i f y i n g photographs i n p o l i c e p o s s e s s i o n i n c r i m i n a t e i t s

own members, i n t h i s c a s e , the i n - h o u s e p s y c h i a t r i s t .

F i n a l l y , C l o c k e r s i s about young, l o w - l e v e l drug d e a l e r s

p l y i n g t h e i r t r a d e i n an i n n e r c i t y hous ing p r o j e c t . S p i k e Lee

uses photography i n an i r o n i c a l way t o suggest the c o r r u p t i o n

o f the p o l i c e f o r c e . The f i l m beg ins w i t h a p l e t h o r a o f images

o f f o r e n s i c photography o f b loody c o r p s e s , i n c l u d i n g c l o s e - u p s

o f the b u l l e t e n t r y wounds. A l l the v i c t i m s i n the photographs

are A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n s who have been shot and murdered, e i t h e r

on the s t r e e t o r i n t h e i r homes. The photographs have a c o o l ,

o b j e c t i v e a e s t h e t i c , as the b o d i e s are anonymous and nameless .

The opening montage i n c l u d e s o t h e r urban i conography o f

memorial murals f o r murdered a d o l e s c e n t s and t a b l o i d h e a d l i n e s

r e a d : "Toy Gun, R e a l B u l l e t s " . The opening montage evokes an

i n n e r c i t y w o r l d where v i o l e n c e and d e s p e r a t i o n are the norm.

L i v i n g i n the P r o j e c t s i s l i k e b e i n g under c o n s t a n t s i e g e , and

e s c a p i n g i t demands l u c k and w i l l power. The sheer number o f

dead bod ie s d i s p l a y e d i n the montage o f m u l t i p l e images

suggests the f r e q u e n t randomness o f s t r e e t murder . "Why?" i s

5 4

the q u e s t i o n l e f t t o a sk . Why are so many nameless b l a c k men

dead on the s t r e e t ?

The o b j e c t i v e gaze put f o r t h by the f o r e n s i c photographs

i s f u r t h e r p e r p e t u a t e d by the f o l l o w i n g l i v e a c t i o n sequence.

A number o f A f r i c a n - American youths are g a t h e r e d i n the p a r k .

As they c a s u a l l y "hang out" they are s u r p r i s e d by an a g g r e s s i v e

p o l i c e i n s p e c t i o n . The youths r e c e i v e a v e r b a l and p h y s i c a l

i n t e r r o g a t i o n . They are h a r a s s e d by the p o l i c e and are f o r c e d

t o undress i n the s t r e e t , so t h a t e v e r y p a r t o f t h e i r bod ie s

can be examined f o r h idden d r u g s . The p o l i c e a r e c y n i c a l ,

contemptuous, c a s u a l l y r a c i s t , and have no c o n c e r n a t a l l f o r

the peop le they s e r v e . They b e l i e v e t h a t the P r o j e c t s s h o u l d

be dynamited and t h a t wanton k i l l i n g a c t u a l l y s erves the

community because i t i s l i k e a " s e l f - c l e a n i n g oven". The

j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c l i n i c a l f o r e n s i c photography w i t h the

o p p r e s s i v e power p r a c t i c e s o f the p o l i c e c l e a r l y s t a t e s

i n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n a r y c o r r u p t i o n .

In c o n c l u s i o n , I have d i s c u s s e d the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n

o f photography by d i s c i p l i n a r y f o r c e s and photography b e i n g

used as a t o o l t o f a c i l i t a t e the p r a c t i c e and o p p r e s s i o n o f

power. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , the p o l i c e f o r c e used photography t o

i d e n t i f y c r i m i n a l s , and l a t e r deve loped i n f o r m a t i o n systems t o

a r c h i v e the images . The s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f the image and i t s

a r c h i v e has s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e s from the p o s i t i v i s t i d e o l o g i e s o f

55

p h r e n o l o g y and physiognomy. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o note t h a t w h i l e

photography was used f o r i t s supposed n e u t r a l i t y , t h e r e was a

h i d d e n agenda o f o p p r e s s i o n by the p r i v i l e g e d over the

u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d . I have used the t h r e e cr ime genre f i l m s o f

W i t n e s s , B a s i c I n s t i n c t , and C l o c k e r s t o demonstrate t h a t

photography i s a t o o l w i t h a m u l t i f a c e t e d i d e n t i t y and when

equipped w i t h power i t can s erve d i v e r s e means. In a l l t h r e e

f i l m s , photography i s used t o demonstrate t h a t d i s c i p l i n a r y

i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r c e c r e a t e d and p e r p e t u a t e d the cr ime i t

i n t e n d e d t o p r e v e n t . H e r e , photography works t o demonstrate

t h a t where t h e r e i s power, c o r r u p t i o n soon f o l l o w s .

56

Chapter I I I . Photography's Multiple Associations with Death

In h i s book on the o n t o l o g y o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c image,

G e o f f r e y Batchen c i t e s the many a u t h o r s , and t h e i r i n f l u e n t i a l

s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t , who have w r i t t e n on the d i v e r s e themes

which s u r r o u n d p h o t o g r a p h i c d i s c o u r s e . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t

i s John T a g g ' s w r i t i n g on the i d e n t i t y o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c

image. As I d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , Tagg suggests

t h a t photography does not occupy a s t a t i c i d e n t i t y o r s i n g l e

c u l t u r a l s t a t u s (Tagg 63) . The t o p i c o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i d e n t i t y

and i t s l a c k o f a s i n g u l a r t r u e meaning i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

r e l e v a n t h e r e , as i t i s my i n t e n t t o demonstrate the m u l t i p l e

meanings and uses o f photography i n n a r r a t i v e c inema. I t i s my

o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t due t o p h o t o g r a p h y ' s l a c k o f a s t a b l e

i d e n t i t y , i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r photography t o be used i n many

ways t o s erve v a r i o u s i d e o l o g i c a l purposes i n f i l m . The

m u l t i p l e uses o f photography can be c a t e g o r i z e d under the two

c e n t r a l u n i f y i n g p h i l o s o p h i c a l c a t e g o r i e s o f t r u t h and d e a t h .

W i t h i n each r e a l m , photography i s used t o s erve d i f f e r e n t

p u r p o s e s . Under the c a t e g o r y o f t r u t h , I have d i s c u s s e d how

p h o t o g r a p h y ' s myth o f t r u t h serves p r i v a t e p e r s o n a l purposes

and p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l power. Under the c a t e g o r y o f d e a t h , I

w i l l argue t h a t photography i s used i n t h r e e main ways: as a

m e t a p h y s i c a l d e a t h , a t e m p o r a l n a r r a t i v e d e a t h , and as a

57

metamorphic s u p e r n a t u r a l d e a t h . In t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l focus

on the f o u n d a t i o n s o f m e t a p h y s i c a l d e a t h , w h i c h , more

s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n c l u d e : t e m p o r a l i n d e x i c a l d e a t h , s o c i o l o g i c a l

memento m o r i and p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l l y p e r c e i v e d m o r t a l i t y . I use

the term m e t a p h y s i c a l death because the w r i t i n g s on the t h e o r y

o f photography t h a t I summarize focus on the a f f e c t i v e m o r t a l

v u l n e r a b i l i t y t h a t o c c u r s i n the p h o t o g r a p h i c v i ewer due t o the

medium's unique r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t ime and space . T h i s a r e a o f

r e s e a r c h has most s i g n i f i c a n t l y been i n f l u e n c e d by the w r i t i n g s

o f Ro land B a r t h e s , Susan Sontag and C h r i s t i a n M e t z . T h e i r

d i s c u s s i o n s on photography and death w i l l be o u t l i n e d h e r e , and

the t h r e e f i l m s , L a J e t e e , Blow-Up and Under F i r e w i l l

e l u c i d a t e t h e i r p o i n t s .

I n i t i a l l y , B a r t h e s wrote on death and photography i n h i s

a r t i c l e " R h e t o r i c o f the Image", where he s e m i o l o g i c a l l y

demonstrates the m u l t i p l e meanings t h a t the p h o t o g r a p h i c image

c a r r i e s i n d i f f e r i n g c o n t e x t s . He segregates the meanings o f

photography i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s , t h a t o f d e n o t a t i o n and

c o n n o t a t i o n . The c onnota t ed message i s the s o c i a l meaning

a t t r i b u t e d t o the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the image. Photographs

c a r r y d i f f e r e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o the s u r r o u n d i n g

c o n t e x t , as can be seen by c o n t r a s t i n g the p r e s s photograph

w i t h the a d v e r t i s e m e n t p h o t o g r a p h . The denota ted message i s

the ana logon , o r the index t o which the p h o t o g r a p h i c image

58

r e f e r s . In the r e a l m o f d e n o t a t i o n , the photograph always

c a r r i e s one u n d e r l y i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h a t i s , the " h a v i n g -

b e e n - t h e r e " (Barthes 17-19).

B a r t h e s r e l a t e s the concept o f " h a v i n g - b e e n - t h e r e , " to the

p r o c e s s o f v i e w e r s h i p . I t i s p e r c e i v e d t h a t the photograph

o c c u p i e s an unprecedented space - t ime c a t e g o r y . The v i ewer has

an awareness o f " h a v i n g - b e e n - t h e r e " , due t o p h o t o g r a p h y ' s

o n t o l o g y o f s p a t i a l immediacy and t empora l a n t e r i o r i t y . The

photograph has an i l l o g i c a l c o n j u n c t i o n between the "here-now"

and the " t h e r e - t h e n . " Thus , the photograph o c c u p i e s a r e a l

u n r e a l i t y . The u n r e a l i s the "here-now" because the photograph

i s not e x p e r i e n c e d as an i l l u s i o n , but as ev idence o f a t ime

t h a t once e x i s t e d . The r e a l i s t h a t o f the " h a v i n g - b e e n -

t h e r e , " as e v e r y photograph c a r r i e s the e v i d e n t i a l f o r c e o f

" t h i s i s how i t was." The r e a l i t y o f f e r e d by the photograph i s

not t h a t o f t r u t h - t o - a p p e a r a n c e , but r a t h e r o f t r u t h - t o -

p r e s e n c e , a mat ter o f b e i n g , r a t h e r than resemblance (Barthes

44 -45 ) .

The i d e a o f " h a v i n g - b e e n - t h e r e , " t h a t surrounds a l l

p h o t o g r a p h i c images , i s f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e d on and deve loped i n

B a r t h e s ' Camera L u c i d a (1977). The t o p i c o f death surrounds

t h i s book i n m u l t i p l e ways, as B a r t h e s not o n l y d i s c u s s e s the

q u a l i t i e s o f death i n photography , but he was i n s p i r e d t o

d i s c u s s the t o p i c a f t e r d i s c o v e r i n g a "true" p h o t o g r a p h i c image

59

o f h i s dead mother . The book was w r i t t e n s h o r t l y b e f o r e

B a r t h e s ' own death i n 1981.

B a r t h e s d i s c u s s e s the p h i l o s o p h y o f p h o t o g r a p h i c death i n

more d e t a i l i n the l a t t e r p u b l i c a t i o n by d e s c r i b i n g h i s own

s u b j e c t i v i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o photography . He w r i t e s t h a t when he

i s photographed , a c e r t a i n k i n d o f death i s e x p e r i e n c e d due t o

the l imbo c r e a t e d from f e e l i n g l i k e a s u b j e c t t h a t i s i n the

p r o c e s s o f becoming an o b j e c t . As a s p e c t a t o r , t o o , death i s

e x p e r i e n c e d , but i n d i f f e r e n t t erms . As a v iewer o f the

phot ograph , B a r t h e s d i s c u s s e s the s e n t i m e n t a l i t y and pathos he

f e e l s . As a wound, the photograph a l l o w s him t o become aware o f

h i m s e l f , "I see , I f e e l , hence I n o t i c e , I o b s e r v e , and I

t h i n k " (Barthes 14). The p o w e r f u l a f f e c t i v e d r i v e o f some

p h o t o g r a p h i c images causes B a r t h e s t o be aware o f the

v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f b e i n g human.

B a r t h e s c a t e g o r i z e s the f e e l i n g t h a t a r i s e s from

p h o t o g r a p h i c death i n t o the "studium" and the "punctum." The

"studium" i s what i s c u l t u r a l l y connoted by the p h otograp h ,

which c a r r i e s w i t h i t emotions o f g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t and l i k i n g .

The "punctum" i s what jumps out and p i e r c e s the v i e w e r . The

punctum provokes the v iewer i n t o a s s o c i a t i n g the image w i t h

what i s not t h e r e . I t may " launch d e s i r e beyond what i t

p e r m i t s us t o see" (Barthes 59). The punctum i s what the

v iewer adds t o the p h o t o g r a p h , due t o a p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y and

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s u b j e c t i v i t y . The p e r s o n a l punctum d i s r u p t s the s t a b i l i t y o f

the s o c i a l s tud ium.

In an e f f o r t to f i n d a photograph t o remember h i s mother

a f t e r she d i e d , B a r t h e s e v a l u a t e d p h o t o g r a p h y ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

the r e f e r e n t . A f t e r s o r t i n g through f a m i l y a r c h i v e s he w r i t e s :

These p h o t o s , which phenomenology would c a l l " o r d i n a r y " o b j e c t s , were mere ly a n a l o g i c a l , p r o v o k i n g o n l y her i d e n t i t y , not her t r u t h ; but the W i n t e r Garden photograph was indeed e s s e n t i a l , i t a c h i e v e d f o r me, u t o p i c a l l y , the i m p o s s i b l e s c i e n c e o f the unique b e i n g , ( q t d . i n Sontag 14)

Then , why i s i t t h a t i f e v e r y photograph o c c u p i e s the same

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i t s r e f e r e n t , one photograph r e n d e r s the

s u b j e c t w i t h more t r u t h and s e n s i t i v i t y than another? T h i s

q u e s t i o n provoked B a r t h e s t o r e v i s i t the term " h a v i n g - b e e n -

t h e r e . "

As I b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 1, i t cannot be d e n i e d

t h a t the p h o t o g r a p h i c r e f e r e n t e x i s t e d a t one p o i n t i n t ime and

space . The r e f e r e n t i s t h a t r e a l t h i n g which r e s i d e d i n f r o n t

o f the camera l e n s , w i t h o u t which t h e r e would be no p h o t o g r a p h .

I t i s the p r o c e s s o f v i e w i n g a p a s t r e f e r e n t i n the p r e s e n t , a

s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f r e a l i t y and the p a s t , t h a t c r e a t e s the

phenomenon o f " h a v i n g - b e e n - t h e r e . " By i m m o b i l i z i n g the

r e f e r e n t , photography c r e a t e s a t empora l s h i f t between the p a s t

and p r e s e n t . The r e f e r e n t i s t e s t i m o n y t o r e a l i t y , c a u s i n g

c o n n o t a t i o n s o f l i f e and l i v i n g . But by i m m o b i l i z i n g the l i f e

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o f r e a l i t y , o r the r e f e r e n t , the photograph suggests death

(Barthes 7 8 - 7 9 ) .

