Do TV & Video Games affect young peoples behaviour?

The role of the brain and aggression (Nature)

AmygdalaRecognises emotionCreates emotional responsesProduces aggressionThe Limbic SystemEmotional area of the brainResponsible for emotions such as fear and aggression

King 1961A woman whose amygdala was electrically stimulated during an operation became threatening and verbally aggressive until the electrical current was turned offCharles Whitman 1966Killed 13 people in Texas. He left behind a note asking doctors to examine his brain as he was convinced something was making him aggressive. He was found to have a brain tumour pressing against his amygdalaEvaluation StrengthsWeaknesses

Animal studies that have involved damage to or removal of the amygdala offer evidence that this part of the brain in responsible for aggressionAnimals and humans are different in many ways so animal research cannot be applicable to humans

Charles Whitman was found to have a tumour on his amygdala Case studies are unreliable and are unique to one individual only

It is too risky studying the human brain so no conclusive evidence can be found

The role of hormones and aggression (Nature) Males are more aggressive than females, this could be linked to testosterone Testosterone is secreted in the adrenal glands and is needed to produce sperm, develop the male reproductive organs , produce facial hair and a deep voice Women have testosterone but men produce 10 times more than women (10mg a day)Aggression in animals Castrating a male animal lowers its testosterone levels. This makes the animal less aggressive. However, if the same animal is then injected with testosterone then its aggression levels are restored Psychologists have to use animals to study aggression because it would be unethical to castrate a human male or inject them with testosterone Animals cannot sort their differences out by talking so have to resort to aggression to resolves issuesAggression in humans Psychologists can take blood from humans and measure levels of testosterone. They then give them a questionnaire to rate how aggressive they feel or act. This is a correlation study ( a link between 2 variables) It is not conclusive evidence as you cannot know for certain whether testosterone causes increased aggression or whether aggression causes increased testosterone.EvaluationStrengthsWeaknesses

In animals there is a clear cause and effect relationship between testosterone and aggressionNot all humans with high testosterone levels are aggressive. Some have sporting careers and use their aggression for a productive reason

Human studies show a relationship between aggression and testosterone in correlation studies Animal studies cannot be applied to humans

Correlation studies only show a relationship and are not direct evidence

If testosterone is responsible for aggression then why are some women more aggressive than men? And why are not all men aggressive?

Social Learning Theory of Aggression (Nurture)Children learn by watching others. This is called observational learning4 steps of Observational Learning1. Attention: paying attention to the person being observed2. Memory: being able to remember what we have seen until it is needed3. Reproduction: being able to act out what we see (modelling)4. Motivation: the incentive to copy what has been seen

Role Models The person we observe and learn from Sporting hero Celebrity Parent Teacher Same sex sibling Someone of the same age

Identification We identify with role models who are similar to us or who we look up to We adopt the behaviours and attitudes of the role models We believe we can do what they do

Vicarious Learning Indirect learning We learn from the fortunes or misfortunes of others The reward we see others receive motivates us to copy them and also receive a reward (vicarious reinforcement) Similarly, if we see someone being punished then we are less likely to copy their behaviour (vicarious punishment)Albert Bandura 1961 Children watched an adult beat up a Bobo Doll. When they were allowed to play with the doll themselves, many of the children also attacked the clown Boys were more aggressive than girls Children in the control group who saw the adult playing nicely, also played nicely and showed no aggression The children knew the aggressive acts were wrong as some were heard saying ladies shouldnt do things like that Children who did not copy the aggressive behaviour could still describe the aggression. This shows they learnt the behaviour even if they did not imitate it

Evaluation of the Social Learning TheoryStrengthsWeaknesses

Banduras study supports this theoryIt could be said that aggressive children chose to watch aggressive TV shows as they already identify with them

Many tragedies such as high school shootings have shown that the murderers have been influenced by violence on TV Many children have seen violence on TV but most do not copy it

Watching violence can actually lower aggression as it is a natural release

Content Analysis as a research method

A research method used to measure the number of times a behaviour occurs in a certain type of media Psychologists decide what aggressive behaviour is, then develop a list of sub-categories, then decide on the sample, then tally the aggressive acts, then asses the reliability of their results They need to make sure the list of categories are appropriate to what they are measuring (e.g., kissing would not be an appropriate category when measuring aggression) They need to make sure they have a good sample (eg, different times of day, different channels, different types of media) A poor study would be unrepresentative and you would not be able to generalise from the results (eg, if you only looked at programmes after 9pm then there would be more aggression as this is the watershed) It is important that more than one psychologist conducts the content analysis so they can work out an average number of aggressive acts (everyone views aggression differently so what one might record as aggressive, another may say was playing)

Anderson & Dill (2000) Video Games and AggressionAim To investigate whether people who play violent video games become aggressiveProcedure Laboratory experiment 210 psychology students split into 2 groups One group played a violent video game for 30mins (Wolfenstein 3D) The other played a non-violent video game for 30 mins (Myst) They were told the study was about the development of motor skills They were told they