The p h o t o g r a p h i c punctum of death provokes the v i ewer t o

ponder the i n s t a b i l i t y o f m o r t a l i t y . A s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h death

are caused by the i m m o b i l i z a t i o n o f the r e f e r e n t , a t h i n g o f

the p a s t t h a t i s viewed i n the p r e s e n t . B a r t h e s w r i t e s t h a t

the date be longs t o the p h o t o g r a p h , because when v i e w i n g a

r e f e r e n t o f the d i s t a n t p a s t , the next l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n i s

t o q u e s t i o n whether t h a t r e f e r e n t (person o r t h i n g ) s t i l l

e x i s t s t o d a y . Now, i f an image i s what s o l e l y remains o f the

a n a l o g o n , one then t h i n k s , " W i l l I o n l y e x i s t as image one

hundred y e a r s from now?" T h u s , the photograph provokes i t s

v i ewers t o q u e s t i o n t h e i r own m o r t a l i t y , o r as B a r t h e s w r i t e s :

"Why i s i t t h a t I am a l i v e here and now"(84)? When p o n d e r i n g an

1865 p o r t r a i t o f a condemned man, B a r t h e s observes t h a t the

s u b j e c t d e p i c t e d t h e r e i s both dead and go ing t o d i e :

I r e a d a t the same t i m e : t h i s w i l l be and t h i s has been [...]. The photograph t e l l s me death i n the f u t u r e [...]. Whether o r not the s u b j e c t i s a l r e a d y dead, every photograph i s t h i s c a t a s t r o p h e (Batchen 1 9 3 ) .

With every p h o t o g r a p h , the p e r c e i v e r ' s own death i s

i n s c r i b e d . I t i s the i m p l i c i t n e s s o f p e r s o n a l p e r c e p t i o n t h a t

denotes death and m o r t a l i t y w i t h i n the broader r e a l m o f

metaphys ics (Barthes 8 5 ) .

Thus , the punctum o f the photograph i s not n e c e s s a r i l y

d e a t h , but t i m e . Due t o an awareness o f the p a s t i n the

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p r e s e n t , the death o f the f u t u r e becomes p a i n f u l l y o b v i o u s .

The s t r e n g t h o f the " t h i s - h a s - b e e n " pronounces t h a t " t h i s - w i l l -

b e . " I f the " t h i s - h a s - b e e n " i s dead , e i t h e r t e m p o r a l l y o r

m a t e r i a l l y , then i t i s o n l y a mat ter o f t ime f o r death i n the

f u t u r e t o o c c u r . As a consequence o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s p e c u l i a r

a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t i m e , e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l photograph i s a c h i l l i n g

reminder o f human m o r t a l i t y . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y p o i g n a n t i n

photographs o f B a r t h e s h i m s e l f . B a r t h e s s t a t e s , " U l t i m a t e l y ,

what I am s e e k i n g i n the photograph taken o f me i s Death

[...]" ( q t d . i n Batchen 210). E v e r y photograph i s the c a t a s t r o p h e

o f the a n t e r i o r f u t u r e o f d e a t h . Each photograph c h a l l e n g e s

the v iewer by p r e s e n t i n g the i n e s c a p a b l e f a t e o f m o r t a l i t y

(Barthes 96-99).

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , as the photograph t a i n t s the p r e s e n t and

f u t u r e l i f e w i t h d e a t h , due t o the punctum of the " t h a t - h a s -

been ," the photograph g i v e s l i f e t o t h a t which i s dead . The

immediate c e r t a i n t y o f the t r u t h o f a p a s t t empora l r e a l i t y

p e r m i t s the p a s t t o l i v e on i n the p r e s e n t and the f u t u r e .

Thus , the p h i l o s o p h i c a l death o f the t empora l t r u t h o f

photography b r i n g s both death t o the p r e s e n t and the f u t u r e and

l i f e t o the p a s t by e x i s t i n g i n the p r e s e n t and f u t u r e . F o r

B a r t h e s , p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i d e n t i t y l i e s i n the p h o t o g r a p h ' s

s imul taneous p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l i f e and death (Batchen 212).

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W h i l e B a r t h e s takes the p h i l o s o p h i c a l approach o f

phenomenology t o d i s c u s s photography and d e a t h , Sontag a l i g n s

h e r s e l f w i t h a more s o c i o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . A l s o , i n the

l a s t c h a p t e r I d i s c u s s e d Tagg ' s and F o u c a u l t ' s p e r s p e c t i v e s on

the l a r g e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f power and how photography was used

as a t o o l t o a i d i n the growth o f power o f the p r i v i l e g e d by

o p p r e s s i n g and o b j e c t i f y i n g the O t h e r . Sontag p r o v i d e s a more

s p e c i f i c a n a l y s i s o f the p e r s o n a l e t h i c a l p r o c e s s o f t a k i n g a

p h o t o g r a p h . Her f i r s t a l l u s i o n s to death and photography o c c u r

d u r i n g the d i s c u s s i o n on the u n e t h i c a l power r e l a t i o n s h i p

between the photographer and the s u b j e c t . Sontag w r i t e s t h a t

t h e r e i s a p r e d a t o r y n a t u r e i n the a c t o f p h o t o g r a p h i n g :

To photograph peop le i s t o v i o l a t e them, by s e e i n g them as they never see themse lves , by h a v i n g knowledge o f them they can never have; i t t u r n s peop le i n t o o b j e c t s t h a t can be s y m b o l i c a l l y posses sed (14) .

T h i s i d e a c a r r i e s v a l i d i t y as the p h o t o g r a p h i c image does

e x i s t as an o b j e c t , as a memento m o r i p r o d u c t . The photograph

as memento m o r i i s used f o r s e n t i m e n t a l r e a s o n s , remembering a

p a s t "magica l" moment. T h i s c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as an e f f o r t

t o l a y c l a i m o r own another r e a l i t y . Sontag w r i t e s :

"Each s t i l l photograph i s a p r i v i l e g e d moment, t u r n e d i n t o a

s l i m o b j e c t t h a t one can keep and l o o k a t aga in" (18) . In t h i s

r e g a r d , photographs conserve a v a n i s h i n g p a s t , and pronounce

the v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f l i v e s heading toward t h e i r own

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d e s t r u c t i o n . The above s tatements are r e m i n i s c e n t o f B a r t h e s '

d i s c u s s i o n on the phenomenon o f the " t h a t - h a s - b e e n " , except

Sontag c o n t r i b u t e s an e t h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o the concept by

t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a power n e g o t i a t i o n

between the photographer and s u b j e c t . The p r o c e s s o f

photography i s v o y e u r i s t i c and the end r e s u l t can be a p r o d u c t

o f p o s s e s s i o n and o b s e s s i o n . Thus , t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n degree

o f t r u s t t h a t the s u b j e c t must have i n the p h o t o g r a p h e r , and i f

those boundar i e s are v i o l a t e d , t h e r e are e t h i c a l i s s u e s o f

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t s t a k e , as they c o n c e r n power and

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

In h i s a r t i c l e , "Photography and F e t i s h , " C h r i s t i a n Metz

takes a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c approach i n d i s c u s s i n g the phenomenon o f

photography . Metz a l l o c a t e s some space i n the a r t i c l e t o

e v a l u a t i n g p h o t o g r a p h y ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p to d e a t h . Metz w r i t e s

t h a t photography shares two c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h d e a t h :

i m m o b i l i t y and s i l e n c e . But photography i s l i n k e d t o death i n

o t h e r ways, as w e l l . Metz notes t h a t photographs are used as

s o c i a l p r a c t i c e , f o r , as Sontag ment ioned , photographs are

memento m o r i . Photographs are kept t o remember l o v e d ones who

are no l o n g e r a l i v e . Metz a l s o mentions B a r t h e s ' noted

phenomenon o f " t h a t - h a s - b e e n " , by w r i t i n g : "Even when the

person photographed i s s t i l l l i v i n g , t h a t moment when she o r he

was has f o r e v e r v a n i s h e d " ( 8 4 ) .

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As mentioned above, Metz has observed t h a t photography

shares m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h death and i s used i n

d e a t h - l i k e s o c i a l p r a c t i c e s . Metz notes a t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

shared between photography and d e a t h , which i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o

S o n t a g ' s w r i t i n g s on the e t h i c a l n e g o t i a t i o n o f power i n

p h o t o g r a p h i c p r a c t i c e between the o b j e c t i f i e r and o b j e c t i f i e d .

Metz takes i n t e r e s t i n the snapshot , n o t i n g t h a t l i k e d e a t h , i t

i s an i n s t a n t a n e o u s a b d u c t i o n o f the o b j e c t from the p r e s e n t

i n t o the p a s t . Photography i s a b l e t o "cut i n s i d e the

r e f e r e n t , i t c u t s o f f a p i e c e o f i t , a fragment , a p a r t o b j e c t ,

f o r a l o n g immobile t r a v e l o f no r e t u r n " (84) . Thus , by g i v i n g

your image, you are g i v i n g a p i e c e o f y o u r s e l f . T h i s t h i r d

p o i n t a l s o c a r r i e s s i m i l a r a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h s p i r i t

photography , where i t was b e l i e v e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y by B a l z a c ,

t h a t every photograph removed a l a y e r o f essence from the

s u b j e c t . So i f photographed too many t i m e s , i t was b e l i e v e d

t h a t the camera's vampire c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o u l d e v e n t u a l l y k i l l

i t s s u b j e c t . T h i s t o p i c w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f u r t h e r i n c h a p t e r 5.

Photography and i t s a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h d e a t h , as put f o r t h

by B a r t h e s , Sontag and M e t z , can be found i n n a r r a t i v e c inema.

The t h r e e au thors note t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e t a p h y s i c a l

p h o t o g r a p h i c d e a t h : t empora l i n d e x i c a l d e a t h , s o c i o l o g i c a l

memento m o r i , and the p e r c e i v e d m o r t a l i t y o f the v i e w e r . Three

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f i l m s t h a t e l u c i d a t e these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f photography a r e :

L a J e t e e , Blow-Up and Under F i r e .

C h r i s M a r k e r ' s f i l m , L a J e t e e i s a h a l f - h o u r s c i e n c e

f i c t i o n m e d i t a t i o n c r e a t e d a lmost e n t i r e l y o f b l a c k and whi te

s t i l l p h o t o g r a p h s . In the p o s t - n u c l e a r s o c i e t y o f L a J e t e e , the

s u r v i v o r s l i v e i n the underground of P a r i s , where they are

exposed t o p r i s o n - l i k e c o n d i t i o n s and are s u b j e c t e d t o

exper iments i n t ime t r a v e l by camp d o c t o r s . The c e n t r a l f i g u r e

i n the f i l m i s chosen f o r h i s f i x a t i o n on an image o f the p a s t .

I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s f i x a t i o n w i l l h e l p him t r a v e l t o t h a t

moment i n the p a s t . T h i s s k i l l w i l l then a l l o w him t o t r a v e l

t o the f u t u r e t o o b t a i n s u r v i v a l s u p p l i e s f o r the p r e s e n t . The

t r a v e l l e r ' s image o f f i x a t i o n i s the r e s u l t o f a t r a u m a t i c

c h i l d h o o d memory o f a woman's face seen j u s t p r i o r to the death

o f an unknown man. The t r a v e l l e r ' s image e x i s t s so p o w e r f u l l y

i n h i s mind t h a t he i s s u c c e s s f u l a t t empora l p r o j e c t i o n i n t o

the p a s t . The camp d o c t o r s then send him i n t o the f u t u r e , where

he encounters occupants who o f f e r t o l o o k a f t e r h im. He r e f u s e s

and i n s t e a d r e t u r n s t o the image o f f i x a t i o n . Upon h i s

a r r i v a l , he i s k i l l e d by a camp a s s a s s i n who f o l l o w e d him

through t i m e , w h i l e r e a l i z i n g t h a t the death he had seen as a

c h i l d had been t h a t o f h i s a d u l t s e l f ( H i l l i c k e r 5 ) .

W i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f the w r i t i n g s o f B a r t h e s , Sontag and

M e t z , i n c o n t e n t and form, L a Je t ee e x h i b i t s f i r s t l y the

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m e t a p h y s i c a l death o f t e m p o r a l i n d e x i c a l i t y . As B a r t h e s notes

the m e t a p h y s i c a l s l i p p a g e o f t ime t h a t the photograph o c c u p i e s ,

i t i s q u i t e r e l e v a n t t h a t L a J e t e e i s a s c i e n c e f i c t i o n f i l m

c e n t r a l l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h p o s t - n u c l e a r s o c i e t y and t ime t r a v e l

t o both the p a s t and the f u t u r e . P h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l s a r e the

i d e a l medium f o r a r t i c u l a t i n g such c o n c e p t s . The n a r r a t i v e

c o n t e n t o f the f i l m c o a l e s c e s w i t h i t s f o r m a l q u a l i t i e s o f the

p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l s t h a t c o v e r t l y convey a s s o c i a t i o n s o f death

i n a l l t e n s e s . The memento m o r i q u a l i t y o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c

s t i l l can be demonstrated i n the n a r r a t i v e s e t - u p f o r t ime

t r a v e l . The t ime t r a v e l l e r i s chosen because o f h i s image o f

f i x a t i o n from c h i l d h o o d , which the v iewer a l s o w i t n e s s e s v i a a

*i p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l . The t r a v e l l e r ' s memory o f a moment i n the

p a s t i s m a n i f e s t as a p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l . He r e v i s i t s t h i s

memory as i f i t were a photograph — which i t i s , t o the

v i e w e r . F i n a l l y , human m o r t a l i t y i s suggested by the t ime

t r a v e l l e r ' s c h i l d h o o d memory o f the murder and through the

r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the murder o f the man was h i m s e l f . Thus ,

m o r t a l i t y i s i n e s c a p a b l e by the trauma of t h i s memory and the

event o f d e a t h .

M i c h e l a n g e l o A n t o n i o n i ' s Blow-Up concerns a f a s h i o n

photographer work ing i n "swinging" London who i n a d v e r t e n t l y

photographed a murder w h i l e t a k i n g random shots o f an anonymous

woman i n a park (Cook 614) . A f t e r the woman has v i s i t e d h i s

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apartment t o r e t r i e v e the r o l l o f f i l m , he "blows up" the

t e l l t a l e p r i n t s t o g r e a t e r and g r e a t e r s c a l e , so t h a t a human

c o r p s e i s v i s i b l e , b a r e l y d e c i p h e r a b l e beneath the g r a i n o f the

image. The photographer then goes t o the p a r k , f i n d s a body,

r e t u r n s a g a i n t o f i n d t h a t i t i s gone, and subsequent ly

p a r t i c i p a t e s i n a game o f mime t e n n i s .

The p r o c e s s o f b l o w i n g - u p the p h o t o g r a p h i c p r i n t t o

magnify a p o r t i o n o f the image t h a t b a r e l y r e v e a l s a human

c o r p s e demonstrates the t e m p o r a l death o f " t h a t - h a s - b e e n " . As

t h i s p a r a d o x i c a l m e t a p h y s i c a l s t a t e o f the photograph r e v e a l s ,

death r e s i d e s i n the p r e s e n t and the f u t u r e , w h i l e b r i n g i n g

l i f e from the p a s t t o the p r e s e n t . The p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s a c t o f

i n v e s t i g a t i n g the murder a t the park demonstrates how the

photograph has the a b i l i t y t o b r i n g l i f e i n t o the p r e s e n t , f o r

i f the photographer d i d not f i n d the c o r p s e i n the image, he

would not have d i s c o v e r e d the body i n the p a r k . T h u s , a murder

c o u l d have been s o l v e d . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , the power o f the

punctum o f death and the " t h a t - h a s - b e e n " provokes the

photographer i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e r e i s , i n f a c t , a body.

However, upon r e v i s i t i n g the murder s i t e , the c o r p s e has

v a n i s h e d . A l t h o u g h i t ' s b a r e l y d e c i p h e r a b l e i n the p h o t o g r a p h ,

the c o r p s e has d i s a p p e a r e d , throwing the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s tenuous

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e a l i t y i n t o q u e s t i o n .

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The memento m o r i q u a l i t y o f photography i s suggested by

the anonymous.woman's need t o a t t a i n the r o l l o f f i l m t h a t

l a t e n t l y c a r r i e s ambiguous i n c r i m i n a t i n g e v i d e n c e . Why she

needs the f i l m , the audience does not know, but she i s

d e s p e r a t e t o possess the f i l m t h a t has the p o t e n t i a l o f

p r o d u c i n g p h o t o g r a p h i c images . Both Sontag and Metz note t h i s

d e s i r e and p r a c t i c e t o possess the image. In B low-up , the

u n e t h i c a l power p r a c t i c e o f the photographer i s d i s p l a y e d by

h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o g i v e the woman, whom he photographed

w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n , the unprocessed f i l m . He g i v e s the woman a

dummy r o l e o f f i l m t o t r i c k h e r , so he can keep the p i c t u r e s .

F i n a l l y , the p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s m o r t a l i t y and sense o f r e a l i t y i s

q u e s t i o n e d when he f i n d s t h a t the body i s m i s s i n g i n the p a r k

and then l a t e r , meets a parade o f mimes who engage i n a game o f

t e n n i s . T h i s sequence o f events suggests t h a t the

p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s dependence on photography has a l t e r e d h i s sense

of r e a l i t y . H i s ease i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g w i t h the mimes

demonstrates t h a t he has been r e s i d i n g i n a w o r l d o f i l l u s i o n .

He wonders i f perhaps t h e r e never was a c o r p s e i n e i t h e r the

image o r the p a r k . I t i s h i s own sense o f m o r t a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y

t h a t has caused him t o p e r c e i v e death i n h i s env ironment .

In Under F i r e , a p h o t o g r a p h e r , R u s s e l l P r i c e , takes an

ass ignment i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , where he i s k idnapped and

o r d e r e d by N i c a r a g u a n g u e r r i l l a s t o s i m u l a t e a " l i f e "

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photograph of t h e i r recently gunned-down leader, Rafael, i n

order to keep the revolution a l i v e . Up u n t i l t h i s point i n

time, the rebel leader "has never been photographed," so no one

knows exactly what he looks l i k e (Stewart 43). Thus, Barthes'

notion regarding the simultaneity of the l i f e and death of

photography i s a r t i c u l a t e d here. Paradoxically, the medium

that brings associations of a dead past to the present, i n t h i s

instance, hides the truth of death and provides l i f e i n the

present for the future maintenance of the revolution. After

t h i s f i r s t irony occurs, that of photographing a dead body to

appear a l i v e and i n the present, a second photographic irony

takes place v i a the u t i l i z a t i o n of photography as memento mori.

Many of the photos of g u e r r i l l a s taken by Price have f a l l e n

into the hands of government forces. The photographs are used

by them as a kind of v i s u a l h i t l i s t (Stewart 46). This second

irony of photographic death involves using photographs of

people who are a l i v e , so that they can be k i l l e d . F i n a l l y , the

photographer's own sense of mortality i s challenged when he

witnesses the spontaneous assassination of his f r i e n d and

fellow j o u r n a l i s t by the m i l i t a r y p o l i c e . Multiple r a p i d - f i r e

photographs taken at the s i t e of his assassination are s p l i c e d

together and broadcast on the news. The inherent s t a s i s - i n -

motion of f i l m permits the i l l u s i o n of murder i n action

(Stewart 46). The l i f e that i s brought to the photographs by

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p r e s e n t i n g them i n an animated s e r i e s makes the photographer

r e l i v e the e x p e r i e n c e o f the death o f h i s f r i e n d , a l l o w i n g

P r i c e t o r e a l i z e the v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f h i s own m o r t a l i t y .

The t h r e e t h e o r e t i c a l p h o t o g r a p h i c d e a t h s , as o u t l i n e d by

B a r t h e s , Sontag and Metz can be c l e a r l y demonstrated i n f i l m s

from d i f f e r e n t t ime p e r i o d s , genres and c o u n t r i e s . L a J e t e e i s

a F r e n c h New Wave f i l m from the 1960s, Blow-Up i s an I t a l i a n

f i l m a l s o from the 1960s, and Under F i r e i s an American

p o l i t i c a l t h r i l l e r o f the 1980s. By u s i n g f i l m s o f d i v e r s e

o r i g i n s t h a t demonstrate s i m i l a r t h e o r e t i c a l uses o f

photography , i t can be c o n c l u d e d t h a t such t h e o r i e s c a r r y

s i g n i f i c a n t meaning, weight and v a l i d i t y . Sigmund F r e u d h e l p s

t o p r o v i d e an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the u n i v e r s a l use o f photography

and i t s a s s o c i a t i o n s t o d e a t h . F r e u d wrote on the i n s t i n c t u a l

death d r i v e o f T h a n a t o s , s t a t i n g t h a t the g o a l o f l i f e i s t o

r e t u r n t o the o r i g i n a l s t a t e o f b e i n g , as i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r .

The organi sm f o l l o w s i t s own path t o d e a t h , w i s h i n g t o d i e o n l y

on i t s own t er ms . In o t h e r words , the purpose o f the p r o c e s s

o f l i v i n g i s t o d i e (Monte 128-29). Perhaps F r e u d ' s Thanatos

t h e o r y can be used t o e x p l a i n the d e s i r e t o p e r c e i v e the

p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e o r e t i c a l d e a t h . Death i s p r e s e n t i n the form

t h a t we i n t e r p r e t i t t o e x i s t . As i n Blow-Up, the

p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s immersion i n h i s own r e a l i t y o f death and murder

r e v e a l e d h i s own sense o f m o r t a l i t y . Thus , as p e r c e i v e r s and

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i n t e r p r e t e r s o f t h e w o r l d , i t i s o u r own awareness o f

v u l n e r a b i l i t y and m o r t a l i t y t h a t a l l o w s a s s o c i a t i o n s o f d e a t h

w i t h p h o t o g r a p h y t o e x i s t t a n g i b l y .

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Chapter IV. Narrative Death

For Death must be somewhere i n a society; i f i t i s no longer (or less intensely) i n r e l i g i o n , i t must be elsewhere; perhaps i n t h i s image which produces Death while t r y i n g to preserve l i f e . Contemporary with the withdrawal of r i t e s , Photography may correspond to the intrusion, i n our modern society, of an asymbolic Death, outside of r e l i g i o n , outside of r i t u a l , a kind of abrupt dive into l i t e r a l Death (Barthes 92).

Catherine Russell begins her book, Narrative Mortality

(1993), with the above quote by Barthes, to introduce the

s o c i o l o g i c a l placement of death. She takes note of the

contradictory re l a t i o n s h i p of death i n society by demonstrating

that death i s feared, denied and hidden i n our everyday l i v e s ,

yet death has omnipresence i n the c u l t u r a l l y produced images of

today (1). As I discussed i n the previous chapter, through the

analysis of Barthes' writings, photographic images are

themselves seen as a form of mortality. From the various texts

of c u l t u r a l t h e o r i s t s , I argued that there are three

ontological photographic death trends used i n narrative cinema:

temporal indexical demise, s o c i o l o g i c a l memento mori, and

phenomenological mortality.

In t h i s chapter, I w i l l approach photography taxonomically

within the context of the cinematic narrative structure as i t

relates to the phenomenology of the spectator. The three

shared categories of analysis concerning photography and f i l m

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n a r r a t i v e a r e : t e m p o - m a t e r i a l s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t

c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t v i e w i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , m a t e r i a l - h i s t o r i c a l

s i m i l a r i t i e s as they r e l a t e t o the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the r o l e o f

the s p e c t a t o r , and the s y n t h e s i s o f the s t a s i s o f the

photograph w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f the p r o g r e s s i o n o f the

n a r r a t i v e w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s i n f l u e n c e on the p r o c e s s o f

s p e c t a t o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . W i t h i n the f i n a l c a t e g o r y , I w i l l

l o o k a t the phenomenolog ica l p r o c e s s o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p t h a t

o c c u r s i n n a r r a t i v e f i l m s t h a t use p h o t o g r a p h i c s t i l l s . The

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e w i t h i n the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e

causes s t a s i s and r e c o i l w i t h i n the s p e c t a t o r , which works t o

h e i g h t e n and deepen the death d r i v e o f the m e t a - f i l m i c

n a r r a t i v e . I have chosen t h r e e f i l m s t h a t e x e m p l i f y these

t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p : B a d l a n d s , The P a r a l l a x View

and Run L o l a Run.

Of the t h r e e t h e o r i s t s d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r ,

C h r i s t i a n Metz p r o v i d e s the most d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s on the

d i f f e r i n g q u a l i t i e s o f photography and f i l m . The f i r s t

d i f f e r e n c e o f note i s the s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l s i z e o f the l e x i s .

The Dani sh s e m i o t i c i a n , L o u i s H j e l m s l e v , d e f i n e d the t erm

" l e x i s " as the s o c i a l i z e d u n i t o f r e a d i n g , o r r e c e p t i o n . The

space o f the l e x i s as i t a p p l i e s t o photography can be d e f i n e d

as a s i l e n t r e c t a n g l e o f p a p e r . The c i n e m a t o g r a p h i c l e x i s not

o n l y i n c l u d e s the huge r e c t a n g u l a r image p l a n e o f the t h e a t r e

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s c r e e n , but a l s o the sounds and movements o f the f i l m image. In

the r e a l m o f the a u d i t o r y , which i s absent from photography ,

t h e r e i s phon ic sound i n the c inema. One o f the q u a l i t i e s o f

sound i s expans ion through space , whereas images c o n s t r u c t

themselves in space . The s p a t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s between

photography and cinema are i m m o b i l i t y and s i l e n c e w i t h the

f o r m e r , thus c a u s i n g the p h o t o g r a p h i c l e x i s t o be much s m a l l e r

than the c i n e m a t i c l e x i s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , the t e m p o r a l d i f f e r e n c e between photography

and f i l m concerns the a spec t o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p . The

p h o t o g r a p h i c l e x i s does not p r o v i d e a f i x e d t e m p o r a l s i z e , as

the s p e c t a t o r determines the d u r a t i o n o f the v i e w i n g t i m e . On

the o t h e r hand, the t e m p o r a l s i z e o f the c i n e m a t i c l e x i s i s

de termined by the f i lmmaker i n p o s t - p r o d u c t i o n (Metz 81 ) .

Whereas the v i e w i n g t ime o f a photograph i s c o n t r o l l e d by the

v i e w e r , the f i lmmaker s e t s the v i e w i n g t ime of a f i l m , and the

images are p e r c e i v e d o n l y as q u i c k l y o r as s l o w l y as the

e d i t i n g p e r m i t s . A s t i l l pho tograph , which a l l o w s one t o l i n g e r

over a s i n g l e moment as l o n g as one l i k e s , c o n t r a d i c t s the v e r y

form o f f i l m (Sontag 81) .

Photography and f i l m d i f f e r i n s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l terms due

t o c inema's s t r u c t u r a l movement a c r o s s frames and the sounds

t h a t accompany the images and i n the t e m p o r a l f i x i t y t h a t

determines v i e w e r s h i p d u r a t i o n . A t h i r d d i f f e r e n c e concerns

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the perceptive differences between photography and f i l m . Film

includes photography, as f i l m i s e s s e n t i a l l y a series of

photographic images that are projected at twenty-four frames

per second. Film i s founded on a series of sequential pauses

(Wolfe 5). Cinema i s the r e s u l t of perceptive features that are

not used i n photography due to i t s qua l i t y of s t a s i s . The

additional element of movement i n the cinema, which i s an

i l l u s i o n , requires the e f f e c t of the phi phenomenon (Metz 83).

Psychologist Max Wertheimer used the discovery of the phi

phenomenon to demonstrate the Gestalt contention that

perception i s h o l i s t i c . As applied to the cinema, there i s

h o l i s t i c movement perceived between each frame, so that each

frame i s continuous, blending with the one before i t . The

i l l u s i o n of an image of movement i s created. Without the phi

phenomenon, we would accurately perceive each of the i n d i v i d u a l

twenty-four frames projected per second (Benjafield 172).

In addition to the three d i s t i n c t spatio-temporal material

differences of movement and sound, viewership temporality and

the psychological perception process of the phi phenomenon,

m a t e r i a l - h i s t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r a l differences and s i m i l a r i t i e s

e x i s t between photography and narrative with respect to

spectatorship. Again, there i s the spatio-temporal category,

where photography and narrative u t i l i z e d i f f e r e n t time

structures, but share a s i m i l a r i t y with the construction of

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space i n the manner that the role of the spectator i s

constructed. Gilberto Perez outlines the temporal difference

between the two i n The Material Ghost (1993), stating that the

spectatorship of photography i s simultaneous, while i n the

narrative, i t i s sequential. Photography may present a story

within the frame, such as an ongoing event, but the story i s

presented i n simultaneous form. According to Perez, the art of

narrative resides i n the arrangement of sequences and the

process of recounting the events of the story (51).

Photography and narrative share s i m i l a r i t i e s i n material

s t r u c t u r a l construction. A photograph depends on the referent.

A material object or subject must be exposed on the f i l m plane

to create the latent image. The photographic image i s a

p a r t i a l view; i t i s only a section of space captured at a

ce r t a i n time from a cert a i n perspective. For both photography

and narrative f i l m , the dependency on the referent provides an

incomplete presentation to the viewer. But the photograph i s

not constructed from a sequence of events as the narrative i s ;

i t i s a fragment of a potential sequence. The photograph

i n v i t e s the p o s s i b i l i t y of continuation, which has led to the

art of the cinema, that i s , twenty-four frames per second

(Perez 52).

While photography and narrative cinema share s p a t i a l

s i m i l a r i t i e s by presenting p a r t i a l views of the world, both

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have a l s o been shaped by common h i s t o r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s .

Western p e r s p e c t i v i s m has g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d the development o f

photography and n a r r a t i v e , by p l a c i n g the v i ewer i n a

p r i v i l e g e d and c e n t r a l i z e d p o s i t i o n .

Jonathan C r a r y argues t h a t the model o f v i s i o n o p e r a t i n g

a t the t ime o f the Rena i s sance o f f e r e d a c e n t e r e d human

s u b j e c t i v i t y f o r v i e w i n g . T h u s , the v iewer was g i v e n the

p e r c e i v i n g p r i v i l e g e o f b e i n g p o s i t i o n e d i n the c e n t e r o f the

w o r l d . P e r s p e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s shaped the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

Rena i s sance image space and the c o n c e p t i o n o f the s p e c t a t o r .

F o r example, e n t i r e t h e a t r e s were b u i l t around the v a n t a g e -

p o i n t o f the duke ' s o r c a r d i n a l ' s s e a t ; the s i g h t l i n e s o f

o t h e r s ea t s were c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y d i s t o r t e d ( B o r d w e l l 6 ) . The

i l l u s i o n o f c e n t r a l i t y was the i d e a l s p e c t a t o r p o s i t i o n (Heath

3 8 6 ) . The camera i s the c u l m i n a t i n g r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h a t

p r o j e c t e d U t o p i a . The images i t produced became the c u r r e n c y

of t h a t v i s i o n , j u s t as the mathemat ica l c o n v e n t i o n o f Western

p e r s p e c t i v e had been i n p a i n t i n g b e f o r e the i n v e n t i o n o f

photography . P e r v a s i v e b e l i e f s about the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

" r e a l " space w i t h i n an image were f o r m u l a t e d by these codes o f

v i s i o n (Heath 3 8 7 ) . The p u b l i c b e l i e v e d t h a t g e o m e t r i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e , so l o n g as i t d i d not i n v o l v e u n f a m i l i a r p o i n t s o f

v i ew, was " true" , j u s t as i n the p a s t , i t b e l i e v e d t h a t the o l d

geometry o f E u c l i d was "the t r u t h " . The m a j o r i t y o f photographs

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today are s t i l l c o n s t r u c t e d by the r u l e s o f c e n t r a l p e r s p e c t i v e

(Heath 387) .

In N a r r a t i o n i n the F i c t i o n F i l m (1985), D a v i d B o r d w e l l

o u t l i n e s a s i m i l a r h i s t o r y o f c e n t r a l i z e d Western p e r s p e c t i v e

as i t r e l a t e s t o n a r r a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n . He notes t h a t t h e r e

are t h r e e d i f f e r e n t ways t o s tudy s t o r y t e l l i n g : r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,

s t r u c t u r e , and p r o c e s s ( 4 ) . Of i n t e r e s t here i s the

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l or mimet ic t h e o r y o f n a r r a t i o n , as i t s

h i s t o r i c a l t ime frame c o r r e l a t e s t o the o p t i c a l development o f

p a i n t i n g t h a t i n f l u e n c e d the r u l e s o f image f o r m a t i o n i n

photography .

M i m e t i c t h e o r i e s u t i l i z e the a c t o f v i s i o n as a model : an

o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d t o the eye o f the b e h o l d e r .

T h i s model u n d e r l i e s the changes i n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e

i n t r o d u c e d by Greek t h e a t r e and p a i n t i n g and , l a t e r , i n s e v e r a l

Rena i s sance a r t s . The Greek T h e a t r e r a i s e d and c o n f r o n t e d the

c e n t r a l problems t h a t s u r r o u n d the mimet ic t r a d i t i o n : How i s

the space o f the s t o r y t o be p r e s e n t e d , and where i s the

s p e c t a t o r i n r e l a t i o n t o i t ( B o r d w e l l 4)? The term

"perspec t ive" means "see ing t h r o u g h " , which acknowledges t h a t

both the o b j e c t ( the d e p i c t e d wor ld) and the s u b j e c t ( the

v iewer) are bound t o g e t h e r through the p i c t u r e p l a n e ( B o r d w e l l

4 ) .

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I t has been demonstrated t h a t photography and n a r r a t i v e

cinema have s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n the s p a t i o -

t e m p o r a l and m a t e r i a l - h i s t o r i c a l c a t e g o r i e s o f a n a l y s i s . I t i s

hoped t h a t these p o i n t s o f c o n t r a s t and comparison w i l l h e l p

e x p l a i n the p r o c e s s o f v i e w e r s h i p t h a t o c c u r s when a s e r i e s o f

photographs i s p l a c e d w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f the n a r r a t i v e f i l m .

In an i s s u e o f Wide A n g l e , Raymond B e l l o u r w r i t e s

e x t e n s i v e l y on the p r o c e s s o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p t h a t o c c u r s when

photographs are used i n n a r r a t i v e c inema. B e l l o u r c l a i m s t h a t

the photograph i s much l i k e any o t h e r o b j e c t w i t h i n the m i s e -

en-scene w i t h i n the f i l m , but as the photograph h o l d s f i l m i c

t i m e , the f i l m seems t o f r e e z e , a c h i e v i n g the q u a l i t y o f s t a s i s

t h a t o c c u p i e s photography . F u r t h e r , photography c a r r i e s i t s

f o u n d a t i o n s and a s s o c i a t i o n s o f death i n t o the c o n t e x t o f the

c inema, c a u s i n g the s p e c t a t o r t o r e c o i l from the p r o g r e s s i o n o f

n a r r a t i v e sequence. T h i s causes a second t e m p o r a l c o n d i t i o n t o

be b o r n , a p a s t o f the p a s t , which i n t e r r u p t s the f i l m ' s

u n f o l d i n g n a r r a t i v e . Thus , w i t h i n the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e o f

f i l m n a r r a t i o n , a m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e comes f o r t h .

T h i s causes the v i ewer t o r e c o i l from the m e t a - f i l m i c

n a r r a t i v e , but u s u a l l y the m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e

t h e m a t i c a l l y echoes i t s p r e d e c e s s o r . The m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c

n a r r a t i v e may i n i t i a l l y seem t o be d i s r u p t i v e by i n t e r r u p t i n g

the f low and p r o g r e s s i o n o f the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e , but i t

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i s thematically p a r a l l e l , thus enhancing and enriching the

cinematic viewing experience on multiple lev e l s (8). Bellour

describes t h i s phenomenon as a process of subtraction. Contact

with the photograph allows l e i s u r e i n order to indulge i n

retrospection and add to the meaning of the f i l m . The

photograph subtracts the viewer from the f i l m , but adds to i t s

interpretation. I would prefer to l a b e l t h i s viewing process

as a distancing e f f e c t that allows the viewer to r e f l e c t on the

cinema and thus invest more f r e e l y i n the meaning of i t s

content. Or, as Bellour metaphorically writes: " I t helps me to

close my eyes, yet keep them wide open" (7).

The photograph haunts the f i l m , playing with the truth of

the cinema. The " r e a l i t y e f f e c t " that the temporal progression

of the cinema works to erase i s brought to the forefront by

photography, temporarily shattering the meta-filmic narrative

fantasy. Its s t i l l n e s s disrupts the foreword moving

progression of the f i l m narration. This swerve of

spectatorship of the meta-filmic narration allows for a

momentary pause where the viewer i s also able to r e f l e c t on the

cinema. This uncoupling of the spectator from the image allows

the hurried spectator to pensively evaluate the layers of

diverse images that make up the meta-filmic narrative and mini-

photographic narrative (Bellour 9-10).

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Garrett Stewart also writes e x p l i c i t l y on the process of

spectatorship within the context of meta-filmic narratives that

incorporate mini-photographic narratives. Stewart defines the

key difference between photography and f i l m to be motion or

lack of i t . He quotes Stanley Cavell: " s t i l l n e s s emphasizes

the death i n mortal existence while motion emphasizes the l i f e

of i t " (Stewart 11). As was discussed i n the previous chapter,

photography has philosophical deaths that concern temporal-

i n d e x i c a l i t y , s o c i o l o g i c a l memento mori and perceived

e x i s t e n t i a l phenomenology. As Bellour points out, the power of

photography's s t i l l n e s s i s brought forward i n the meta-filmic

narration, interrupting i t s progression and p o s i t i v e forward

moving sequences of l i v i n g and fantasy (7). While Bellour i s

concerned with how the process of spectatorship halts and

changes due to the motionlessness of the s t i l l image, Stewart

d i r e c t l y address how photography's associations with death are

brought forward i n the narrative. He writes: "The immediate

difference of s t i l l n e s s from motion i n these two media may

therefore serve i n the end merely to specify death's r e l a t i o n

to both" (12). Metz i n s i s t s , l i k e Barthes, on "the sele c t i v e

kinship of photography (not film) with death," since f i l m

"gives back to the dead a semblance of l i f e " — a t l e ast, that

motion associated with l i f e (qtd. i n Batchen 37). Photographic

sta s i s exposes by association the cinematic system as a series

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o f p h o t o g r a p h i c frames o f which i t i s c o m p r i s e d . Whereas

photography engraves the death i t r e s e m b l e s , cinema d e f e r s the

death whose escape i t s i m u l a t e s . The i s o l a t e d photograph o r

photogram i s the s t i l l work o f d e a t h ; cinema i s death always

s t i l l a t work (Stewart Between x i ) .

I f the photograph m a n i f e s t s death and f i l m i s a

m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f photographs , then f i l m s m a n i f e s t d e a t h . T h i s

s y l l o g i s m seems t e m p t i n g , but as d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , the p h i

phenomenon a l l o w s f i l m t o c a r r y the i l l u s i o n o f movement and

t h u s , l i f e . More i m p o r t a n t l y , the h o l d i n g o f a c t i o n o f

p h o t o g r a p h i c s t a s i s a g a i n s t n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n f r e q u e n t l y

m o t i v a t e s i t w i t h i n the p l o t as a m e t a p h o r i c a l c o r r e l a t i v e o f

the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e (Stewart Between x i ) .

G e n e r a l mainstream cinema at tempts t o n a t u r a l i z e i t s

s t o r y t e l l i n g a c c o r d i n g t o the t e n e t s o f the r e a l i s t code .

Beneath the b land i shments o f the n a t u r a l i s t i c i l l u s i o n o f the

m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e , t h e r e may r u n a m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c

n a r r a t i v e which f u n c t i o n s as a p a r a - n a r r a t i v e c o u n t e r p l o t . I t

i s from t h i s c o u n t e r p l o t t h a t the event o f s t a s i s i s u s u a l l y

f o l d e d back i n t o the c u r r e n t o f mainstream p l o t t i n g as a

v i r t u a l metaphor f o r death (Stewart Between 28 ) . The m i n i -

f i l m i c generates m e t a - f i l m i c r a m i f i c a t i o n s . Three f i l m s t h a t

demonstrate a m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e e c h o i n g the meta-

f i l m i c death t h e m a t i c a r e : B a d l a n d s , The P a r a l l a x View and Run

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L o l a Run. A l l t h r e e f i l m s demonstrate m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e

s t a s i s , s p e c t a t o r s h i p r e c o i l , and m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c death

d o u b l i n g o f the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e .

Badlands i s a f i c t i o n f i l m n a r r a t i v e about an a n t i h e r o ' s

doomed v e n t u r e i n m e m o r i a l i z i n g the s e l f and a g i r l ' s awakening

c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f f a t a l i t y . In the f i l m , K i t i s on a murder ing

rampage w i t h h i s g i r l f r i e n d , who b l i n d l y f o l l o w s him a c r o s s

South Dakota and Montana i n o r d e r t o escape c r i m i n a l

punishment . They l i v e i n a romant i c f a n t a s y as t w o - l o v e s t r u c k

f e l o n s on the r u n . The more they k i l l , the more they have t o

r u n f rom, p r o p e l l i n g them i n t o a v i c i o u s c y c l e o f murder .

N a r r a t i v e s t a s i s , s p e c t a t o r s h i p r e c o i l and m e t a - f i l m i c

e c h o i n g o c c u r i n Badlands when K i t ' s g i r l f r i e n d , H o l l y , v iews

s t e r e o g r a p h i c p r i n t s , w h i l e h i d i n g out i n the f o r e s t w i t h K i t

a f t e r he murdered her f a t h e r . In t h i s scene , which i s midway

through the p l o t , a l l moving images are d i s p l a c e d by the s t i l l

images seen through a s t e r e o g r a p h i c s l i d e v i e w e r . H o l l y reaches

a t random f o r a s e r i e s o f d o u b l e - p l a t e d , t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l

p i c t u r e s and then s t u d i e s them i n the o l d - f a s h i o n e d a p p a r a t u s .

Due t o the v i n t a g e q u a l i t y and t e c h n o l o g i c a l apparatus t o v iew

the images , these photographs l i n k the v i ewer t o the d i s t a n t

p a s t o f the t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y . H o l l y r e - c o n t e x t u a l i z e s the

images o f the p a s t i n t o her own p r e s e n t . Her v o i c e - o v e r

n a r r a t i o n w i t h i n the m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e a r t i c u l a t e s :

85

"While t a k i n g a l o o k a t some v i s t a s i n Dad's s t e r e o p t i c o n , i t

h i t me t h a t I was j u s t a l i t t l e g i r l , born i n Texas [...] and

t h a t I had j u s t so many y e a r s t o l i v e . "

H o l l y ' s i n s i g h t r e f e r e n c e s the B a r t h e s i a n i d e a t h a t was

d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r — a phenomenolog ica l

e x i s t e n t i a l i s m p e r c e i v e d by the s p e c t a t o r :

I am the r e f e r e n c e o f e v e r y p h ot ograp h , and t h i s i s what generates my as tonishment i n a d d r e s s i n g m y s e l f t o the fundamental q u e s t i o n : why i s i t t h a t I am a l i v e here and now? (Barthes 84)

H o l l y ' s encounter w i t h images o f the p a s t demonstrates

B a r t h e s ' sense , a g a i n , o f how the " t h a t - h a s - b e e n " o f a

photograph i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o " t h i s i m p e r i o u s s i g n o f my f u t u r e

d e a t h , " the p o i n t a t which I w i l l be o n l y a photograph (Stewart

Between 51 ) . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , H o l l y removes h e r s e l f from the

g r i t t y r e a l i t y o f murder and d e s t i t u t i o n . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a

h a l t t o the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e , and e n t i c e s the v i ewer i n t o

the new r e a l i t y o f the m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e . A l l

photographs a r e , i n t h i s sense , posthumous and p o t e n t i a l l y

m o r t i f y i n g ; t e l l i n g o f death t h a t was, they warn of the coming

of d e a t h . In H o l l y ' s mind , these images i n s c r i b e the as surance

o f her own doom. The m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e t r i g g e r s her

t o q u e s t i o n t i m e , m o r t a l i t y , and f a t e . Without r e p r e s e n t i n g a

c o r p s e , v i o l e n c e , o r p a i n , these photos c o l l e c t i v e l y r a i s e the

q u e s t i o n o f d e a t h . H o l l y c l o s e s the sequences: "For days a f t e r

I l i v e d i n d r e a d . " Death o f the p a s t i n v o k e d by the

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photographs exaggerates her f e a r s o f her f u t u r e f a t e . H e r e , the

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e i s a compressed s e q u e n t i a l emblem

o f the death d r i v e o f the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e .

The P a r a l l a x View e x h i b i t s a m e t a - f i l m i c death d r i v e as a

p a r a n o i d f a n t a s y . I t i s an a b s t r a c t s t o r y o f an a s s a s s i n a t i o n -

f o r - h i r e - c o n s p i r a c y . Joe F r a d y i s an o b s e s s i v e newspaper

r e p o r t e r who i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g the death o f s e v e r a l w i t n e s s e s o f

the a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f a Senator who was a c a n d i d a t e f o r

P r e s i d e n t . F r a d y d i s c o v e r s p r o m o t i o n a l m a t e r i a l f o r the

P a r a l l a x C o r p o r a t i o n , which i s s c r e e n i n g f o r p o t e n t i a l

a s s a s s i n s . F r a d y passes s e v e r a l t e s t s and i s a c c e p t e d i n t o the

C o r p o r a t i o n . When he i s found a t the l o c a t i o n o f the

a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f another S e n a t o r , he i s accused o f b e i n g the

k i l l e r and i s subsequent ly murdered by the P a r a l l a x

C o r p o r a t i o n . The f i l m c o n c l u d e s , as i t began, w i t h the

s tatement o f a committee i n v e s t i g a t i n g an a s s a s s i n a t i o n : no

ev idence o f c o n s p i r a c y ; the k i l l e r a c t e d a l o n e .

In the f i l m , c i r c u l a r m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e

advances p a r a n o i d c o n s p i r a c y t h e o r i e s , b e g i n n i n g and end ing

w i t h v i o l e n t murders . The m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e echoes

t h i s death d r i v e i n a scene where F r a d y i s g i v e n a s c r e e n i n g

t e s t a t the P a r a l l a x o f f i c e s . F r a d y i s i s o l a t e d i n a s t a r k and

s t e r i l e room, where he must v iew a f i v e - m i n u t e s l i d e montage

w h i l e h i s p h y s i o l o g i c a l responses are m o n i t o r e d . The montage

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uses s t i l l p r o j e c t e d s l i d e images under the i n t e r - t i t l e

headings o f L o v e , Mother , F a t h e r , Me, Home, C o u n t r y , God and

Enemy. The m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e beg ins w i t h

c o n v e n t i o n a l imagery r e f l e c t i n g the i d e a l s o f the Amer ican

dream. Under each h e a d i n g , s t e r e o t y p i c a l images f o l l o w . A f t e r

the i n t e r - t i t l e o f Mother , a woman changes the d i a p e r o f her

newborn baby. A f t e r F a t h e r , a man l o o k s i n t o the eyes o f h i s

s o n , h i s hand p a t e r n a l i s t i c a l l y r e s t i n g on h i s son ' s s h o u l d e r .

A f t e r C o u n t r y , images o f Amer ican i conography are shown, such

as The L i n c o l n M e m o r i a l , Mount Rushmore and the White House.

A f t e r Enemy, t h e r e are images o f H i t l e r , F i d e l C a s t r o and

Chairman Mao—communism i s the a n t i t h e s i s o f Amer ican

democracy. But as the headings r e p e a t c y c l i c a l l y , the imagery

becomes more d i s t u r b i n g and v i o l e n t . The images t h a t were shown

under the head ing o f F a t h e r now f o l l o w the heading o f Enemy.

There are shots o f the Vie tnam War, d e s t i t u t e c h i l d r e n , and

c r i m i n a l s i n j a i l under the heading o f C o u n t r y . The American

f l a g waving i n f r o n t o f the White House moves t o the Ku K l u x

K l a n waving the same f l a g . T h i s m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e a t

the s c r e e n i n g t e s t i s used t o d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t c a n d i d a t e s

who do not have the p o t e n t i a l t o become a s s a s s i n s . I f the

c a n d i d a t e does not evoke a p h y s i o l o g i c a l response t o the

p r o g r e s s i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l , s t e r e o t y p i c a l imagery o f the

American U t o p i a t o a complete r e v e r s a l o f imagery showing

88

c o r r u p t i o n , c r ime and g r e e d , then the c a n d i d a t e has the

n e c e s s a r y i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o k i l l w i t h o u t r e g r e t . Thus beg ins

the p r o c e s s o f t r a i n i n g v i o l e n t , amoral human b e i n g s .

T h i s m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e sequence e x h i b i t s the

t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f n a r r a t i v e s t a s i s , s p e c t a t o r r e c o i l and

m e t a - f i l m i c e c h o i n g . F r a d y i s i s o l a t e d and p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y

moni tored i n o r d e r t o be under the f u l l i n f l u e n c e o f the

C o r p o r a t i o n ' s s c r e e n i n g t e s t . F r a d y ' s s e c l u s i o n and b i z a r r e

exposure t o the m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e causes an abrupt

removal from the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e . The s p e c t a t o r ' s

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h F r a d y ' s i s o l a t i o n and v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o the

s a d i s t i c m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e causes an e x p e r i e n c e o f

r e c o i l . As i t i s F r a d y ' s d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n the m e t a - f i l m i c

n a r r a t i v e t o d i s c o v e r the c o n s p i r a c y b e h i n d the P a r a l l a x

C o r p o r a t i o n ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e s , the

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y o f a m o r a l i t y t h a t i s evoked i n the

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e deepens the r e c e s s e s o f death

t h e m a t i c s .

W h i l e Badlands and The P a r a l l a x View b o t h e x h i b i t

e v i d e n t i a l themes o f death i n the m i n i and meta n a r r a t i v e s , Run

L o l a Run e x p l o r e s the broader p h i l o s o p h i c a l themes o f f a t e ,

de t ermin i sm and chance . M a n n i , a c o u r i e r f o r a b i g g a n g s t e r ,

l o s e s a p l a s t i c bag w i t h 100,000 marks i n drug money on a

B e r l i n subway, and a bum absconds w i t h i t . Manni phones h i s

89

g i r l f r i e n d , L o l a , i n a p a n i c . I f he i s t o s u r v i v e the wrath o f

h i s gangs ter b o s s , she must b r i n g him a rep lacement sum i n 20

m i n u t e s . The same s t o r y i s t o l d t h r e e t i m e s , w i t h some

p a r t i c u l a r s changed, and w i t h d i f f e r e n t e n d i n g s .

W i t h i n each o f the t h r e e m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e s , t h e r e are

t h r e e m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e s , except i n the t h i r d meta-

f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e , where t h e r e are o n l y two. The t r i p a r t i t e

s t r u c t u r e o f the m e t a - f i l m n a r r a t i v e forms a d i a l e c t i c . In the

f i r s t ( t h e s i s ) L o l a d i e s ; i n the second ( a n t i t h e s i s ) , Manni

d i e s ; i n the t h i r d ( s y n t h e s i s ) , bo th Manni and L o l a l i v e . The

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e s echo t h i s d i a l e c t i c . W h i l e L o l a i s

r u n n i n g on her ques t t o f i n d money t o save M a n n i , she

e n c o u n t e r s , and n e a r l y runs down, p e d e s t r i a n s and c y c l i s t s .

The f i r s t p e d e s t r i a n i s a bad-tempered woman w i t h a baby

c a r r i a g e . L o l a then c r o s s e s paths w i t h a c y c l i s t who wants t o

s e l l h i s b i c y c l e . F i n a l l y , i n her f a t h e r ' s downtown o f f i c e ,

L o l a g l a r e s a t a woman i n the h a l l w a y . As L o l a i s t e m p o r a r i l y

i n the presence o f each c h a r a c t e r , t h e r e a r e r a p i d - f i r e f l a s h

f o r w a r d s . These m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e s a r e composed o f a

s e r i e s o f s t i l l photographs t h a t are accompanied by the

s h u t t e r , c l i c k , and w h i r o f a s t i l l camera motor d r i v e . The

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e s r e v e a l the f u t u r e l i f e o f each

minor c h a r a c t e r . As each m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e ends

d i f f e r e n t l y , due t o the chaos t h e o r y ' s t e n e t t h a t the s l i g h t e s t

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v a r i a t i o n can produce enormous changes i n the future, each

mini-photographic narrative appropriately reveals d i f f e r e n t

endings. For example, the three mini-photographic narrative

sequences of a bad-tempered woman echo the changes i n the fate

of Lola and Manni i n the meta-filmic narrative. In the f i r s t

round, the bad-tempered woman becomes a s o c i a l welfare case,

loses her c h i l d , steals another i n a park and i s l a s t seen

being chased by the father and two other people. In the second

round, she buys a l o t t o t i c k e t and wins, purchases a new car,

and i s l a s t seen i n a lounge chair s i t t i n g beside her baby

asleep i n a c r i b as she and her husband share a toast i n the

front yard of her new mansion. In the t h i r d round, she

encounters a Jehovah's Witness on the street and l a t e r prays i n

a church, her husband takes communion, and she i s l a s t seen

with another woman on the street o f f e r i n g copies of the

Jehovah's Witness publications Awake and Watchtower.

Each of the three rounds of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r mini-

photographic narrative sequence demonstrates the three

categories of narrative s t a s i s , spectator r e c o i l and meta-

photographic narrative echo. Meta-filmic narrative s t a s i s

occurs very obviously, as the mini-photographic narrative i s

presented abruptly and without pretense. I t i s t o t a l l y

unexpected that a minor character would suddenly be given

s i g n i f i c a n t screen time by seeing t h e i r l i v e s f l a s h before our

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eyes . S p e c t a t o r r e c o i l i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t because the

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e o c c u r s d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f urgency

i n the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e . There i s no smooth t r a n s i t i o n

between L o l a ' s urgency and the bad-tempered woman's f a t e . The

m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e echoes the t e n e t s o f chaos t h e o r y

put f o r t h i n the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the t h r e e m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e

rounds t h a t compose the f i l m . Each m i n i - n a r r a t i v e and meta-

n a r r a t i v e proposes an e x i s t e n t i a l d i a l e c t i c a l d r i v e on the

m u l t i p l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f l i f e , which i s expres sed by t h e i r

d i v e r s e and o p p o s i t i o n a l e n d i n g s . I t i s suggested t h a t e i t h e r

chance o r f a t e w i l l de termine whether we l i v e o r d i e . W h i l e

Badlands and The P a r a l l a x View propose an e x p l i c i t death d r i v e

v i a the e x i s t e n t i a l c r i s e s o f the c e n t r a l p r o t a g o n i s t s , L o l a ' s

chang ing f a t e i n Run L o l a Run a s s e r t s t h a t death s t i l l remains

a m y s t e r y .

In sum, the change i n the p r o c e s s o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p t h a t

o c c u r s w i t h a m i n i - p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e w i t h i n a m e t a - f i l m

n a r r a t i v e i s c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d by the s y n t h e s i s t h a t o c c u r s due

t o the v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s o f photography and

n a r r a t i v e f i l m t h a t c o n c e r n the c a t e g o r i e s o f the s p a t i a l -

t e m p o r a l , the m a t e r i a l - h i s t o r i c a l , and e x i s t e n t i a l s p e c t a t o r

phenomenology. W i t h i n the c a t e g o r y o f the s p a t i a l - t e m p o r a l , I

have argued t h a t photography d i f f e r s from f i l m i n t h r e e ways.

The f i l m i c l e x i s i s l a r g e r than the p h o t o g r a p h i c l e x i s because

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o f the q u a l i t i e s o f movement and sound. As w e l l , photography

and f i l m d i f f e r i n the r o l e o f t e m p o r a l s p e c t a t o r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

In photography , the d u r a t i o n o f the l o o k o f o b s e r v a t i o n by the

s p e c t a t o r i s not f i x e d , but i n the c inema, the p e r c e p t u a l

p r o c e s s o f s p e c t a t o r s h i p r e q u i r e s the p h i phenomenon. W i t h i n

the m a t e r i a l - h i s t o r i c a l c a t e g o r y , photography and n a r r a t i v e

f i l m share the s i m i l a r i t i e s o f dependence on a r e f e r e n t , which

r e s t r i c t s them t o p r e s e n t o n l y a p a r t i a l v iew o f the w o r l d .

They both share h i s t o r i c a l s i m i l a r i t i e s i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

the p o s i t i o n o f the s p e c t a t o r due t o c e n t r a l i z e d Western

p e r s p e c t i v e . These s p a t i a l - t e m p o r a l and m a t e r i a l - h i s t o r i c a l

d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o the

phenomenolog ica l s p e c t a t o r s h i p t h a t o c c u r s when a m i n i -

p h o t o g r a p h i c n a r r a t i v e i s c o n t e x t u a l i z e d w i t h i n a m e t a - f i l m i c

n a r r a t i v e . The m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e i s t e m p o r a r i l y h a l t e d ,

c a u s i n g the s p e c t a t o r t o r e c o i l from the t e x t . T h i s pause

a l l o w s the v iewer t o c o n t e x t u a l l y contemplate both the m i n i -

and m e t a - t e x t , which works t o e n r i c h the o v e r a l l meaning o f

death i n the m e t a - f i l m i c n a r r a t i v e . Thus , as B a r t h e s ' quote a t

the b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c h a p t e r s u g g e s t s , death i s i n the image

t h a t p r e s e r v e s l i f e (photography) and the f i l m form works t o

e rase d e a t h , v i a the n a r r a t i v e p r o g r e s s i o n o f l i f e . Death

cannot be e r a s e d , perhaps because , as F r e u d t h e o r i z e d about

T h a n a t o s , t h e r e i s a death d r i v e i n every organ i sm t o r e t u r n t o

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the o r i g i n a l s t a t e o f i n o r g a n i c m a t t e r . T h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l and

p h y s i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m must have an o u t l e t i n some c u l t u r a l form.

S o c i o l o g i c a l l y , as B a r t h e s w r i t e s , death must be somewhere i n

s o c i e t y (92) . I f i t i s not i n r e l i g i o n , o r the s o c i e t a l

r i t u a l s t h a t no l o n g e r appear i n contemporary s o c i e t y , i t

r e s i d e s i n the h i g h l y v a l u e d and consumed c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s o f

the s t i l l image and the moving image.

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Chapter V. Metamorphic Death: Post-mortem and S p i r i t Photography i n Narrative Cinema

I t seems o n l y f i t t i n g , when d i s c u s s i n g the i r o n i c na ture

of photography , t o end my t h e s i s w i t h a c h a p t e r on the a n a l y s i

o f the e a r l y b e g i n n i n g s o f the medium. In my f i r s t c h a p t e r on

d e a t h , I d i s c u s s e d the m u l t i p l e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f death t h a t

enve lop photography . In the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , I compared the

v a r i o u s s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between photography and

f i l m . In t h i s c h a p t e r , I w i l l t r a c e the s h i f t i n g i d e o l o g i c a l

l i n e a g e o f death as m a n i f e s t i n the c o n t e n t o f photographs i n

the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I have observed two c e n t r a l p o r t r a y a l

o f d e a t h : post -mortem photography and s p i r i t photography . I

w i l l demonstrate how c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e s towards m a t e r i a l death

s p i r i t u a l i s m / and t e c h n o l o g y are expres sed i n the

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c o n t e n t o f the c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s o f

photography . Three f i l m s t h a t I have chosen t h a t use p o s t ­

mortem photography , s p i r i t photography , and t e c h n o l o g i c a l

s u p e r n a t u r a l i s m are The O t h e r s , The Asphyx , and R i n g .

As G e o f f r e y Batchen (1999) w r i t e s , photography has been

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h death s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n . In s t o p p i n g t i m e ,

each i n d i v i d u a l photograph embodies the in terweave o f l i f e and

d e a t h . A l l photographs bear the work o f death due t o the

t e m p o r a l - m a t e r i a l q u a l i t y o f f r e e z i n g , mummifying o r

c o r p s i f y i n g the c a p t u r e d body. T h i s t e m p o r a l - m a t e r i a l s t a s i s i

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p a r t i c u l a r l y manifest i n the early beginnings of photographic

technological development. Due to slow exposure times, the

subject had to remain completely s t i l l for many seconds and

even minutes to prevent the image from being blurred. The

s t r a i n of motionlessness caused the subject's face to look

sombre and morose. However, a solution became available for

removing the physical s t r a i n from the subject. Special

prosthetic devices were developed to constrain the subject. A

neck and back brace was secured to the subject to ensure

s t i l l n e s s and guarantee a detailed and clea r image. Garrett

Stewart observes that i t was as i f the body had to become a

sarcophagus before i t became a photographic e f f i g y (44 ) . This

device transformed the l i v e body into the st a s i s of an embalmed

e f f i g y . In order to appear l i f e l i k e , the technology of

photography demanded that the subject act as i f deceased

(Batchen 208) .

P o r t r a i t photographers took t h i s corpse-like association

with photography a step further and developed a l u c r a t i v e trade

i n producing post-mortem photographs. Grieving parents could

console themselves with a photograph of t h e i r departed c h i l d .

The irony of photography becomes apparent again, as an image of

the dead, as dead, somehow worked to sustain the l i v i n g

(Batchen 208) . Jay Ruby (1995) writes extensively on the

c u l t u r a l phenomenon of post-mortem photography that began i n

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the mid-nineteenth century and i s s t i l l practiced today. Ruby's

s o c i o l o g i c a l project i s to outline the s h i f t i n g c u l t u r a l

attitudes toward death over the past one hundred and si x t y

years i n America.

Ruby writes that death was a topic of p o l i t e conversation

i n the nineteenth century ( 7 ) . The grieving process was

considered normal, as i s demonstrated by widowhood and i t s

v i s u a l manifestation of wearing black i n public, which was a

l i f e l o n g s o c i a l expectation for many women. Additionally,

cemeteries were used as recreational s i t e s . But t h i s open and

accepting attitude towards death became a forbidden topic for

the American middle-class at the beginning of the twentieth

century. The public display of mourning and di s t r e s s over the

death of a family member was considered to be pathological.

However, Ruby writes that t h i s repressed view of death i s

changing, due to the p r o l i f e r a t i o n of gr i e f counselling and

death education i n public schools. Grief counsellors often use

photography as a t o o l for f a c i l i t a t i n g the healing process, as

Judith S t i l l i o n reveals:

This often helps c l i e n t s to r e - l i v e the circumstances of a p a r t i c u l a r period and can r e s u l t i n re-gaining or attaining o b j e c t i v i t y concerning t h e i r actions and decisions of that period. When c l i e n t s r e - l i v e the period with the help of photographs, they frequently can l e t go of feelings of g u i l t and regret over actions taken or not taken during that p a r t i c u l a r time (qtd. i n Ruby 8 ) .

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Freud wrote that the mourning period i s a process i n which

the subject learns that his or her loved one i s now gone

forever. In order to survive and heal, the person must d i r e c t

his or her attention towards someone or something else.

Substitutive objects, such as belongings of the deceased, or an

image of the deceased, can help ease the grieving process (qtd.

i n de Duve 123). Due to i t s indexical nature, a photographic

image may be more useful than a drawing or a painting.

Moreover, the i n d e x i c a l i t y of the photograph causes a mourning

process to occur with every image. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , as

Barthes suggests with the "that-has-been," the viewer i s always

aware that the subject or the object of the image once existed

i n a ce r t a i n time and place, but i t does not exi s t i n the same

way at the time of viewing the photograph. The temporal death

of photography brings awareness to both the mortality of the

content of the photograph, and a sense of mortality to the

viewer of the image. Whether a post-mortem photograph or not,

the viewer i s always engaged i n a process of mourning. As

Sontag writes: " A l l photographs are memento mori. To take a

photograph i s to p a r t i c i p a t e i n another person's mortality,

v u l n e r a b i l i t y , mutability" (15). In short, the mourning process

of the photograph f a c i l i t a t e s the healing process of grieving

(de Duve 123).

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Photographs o f death have a s o c i a l purpose (Ruby 9 -11) .

Due t o p h o t o g r a p h y ' s c o n n e c t i o n to memory, and memory's

c o n n e c t i o n t o g r i e f , a photograph o f a dead l o v e d one ( e i t h e r

a l i v e o r posthumous) works as a t h e r a p e u t i c t o o l f o r the

g r i e v i n g p r o c e s s . The i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l use o f the photograph i n

the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y e x e m p l i f i e s Sontag ' s w r i t i n g s on the

photograph as memento m o r i . The image o f a l o v e d one o r a

f r i e n d c o u l d be p r e s e r v e d and t r e a s u r e d as a memoria l keepsake .

The photograph o f f e r e d the promise o f a m a t e r i a l i s t r e a l i z a t i o n

o f e t e r n i t y . So , not o n l y d i d photography a i d i n the g r i e v i n g

p r o c e s s , but i t gave mourners t a n g i b i l i t y f o r remembering the

deceased .

The p o p u l a r i t y o f post -mortem photography i s s i m p l y

e x p l a i n e d by an i n c r e a s e i n death r a t e s i n the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . T h i s was a t ime o f s o c i a l , demographic , and c u l t u r a l

upheava l i n A m e r i c a . The p o p u l a t i o n o f the c o u n t r y t r i p l e d

between 1790 and 1830 and would t r i p l e a g a i n by 1860. As c i t i e s

grew, communit ies l e f t the c i t y f o r more space . Death r a t e s

due t o t u b e r c u l o s i s were ex treme ly h i g h i n areas t h a t were

crowded o r o v e r - p o p u l a t e d . T u b e r c u l o s i s became i d e n t i f i e d w i t h

the e v i l s o f urban l i f e , w h i l e the r u r a l l i f e s t y l e became a

re fuge from the d i s e a s e and p o l l u t i o n o f the c i t y . A p o l a r i t y

between p u b l i c and p r i v a t e l i f e d e v e l o p e d , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

importance b e i n g p l a c e d on the f a m i l y u n i t . A new V i c t o r i a n

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ideology arose that sentimentalized the family and i t s r i t u a l s ,

from b i r t h to death (Stannard 84-87).

Most photographs taken of the dead were of children,

r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r high mortality rate. Tuberculosis had the

largest impact on women and the young. Babies and children

under age f i v e were the highest risk-group for not surviving.

Therefore, many of the photographs of t h i s time were of dead

children. There was the V i c t o r i a n b e l i e f that the dead c h i l d

was blessed with eternal youth and innocence, and the archival

c a p a b i l i t i e s of photography f a c i l i t a t e d that b e l i e f (Stannard

73-74) .

There are three styles of post-mortem family photography

that are evident from 1840 to 1880. The f i r s t two styles

attempt to portray the deceased as not dead, and the t h i r d

s t y l e portrays the deceased with mourners. The f i r s t s t y l e can

be labeled as "the l a s t sleep". The association of death with

sleep can be traced back to c l a s s i c a l Greece. The mythical

sons of the night were Hypnos, god of sleep, and his twin,

Thanatos, god of death. Thus, i n the ideology of the late

nineteenth century, people did not die; they embarked on the

journey of eternal rest (Ruby 72).

The second st y l e of post-mortem photography can be labeled

as " a l i v e , but dead", portraying an attempt to conceal the

notion of death or sleep. The body was not l y i n g h orizontally,

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but p l a c e d i n an u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n , o f t e n i n a c h a i r . The eyes

were open o r p a i n t e d on as i f open, i n an at tempt t o c r e a t e the

i l l u s i o n t h a t the s u b j e c t was a l i v e . The s u b j e c t may have been

photographed as l y i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y , and then the photograph

would have been t u r n e d and mounted on a n i n e t y - d e g r e e ang le so

t h a t the body appeared u p r i g h t (Ruby 72) .

The a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s o f the f i r s t two s t y l e s o f p o s t ­

mortem photography u s u a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on the f a c i a l f e a t u r e s

o f the deceased , but a m i n o r i t y o f photographs showed the

e n t i r e body. The body r e s t e d on domest ic f u r n i t u r e , such as a

s o f a draped w i t h a sheet o r c o v e r l e t . The s e t t i n g was u s u a l l y

i n the l i v i n g room o r the p a r l o r o f a p r i v a t e home. Sometimes,

a dead c h i l d would be d i s p l a y e d as i f a s l e e p i n a buggy. There

are p r a c t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r the p o p u l a r i t y o f c l o s e - u p

images o f the deceased sea ted on a s o f a i n the p a r l o r . F u n e r a l

p a r l o r s were n o n e x i s t e n t , and c o f f i n s were not r e a d i l y

a v a i l a b l e . T h u s , "the l a s t s l eep" and " a l i v e , but dead" poses

demonstrate how t e c h n o l o g y and i d e o l o g y c o a l e s c e . A body

photographed i n a c o f f i n would have d i s r u p t e d the i l l u s i o n t h a t

the s u b j e c t was a l i v e (Ruby 72 ) .

The t h i r d s t y l e o f post -mortem photography d e p i c t s the

deceased i n the company o f mourners , u s u a l l y f a m i l y members.

The c e n t r a l i t y o f the n u c l e a r and extended f a m i l y i n m i d d l e -

c l a s s Amer ica was h i g h l y v a l u e d . Photographs f u n c t i o n e d t o

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memorialize and i d e a l i z e t h i s s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . Often, no

photographs would have been taken before a family member, such

as a young c h i l d , died. So, parents were depicted mourning

t h e i r dead c h i l d — a n attempt to create a f i n a l family image.

When the subject was a c h i l d , i t was held i n the arms or the

lap of the parent(s), as i f the c h i l d were asleep. When looking

at these images, i t i s often d i f f i c u l t to determine whether the

c h i l d i s asleep or dead. The display of g r i e f on the face of

the parents does not indicate the status of the c h i l d , as a l l

photographs of t h i s era portray sombre looking people due to

the slow technology of exposure times. As was discussed

e a r l i e r , people were placed i n re s t r a i n t s to ensure a clear,

unblurred image. The re s u l t was an image of a person without

f a c i a l emotion with a r i g i d , expressionless posture (Ruby 88-

90) .

Thus, the multiple associations of photography with death

can f i r s t be seen i n the e a r l i e s t photographs, where the slow

technology demanded that the subject be as s t i l l as a corpse.

Then, r e a l corpses were actually photographed, which served a

s o c i a l purpose i n aiding the healing process of mourning. So

photographers started with photographing l i v e people who looked

l i k e they were dead, and ended by photographing the t r u l y dead.

The next step was to photograph the dead i n the state of the

a f t e r l i f e , otherwise known as ghosts. However, photographing

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the dead was not the only preliminary step that led to

photographing ghosts. Cultural attitudes towards the

technology of the camera allowed the process of photography to

embody a powerful mysticism.

There i s one central c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of photography that

brings associations of black magic, the occult and supernatural

power: the double. While photography c a r r i e d p o s i t i v i s t

associations of truth, the medium was also experienced as an

uncanny phenomenon. The mechanical reproduction c a p a b i l i t i e s

of photography were interpreted as an a b i l i t y to create a

p a r a l l e l world of phantasmatic doubles. The new mythology

welcomed the d i s s o l v i n g e f f e c t s of modernity into the core of

metaphysics. Tom Gunning provocatively suggests that the

uncanny a b i l i t y of photography to produce a double of the

subject allowed i t to embody associations of the supernatural

(43). Therefore, I w i l l examine the lineage of m u l t i - c u l t u r a l

thinking on the double, as outlined by Sigmund Freud and Otto

Rank.

Gunning recounts Freud's writing from The Uncanny (1919),

stating that a fascination with r e p e t i t i o n led Freud to go

beyond the pleasure p r i n c i p l e to a confrontation with the death

drive and the c o n f l i c t between Eros and Thanatos (43-44). Otto

Rank also writes on the theme of the double, which was inspired

by German uncanny cinema, i n p a r t i c u l a r The Student of Prague

103

(1912), where the t r i c k e r y o f double exposure was employed.

Both F r e u d and Rank demonstrate t h a t the double has a l o n g

l i n e a g e , from a r c h a i c b e l i e f s t o the romant i c Doppe lganger .

Photography worked as a new t e c h n o l o g y t o f u r n i s h a l r e a d y

e x i s t i n g b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g the uncanny.

Rank's c l a s s i c essays i n The Double (1971) p r o v i d e a

d e t a i l e d account on the m u l t i - c u l t u r a l forms o f the double and

the b e l i e f s t h a t are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . Rank p o s i t s t h a t

humankind's need f o r s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i o n o r s e l f - i m m o r t a l i z a t i o n ,

which i s p a r t l y a c h i e v e d w i t h the p h o t o g r a p h i c image, l e d t o

the development o f c i v i l i z a t i o n and s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s . Rank

o u t l i n e s the d i v e r s e b e l i e f s i n the need t o p r o t e c t one ' s

shadow, which i s a form o f a double o f o n e s e l f . Another form

of the double i s i n the r e f l e c t i o n , r e p r o d u c e d i n g l a s s o r i n

w a t e r . Many t r i b a l peop les b e l i e v e d t h a t the s o u l i s embodied

i n the image. T h i s was then c a r r i e d over t o permanent

r e p r o d u c t i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s , such as photography . H i s t o r i c a l l y ,

t h e r e has been a p r o l i f i c dread of one ' s own p o r t r a i t o r

photograph found a c r o s s many c u l t u r e s , such as the F i r s t

N a t i o n s , the American I n d i a n , and t r i b e s i n C e n t r a l A f r i c a , as

w e l l as i n A s i a , E a s t I n d i a , and E u r o p e . I t was thought t h a t

the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s o u l was m a n i f e s t i n the image o f the s u b j e c t ,

and i t was f e a r e d t h a t the f o r e i g n p o s s e s s o r o f t h i s f i g u r a t i v e

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r e p r e s e n t a t i o n c o u l d l e a d the s u b j e c t to harmfu l or d e a d l y

consequences (Rank 52 -65 ) .

When the daguerreo type was i n v e n t e d i n 1839, t h i s f e a r o f

the uncanny double was expres sed by an u n c e r t a i n p u b l i c

r e c e p t i o n t o the new t e c h n o l o g y . A decade a f t e r D a g u e r r e ' s

s u c c e s s f u l e x p e r i m e n t s , B a l z a c ' s w r i t i n g s i n d i c a t e a d e a t h l y

f e a r o f the r e p r o d u c t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f photography . A

photographer o f the t i m e , Nadar , w r o t e : "The l o w l i e s t t o the

most h i g h [...] t r e m b l e d b e f o r e the daguerreo type [...]. More than

a few o f our most b r i l l i a n t i n t e l l e c t s shrank back as i f from a

d i s e a s e " (Nadar 9). He c o n t i n u e s by n o t i n g the response o f h i s

f r i e n d , B a l z a c , who expres sed uneas ines s about the p h o t o g r a p h i c

p r o c e s s . Nadar summarizes B a l z a c ' s "Theory o f the S p e c t e r s " :

A c c o r d i n g t o B a l z a c ' s t h e o r y , a l l p h y s i c a l bod ie s are made up e n t i r e l y o f l a y e r s o f g h o s t l i k e images , an i n f i n i t e number o f l e a f l i k e s k i n s l a i d one on top o f the o t h e r . S i n c e B a l z a c b e l i e v e d man was i n c a p a b l e o f making something m a t e r i a l from an a p p a r i t i o n , from something i m p a l p a b l e - t h a t i s , c r e a t i n g something from n o t h i n g — he c o n c l u d e d t h a t every t ime someone had h i s photograph t a k e n , one o f the s p e c t r a l l a y e r s was removed from the body and t r a n s f e r r e d t o the p h o t o g r a p h . Repeated exposures e n t a i l e d the u n a v o i d a b l e l o s s o f subsequent g h o s t l y l a y e r s , t h a t i s , the v e r y essence o f l i f e . (9)

R o s a l i n d Krauss w r i t e s i n the r e l a t i v e l y contemporary

e s say , " T r a c i n g Nadar" , t h a t B a l z a c ' s t h e o r y expres sed the d u a l

i d e n t i t y o f photography . The q u a l i t y o f the double was e q u a l l y

shared i n the p o s i t i v i s t ' s a b s o l u t i s m of mat ter and the

m e t a p h y s i c i a n ' s e x i s t e n t i a l l i n k t o the o r i g i n a l s o u r c e . B a l z a c

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wrote : "The e x t e r n a l l i f e i s a k i n d o f o r g a n i z e d system which

r e p r e s e n t s a man as e x a c t l y as the c o l o r s by which the s n a i l

r eproduces i t s e l f on i t s s h e l l " ( q t d . i n Krauss 35 ) . The

c o n n e c t i o n s t o b i o l o g y o f t h i s model were meant t o c a r r y the

a u t h o r i t y o f S c i e n c e , w h i l e the n o t i o n o f man as a s e r i e s o f

e x f o l i a t i n g , s e l f - d e p i c t i o n images i s the model o f the s n a i l i n

a p o e t i c and w h i m s i c a l form.

A l s o around the t ime o f B a l z a c ' s w r i t i n g , t h e r e was a new

c u l t u r a l development i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s — t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l

system o f S p i r i t u a l i s m . The S p i r i t u a l i s t movement r e l a t e d i t s

wor ldv iew t o the modern changes i n t e c h n o l o g y and s c i e n c e , such

as e l e c t r i c i t y , t e l e g r a p h y and new advances i n c h e m i s t r y and

b i o l o g y . P h o t o g r a p h y ' s q u a l i t y o f the double i s what a t t r a c t e d

the S p i r i t u a l i s t s t o the medium. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t was the

t r i c k photography of the double exposure , a k i n d o f double

w i t h i n the d o u b l e . A g a i n , i t was the i r o n i c q u a l i t y o f

p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i n d e x i c a l i t y and s imul taneous uncanniness t h a t

a t t r a c t e d B a l z a c t o w r i t e about the medium and a l s o the

S p i r i t u a l i s t s t o i t . P h o t o g r a p h i c l i k e n e s s and the

t r a n s p a r e n c y o f ghosts demonstrated the uncanny q u a l i t y o f

photography , o r , i n o t h e r words , i t s c a p t u r e o f a s p e c t r e - l i k e

double (Gunning 4 7 ) .

Photography s u b s t a n t i a t e d S p i r i t u a l i s m . A l l c l a i m s o f

s p i r i t photography as e v i d e n c e o f an a f t e r l i f e r e s t on the

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i n d e x i c a l c l a i m t h a t g h o s t s , i n v i s i b l e t o the human eye , are

p i c k e d up by the more s e n s i t i v e c a p a c i t y o f photography . S p i r i t

photographers d e n i e d they knew how t h e i r photographs o f ghosts

were c r e a t e d . I t was p o i n t e d out by s k e p t i c s o f s p i r i t

photography t h a t the ghosts t h a t appeared i n such photographs

were o f t e n the exac t d u p l i c a t i o n s o f e x i s t i n g p h o t o g r a p h s .

W h i l e t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i n d i c a t e s the method of p h o t o g r a p h i n g

photographs t o c r e a t e the s p i r i t image, the S p i r i t u a l i s t s

c l a i m e d t h a t t h i s d i d not r u l e out s u p e r n a t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s .

S p i r i t photographs were thought t o be produced by s p i r i t u a l

f o r c e s t h a t used images o f the dead as a way of communicat ing

t o the l i v i n g (Gunning 64) .

Whi l e S p i r i t photography o f t e n worked t o s u b s t a n t i a t e the

s u p e r n a t u r a l c l a i m s o f the S p i r i t u a l i s t movement, these images

a l s o s e r v e d a s o c i a l purpose v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f the p o s t ­

mortem photographs . S p i r i t photographs were produced f o r the

mourners t o ease t h e i r h e a l i n g p r o c e s s . Photographs o f the dead

were g i v e n t o photographers t o superimpose over the photographs

o f the mourners . These photographs were not used t o c l a i m

ev idence o f an a f t e r l i f e , but t o c r e a t e a c o n s o l i n g image. The

o n l y i n d e x i c a l c l a i m o f these photographs i s t h a t the image o f

the f a m i l y l i v e s o n , even a f t e r the s u b j e c t s have d i e d .

F u r t h e r m o r e , v i e w i n g these images today as c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s ,

g i v e s the contemporary o b s e r v e r a t a n g i b l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

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i d e o l o g i e s o f i m m o r t a l i t y t h a t were o p e r a t i n g i n the m i d -

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

The a e s t h e t i c t e n d e n c i e s o f pos t -mortem, s p i r i t

photography and t e c h n o l o g i c a l uncanniness are demonstrated i n

t h r e e f i l m s t h a t I have chosen: The O t h e r s , The Asphyx, and

R i n g . The Others u t i l i z e s two o f the t h r e e s t y l e s r e g a r d i n g

post -mortem photography—"the e t e r n a l s l eep" and " a l i v e , but

d e a d . " The Asphyx expresses the V i c t o r i a n S p i r i t u a l i s m t h a t

empowered the camera w i t h s u p e r n a t u r a l c a p a b i l i t i e s . R i n g

p r e s e n t s a contemporary view o f V i c t o r i a n S p i r i t u a l i s m , u s i n g

the h a u n t i n g power o f the t e c h n o l o g i e s o f v i d e o , the t e l ephone

and the camera.

In The O t h e r s , Grace l i v e s i n a mansion w i t h her two

c h i l d r e n and t h r e e s e r v a n t s . Her husband i s m i s s i n g i n a c t i o n

due t o h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n as a s o l d i e r i n Wor ld War Two. G r a c e ' s

son and daughter are c h r o n i c a l l y a l l e r g i c t o l i g h t , and cannot

l e a v e the house . They must r e s i d e i n complete d a r k n e s s , and

t h e r e f o r e a l l the windows are c o v e r e d w i t h t h i c k d r a p e r y . In

one scene , Grace i s s o r t i n g through c l u t t e r i n the a t t i c when

she f i n d s a box o f p h o t o g r a p h s . She comes a c r o s s a b l a c k photo

album, where a l l the s u b j e c t s o f the images are e i t h e r s i t t i n g

u p r i g h t i n a c h a i r o r wooden bench , o r l y i n g down i n bed . They

are a l l wear ing b l a c k and t h e i r eyes are c l o s e d . Grace asks

her s e r v a n t , M r s . M i l l s , why everyone i n the photographs i s

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s l e e p i n g . M r s . M i l l s t e l l s her t h a t what she i s l o o k i n g a t i s a

"Book o f the Dead ." L a t e r i n the f i l m , Grace f i n d s a p o s t ­

mortem photograph i n her room, showing a l l t h r e e o f her

s e r v a n t s s i t t i n g on a c o u c h , wear ing b l a c k and d i s p l a y i n g

c l o s e d eyes . Grace r e a l i z e s t h a t her s e r v a n t s are g h o s t s . A t

the same t i m e , the c h i l d r e n f i n d the s e r v a n t s ' t h r e e graves i n

the garden and a l s o r e a l i z e t h a t the domest ics a r e g h o s t s .

L a t e r , the g h o s t l y s e r v a n t s warn Grace t h a t "the o t h e r s " have

her c h i l d r e n . Grace e n t e r s a room where the c h i l d r e n are

h i d i n g t o d i s c o v e r a seance i n p r o g r e s s . Grace i s t o l d t h a t she

and her c h i l d r e n are g h o s t s , t o o . In f a c t , when G r a c e ' s

husband d i d not r e t u r n from the war, she smothered her c h i l d r e n

w i t h p i l l o w s and shot h e r s e l f .

The use o f post -mortem photography i s key t o the p l o t

s t r u c t u r e , as i t i s the d i s c o v e r y o f the post -mortem

photographs o f the s e r v a n t s t h a t l e a d s Grace to r e a l i z e t h a t

she and her c h i l d r e n are a l s o g h o s t s . And Grace would not have

r e a l i z e d t h a t the s e r v a n t s were dead i n the f i n a l post -mortem

photograph i f she had not d i s c o v e r e d the b l a c k photo album

e a r l i e r i n the s t o r y , when M r s . M i l l s e x p l a i n e d t o her t h a t the

s u b j e c t s i n the photographs were not a s l e e p . There are n i n e

photographs d i s p l a y e d i n the "Book o f the Dead ." The images

range from medium shots t o l o n g shots and from the e l d e r l y t o

i n f a n t s . The c o r p s e s are e i t h e r l y i n g i n bed t o p o r t r a y the

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f i r s t s t y l i s t i c of post-mortem photography, "the eternal

sleep", or the subjects are placed upright i n wicker chairs or

wooden benches, portraying the second s t y l i s t i c of " a l i v e , but

dead." The subjects are meant to look as i f they are a l i v e and

posing for a photographic p o r t r a i t . The Others does not depict

post-mortem photographs of the deceased with mourners, the

t h i r d s t y l i s t i c of post-mortem photography. Some of the images

depict more than one subject i n the image, though. For

example, i n one photograph, there are two children seated on a

wooden bench, holding hands. There i s also an image of three

young men l y i n g together i n one bed. The f i l m i s not only

accurately referencing two of the three s t y l i s t i c s of post­

mortem photography, but i t i s also demonstrating the frequency

to which people died due to the tuberculosis epidemic during

the middle and late nineteenth century. A l l three servants,

Mrs. M i l l s , Mr. Tuttle and Lydia are shown to have died at the

same time, as the three of them are shown seated together. The

photograph i s dated December 1891, which was, i n fact, during

the tuberculosis epidemic.

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that not only are the

photographs depicted with h i s t o r i c a l accuracy, but the dialogue

between Grace and Mrs. M i l l s also acknowledges the c u l t u r a l

attitudes of the time. While Grace i s looking through the black

book with Mrs. M i l l s , she finds the image of the two children

t o g e t h e r . Grace d i s t r a u g h t l y expresses t h a t she f i n d s such a

p r a c t i c e t o be macabre, and does not u n d ers t an d how "these

peop le c o u l d be so s u p e r s t i t i o u s . " M r s . M i l l s had e a r l i e r

e x p l a i n e d t h a t : "In the l a s t c e n t u r y , I b e l i e v e they took

photographs o f the dead i n the hopes t h a t t h e i r s o u l s would go

on l i v i n g through the p o r t r a i t s . " T h i s r e f e r e n c e s O t t o Rank's

d i s c u s s i o n on the double and the f a c t t h a t some t r i b a l peop le

b e l i e v e d t h a t the image posses sed the s o u l .

A c h i e v i n g i m m o r t a l i t y through m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i s

f u r t h e r expanded on i n The Asphyx . The Asphyx ske tches the

i d e o l o g i e s o f i m m o r t a l i t y and V i c t o r i a n S p i r i t u a l i s m i n

p h o t o g r a p h i c exper iments and t h e i r impact a t the end o f the

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S i r V i c t o r Hugo i s a s c i e n t i s t who

photographs peop le a t the moment they d i e . In p h o t o g r a p h i n g the

s u f f e r e r s , he i s r e p e a t e d l y a b l e t o c a p t u r e a c e r t a i n smear on

the p i c t u r e near the head o f the d y i n g . In one scene , he

p r o j e c t s s l i d e images o f i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e a t the p o i n t o f

d e a t h , t o a s o c i e t y o f amateurs . He p o i n t s out t h a t i n every

image t h e r e i s a b l a c k smear near the head o f the n e a r l y

deceased . In o r d e r t o determine the d i r e c t i o n i n which the

smear i s t r a v e l l i n g , he deve lops an a p p a r a t u s , whereby he can

r e c o r d moving o b j e c t s . He must t r y t o d i s c o v e r i f the b l a c k

smear r e p r e s e n t s the s o u l l e a v i n g the body, or i f i t i s a death

I l l

s p i r i t coming t o take the s o u l away. Thus , he i n v e n t s the

m o t i o n . p i c t u r e camera.

In t h i s f i l m , the V i c t o r i a n c r a z e f o r s p i r i t photography

has been upgraded t o produce the image o f ghosts i n the making ,

o r death i n p r o c e s s . What S i r Hugo d i s c o v e r s i n a c t i o n i s t h a t

the p u z z l i n g smudge he has been s t u d y i n g i s an e c t o p l a s m i c

phantom, c a p t u r e d as i t a r r i v e s on the scene o f d e a t h . T h i s i s

the Greek s p i r i t o f d e a t h , the Asphyx ( d e r i v e d from the term

a s p h y x i a t i o n ) (Stewart i v ) . I t i s the t e c h n o l o g y o f the

camera, which i s more s e n s i t i v e than the human eye t h a t can

c a p t u r e the asphyx i n a c t i o n . The Asphyx a c c u r a t e l y expresses

the V i c t o r i a n S p i r i t u a l i s t i n d e x i c a l i t y c l a i m o f the p r e c i s i o n

o f the t e c h n o l o g y o f the camera. The d e t a i l and i n s t a n t a n e o u s

q u a l i t y o f m e c h a n i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i s more f a i t h f u l i n

r e p r o d u c i n g r e a l i t y than any human agency, so t h e r e f o r e the

c o n t e n t d e p i c t e d i n the image must be t r u t h f u l , and i t i s the

weakness o f the human sensory system t h a t cannot p e r c e i v e what

the camera r e c o r d s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the camera i s empowered w i t h

m y s t i c a l s t r e n g t h , as i t s i n d e x i c a l a b i l i t y a l l o w s the u s e r o f

the t e c h n o l o g y t o c a p t u r e the death s p i r i t f o r e t e r n i t y , and

thus a c h i e v e i m m o r t a l i t y . Wi thout the s e n s i t i v i t y o f the

camera, the Asphyx c o u l d never be d e t e c t e d and t h e r e f o r e , never

be c a u g h t .

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F i n a l l y , the contemporary Japanese f i l m , R i n g , expresses a

r e v e r s a l o f the V i c t o r i a n b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g the i m m o r t a l i t y

t h a t i s l i n k e d t o the image as expres sed i n The Others and The

Asphyx . R i n g proposes the n o t i o n o f impending doom t h a t B a r t h e s

put f o r t h i n Camera L u c i d a and which was most n o t a b l y expres sed

i n B a d l a n d s , d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r . The i d e a i s

t h a t v i e w i n g an image o f the p a s t , i n the p r e s e n t , c o m p l i c a t e s

the v i e w e r ' s sense o f m o r t a l i t y . O r , as Sontag w r i t e s , the

photograph draws a t t e n t i o n t o the r e l e n t l e s s me l t o f t i m e ,

announcing an i n e s c a p a b l e d i s m a l f a t e f o r the v i ewer (15) . In

R i n g , the power o f the t e c h n o l o g y o f the camera v i s u a l l y

m a n i f e s t s t h i s impending death o f the s u b j e c t by d i s t o r t i n g the

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the s u b j e c t .

R i n g l i n k s the t e c h n o l o g i c a l apparatus t o the

s u p e r n a t u r a l . The s t o r y r e s t s on the urban myth t h a t a teenage

g i r l , Tomoko, watched a v i d e o , and then r e c e i v e d a phone c a l l

t h a t she would d i e i n a week. A t e l e v i s i o n r e p o r t e r , R e i k o ,

i n v e s t i g a t e s the s t o r y . She f i n d s a p i c t u r e o f the teenage

g i r l and her f r i e n d s . She i s provoked i n t o i n v e s t i g a t i n g the

s t o r y f u r t h e r , when she sees the n i g h t m a r i s h image o f the

b l u r r e d and d i s t o r t e d faces o f the f o u r t e e n a g e r s . R e i k o

t r a v e l s t o the p l a c e where the teenage g i r l saw the t a p e . She

watches the v i d e o and a l s o r e c e i v e s the phone c a l l . Her ex-

husband takes a P o l a r o i d p i c t u r e o f h e r , and as the p i c t u r e

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deve lops on the s p o t , R e i k o ' s face i s r e v e a l e d t o be c o n t o r t e d

and out o f p r o p o r t i o n . The P o l a r o i d c o n f i r m s her f a t e ; she

w i l l d i e i n one week, as d i d Tomoko, so she must s o l v e the

mystery t o ensure her own s u r v i v a l .

The photograph i s e s s e n t i a l i n push ing the p l o t f o r w a r d ,

as i t i s used t o c o n f i r m a d i s m a l f u t u r e , which m o t i v a t e s Re iko

to s o l v e the s t o r y . By c o n t r a s t , i n The Others and The Asphyx ,

the use o f photography and the camera are m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the

V i c t o r i a n b e l i e f s o f i m m o r t a l i t y and S p i r i t u a l i s m , l i n k i n g

m y s t i c power t o t e c h n o l o g y . But i n R i n g , the camera does not

p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e i n chang ing a m o r t a l ' s f a t e ; the

p h o t o g r a p h ' s i n d e x i c a l i t y r e v e a l s a doom t h a t i s a l r e a d y

p r e s e n t . However, t h e r e i s the d u a l i s m o f p o s i t i v i s m and the

d o u b l e , as the t e c h n o l o g y o f the camera i s s t i l l p o w e r f u l

enough t o r e v e a l the impending death t h a t mere m o r t a l s cannot

p e r c e i v e . The l i g h t - s e n s i t i v e , d e t a i l e d image i s r e n d e r e d v i a

the camera, which has the c a p a c i t y t o d u p l i c a t e a r e a l i t y t h a t

i s unseen by the average p e r s o n . The ev idence o f the image

a l l o w s Re iko t o take mat ters i n t o her own hands , and change her

f a t e h e r s e l f .

In c o n c l u s i o n , a l l t h r e e f i l m s a c c u r a t e l y p o r t r a y the

s h i f t i n g methods i n r e p r e s e n t i n g death i n photography i n the

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . From posthumous photography to S p i r i t

photography , t h e r e i s a s t r o n g d r i v e towards a t t e m p t i n g

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i m m o r t a l i t y . Posthumous photography s e r v e d as memento m o r i f o r

the mourning , a l l o w i n g the deceased t o l i v e on i n the p r e s e n t

i n the form o f an image. S p i r i t photography p o r t r a y s the

d u a l i s m t h a t embodies the p h o t o g r a p h . I t i s c o n s i d e r e d

t r u t h f u l due t o i t s i n d e x i c a l i t y , y e t the g h o s t l y t r a c e o r

double can a l s o r e v e a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n r e a l i t y t h a t i s not

p e r c e i v e d by the human eye . The S p i r i t u a l i s t s were s t r i v i n g t o

p r o v i d e ev idence t h a t l i f e does e x i s t a f t e r d e a t h . The power o f

the t e c h n o l o g y o f the camera b r i n g s i m m o r t a l i t y through

p r e s e r v a t i o n o f the image, and thus the s o u l , as i s

demonstrated i n The O t h e r s . Or the camera r e v e a l s the

u n p e r c e i v a b l e ghost o f d e a t h , which can then be c a p t u r e d t o

a c h i e v e i m m o r t a l i t y , as i n The Asphyx . Or the camera r e v e a l s a

d i s t o r t e d image t h a t i m p l i e s impending doom, and thus g i v e s the

s u b j e c t a view o f a d i s m a l f a t e , but t h i s f a t e can be changed

v i a human agency, as i n R i n g . A l l t h r e e f i l m s suggest and

r e p l i c a t e the V i c t o r i a n i d e o l o g y t h a t the s u p e r n a t u r a l power o f

the t e c h n o l o g y o f the camera can b r i n g i m m o r t a l i t y i n one form

o r a n o t h e r .

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Epitaph

To f o l l o w a d i s c u s s i o n on p h o t o g r a p h y ' s a s s o c i a t i o n s o f

d e a t h , i t i s o n l y l o g i c a l t o end my t h e s i s on the debates t h a t

c o n c e r n the death o f photography e n t i r e l y . As G e o f f r e y Batchen

n o t e s , the o u t b u r s t o f debates on p h o t o g r a p h i c m o r b i d i t y stems

from two r e l a t e d a n x i e t i e s . The f i r s t i s a r e s u l t o f the

w idespread i n t r o d u c t i o n s o f computer d r i v e n imaging p r o c e s s e s

t h a t a l l o w "fake" photographs t o be passed o f f as r e a l ones .

The f a t e f u l p r o s p e c t i s t h a t v i ewers w i l l d i s c a r d t h e i r f a i t h

i n the p h o t o g r a p h ' s a b i l i t y t o d e l i v e r o b j e c t i v e t r u t h i f they

are unable t o d i s t i n g u i s h the fake images from the r e a l images .

So t h e r e are two c r i s e s t h a t photography f a c e s — o n e ,

t e c h n o l o g i c a l ( d i g i t a l imaging) and the o t h e r , e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

(changes i n e t h i c s , knowledge and c u l t u r e ) . T o g e t h e r , these

c r i s e s propose the death o f photography w i t h the "end" o f

photography and the c u l t u r e i t s u s t a i n s (207) .

But photography has been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h death s i n c e the

b e g i n n i n g . As I d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 1, the a e s t h e t i c s o f

r e a l i s m borrowed from Rena i s sance p a i n t i n g gave shape t o the

i n f l u e n t i a l r h e t o r i c o f t r u t h t h a t s t a n d a r d i z e d p h o t o g r a p h i c

i m a g i n g . Under the c a t e g o r y o f Death , I o u t l i n e d B a r t h e s

d i s c u s s i o n on p h o t o g r a p h y ' s c h i l l i n g i n s i s t e n c e on human

m o r t a l i t y due t o the p r o c e s s ' s p a r t i c u l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t i m e .

A n d , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e are the m a t e r i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f

116

p h o t o g r a p h i c death i n posthumous and s p i r i t photography .

E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y , the death o f t r u t h t h a t surrounds

p h o t o g r a p h i c p r a c t i c e has been n e g o t i a t e d s i n c e the b e g i n n i n g .

F o r w h i l e the p o s i t i v i s t s were a s s e r t i n g t h a t r e a l i s m was the

a e s t h e t i c o f t r u t h , o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s were

b l a t a n t l y m a n i p u l a t i n g the image to produce s p i r i t imagery .

But g i v e n t h a t death has been i n t e g r a l t o p h o t o g r a p h y ' s

l i f e , what does i t mean now t o c o n s i d e r the t e r m i n a l

d i s p l a c e m e n t o f photography by d i g i t a l imaging? The main

d i f f e r e n c e between the o n t o l o g y o f photography and d i g i t a l

imaging i s t h a t photography s t i l l o c c u p i e s a t e m p o r a l

i n d e x i c a l i t y , w h i l e d i g i t a l imaging remains an o v e r t l y

f i c t i o n a l p r o c e s s . D i g i t i z a t i o n abandons the r h e t o r i c o f t r u t h

t h a t has been such an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s c u l t u r a l

s u c c e s s . As the name s u g g e s t s , d i g i t a l p r o c e s s a c t u a l l y r e t u r n s

the p r o d u c t i o n o f p h o t o g r a p h i c images t o the whim o f the

c r e a t i v e human hand ( to the d i g i t s ) . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , d i g i t a l

images are c l o s e r t o a r t and f i c t i o n than they are t o

documentat ion and f a c t . But a g a i n , as I d i s c u s s e d the

s u b j e c t i v e q u a l i t i e s o f the p h o t o g r a p h i c p r o c e s s , photographs

are no more o r no l e s s " true" t o the f a c t s than d i g i t a l images

are (Batchen 212).

T h i s argument b r i n g s us t o the dilemma o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s

o n t o l o g y , and t o the a n a l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t h a t g i v e

117

photography i t s i d e n t i t y as a medium. Remember that Barthes has

already discounted resemblance to r e a l i t y as a way of defining

photography. In his terms, the photograph may not represent the

subject exactly, but we are sure that he or she was once there

i n front of the camera. We can be sure he or she, at some

point, was present i n time and space due to photography's

temporal i n d e x i c a l i t y . Reality may have been transcribed,

manipulated, or enhanced, but photography doesn't cast doubt on

r e a l i t y ' s actual existence (Batchen 212).

Photography's p l a u s i b i l i t y has rested on the uniqueness of

i t s indexical r e l a t i o n to the world i t images, a r e l a t i o n

regarded as fundamental to i t s operation as a system of

representation. As a footprint i s to a foot, so i s a photograph

to i t s referent. For t h i s reason, a photograph of something has

generally been considered to be evidence of that thing's being,

even i f i t i s not e n t i r e l y t r u t h f u l (Batchen 212). On the

other hand, computer v i s u a l i z a t i o n can produce photographic

ae s t h e t i c - l i k e images with no d i r e c t referent i n an outside

world. It i s t h i s photographic-like aesthetic product that

d i g i t a l images create, but without the process of depending on

a referent, that i s threatening to photography (Batchen 213).

Contemporary philosophy raises serious questions about the

conceptual s t a b i l i t y of the index on which photography's

i d e n t i t y depends. Photographs are p r i v i l e g e d over d i g i t a l

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images because they are i n d e x i c a l s i g n s , images i n s c r i b e d by

the v e r y o b j e c t s t o which they r e f e r . T h i s i s t aken t o mean

t h a t , whatever degrees o f m e d i a t i o n may be i n t r o d u c e d ,

photographs are u l t i m a t e l y d i r e c t i m p r i n t s o f r e a l i t y i t s e l f .

But as D e r r i d a p o i n t s o u t , i n P e i r c e ' s w r i t i n g "the t h i n g

i t s e l f i s a s i g n [...] from the moment t h e r e i s meaning t h e r e are

n o t h i n g but s i g n s " ( q t d . i n Batchen 215) . In o t h e r words , the

v e r y P e i r c i a n s e m i o t i c s upon which p h o t o g r a p h y ' s a n a l o g i c a l

s t a b i l i t y i s founded would have us r e w r i t e photography as a

s i g n i n g o f s i g n s , r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t i t i s a t the same t ime a

d i g i t a l p r o c e s s (Batchen 215) .

Perhaps the f i l m t h a t b e s t a r t i c u l a t e s the d u a l i t y o f

photography i n the c o n t e x t o f d i g i t a l i z a t i o n and computer

imaging i s RoboCop. The s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n f u t u r i s t i c f i l m

f e a t u r e s a r e s u r r e c t e d and r o b o t i c i z e d p o l i c e o f f i c e r . A l e x J .

Murphy has a new, supercharged c y b o r g body and i t i s h i s

m i s s i o n t o r e c l a i m h i s memory and avenge h i s own d e a t h . The

p i v o t a l moment i n the f i l m o c c u r s when he l e a r n s t h a t he has

a l r e a d y d i e d and t h a t he was once human.

Murphy marches i n t o the computer r e c o r d s room o f the

p o l i c e s t a t i o n . He uses h i s r o b o t i c arm t o bypass the computer

s e c u r i t y system o f the C r i m i n a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n D i v i s i o n . The

f i r s t c r i m i n a l appears on the s c r e e n , and t o i d e n t i f y h im, the

computer scans the database o f f a c e s . F i r s t , the mouth i s

119

matched w h i l e random noses and eyes are s c r o l l i n g b y . Then the

nose i s matched, f o l l o w e d by the eyes t o make the complete face

o f the c r i m i n a l . T h i s patchwork of s c r o l l i n g and s c a n n i n g

r e v e a l s the p o t e n t i a l f i c t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f d i g i t a l i m a g i n g . Any

body p a r t can be removed and r e p l a c e d by another t o e i t h e r

match a face o r c r e a t e a f i c t i o n a l f a c e . The ease and seamless

f a c i l i t y o f c r e a t i n g f i c t i o n w i t h d i g i t a l imaging i s what

causes the p r o c e s s t o be under s e r i o u s s c r u t i n y . Anybody can

be f o o l e d .

In t h i s i n s t a n c e , the computer imaging i s used t o access

c r i m i n a l r e c o r d f i l e s , e f f i c i e n t l y and q u i c k l y . And a l t h o u g h

the d i g i t a l p r o c e s s c a r r i e s the r h e t o r i c o f f i c t i o n , h e r e , the

s t r e n g t h o f t r u t h o f the p o l i c e i n s t i t u t i o n a l p h o t o g r a p h i c

r e c o r d s overcomes these a s s o c i a t i o n s . As Murphy scans the

d a t a b a s e , s t a n d a r d i z e d p o l i c e photographs o f the f r o n t a l and

p r o f i l e views o f c r i m i n a l a c c o m p l i c e s appear . F i n a l l y , Murphy' s

p h o t o g r a p h i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a p p e a r s , and as he r e c o g n i z e s h i s

own s e l f - i m a g e , r e d l e t t e r s f l a s h on the screen—"Deceased ."

The d i g i t a l images have proven t h a t he i s dead . T h i s example

demonstrates the f a c i l i t y o f m a n i p u l a t i o n o f the image due t o

the random image s c a n n i n g o f the c r i m i n a l d a t a b a s e , but i t a l s o

shows t h a t the myth o f t r u t h t h a t surrounds photography i s

p e r s i s t e n t l y a t t a c h e d t o the r e f e r e n t i a l q u a l i t y o f the d i g i t a l

image. Perhaps i t i s because the d i g i t a l image i s an a r c h i v e d

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image, t h a t Murphy g i v e s the a u t h o r i t y o f t r u t h t o h i s

f i n d i n g s .

P h i l o s o p h y g i v e s us one way t o t h i n k about the

c o m p l i c a t i o n t h a t i s p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i d e n t i t y . Photography i s a

l o g i c t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y r e t u r n s t o haunt i t s e l f . The e n i g m a t i c

q u a l i t y o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s i n d e x i c a l i t y r a i s e s p h i l o s o p h i c

q u e s t i o n s about the s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f T r u t h and D e a t h .

The b l u r r e d b o u n d a r i e s o f p h o t o g r a p h y ' s p h i l o s o p h i c a l

u n d e r p i n n i n g s p r e v e n t the medium from o c c u p y i n g a s t a b l e and

u n i f y i n g i d e n t i t y . As my many f i l m examples from d i f f e r e n t t ime

p e r i o d s , g e n r e s , and c o u n t r i e s have p r o v e n , w i t h o u t a s i n g l e

and c o n s i s t e n t meaning, photography can be used , m a n i p u l a t e d

and r e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d f o r d i v e r s e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y p u r p o s e s .

Filmography

The Asphyx . D i r . P e t e r Newbrook, 1973.

B a d l a n d s . D i r . T e r r e n c e M a l i c k , 1973.

B a s i c I n s t i n c t . D i r . P a u l Verhoeven , 1992

B lade Runner . D i r . R i d l e y S c o t t , 1982

B l o v - O u t . D i r . B r i a n De Palma, 1981.

B low-Up. D i r . M i c h e l a n g e l o A n t o n i o n i , 196

C l o c k e r s . D i r . S p i k e L e e , 1995.

Kenya . D i r . K a t h e r i n e P e t t i t , 2002.

L a J e t e e . D i r . C h r i s M a r k e r , 1962.

Memento. D i r . C h r i s t o p h e r N o l a n , 2000.

One Hour P h o t o . D i r . M a r k Romanek, 2002.

The O t h e r s . D i r . A l e j a n d r o Amenabar, 2000

P a r a l l a x V iew. D i r . A l a n J . P a k u l a , 1974.

P r o o f . D i r . J o c e l y n Moorhouse, 1991.

R i n g . D i r . D o n g - g i n K i m , 1999.

RobeCop. D i r . P a u l Verhoeven , 1987.

Run L o l a Run. D i r . T o m Tykwer, 1998.

Under F i r e . D i r . R o g e r Spot t i swoode , 1983

W i t n e s s . D i r . P e t e r W e i r , 1985.

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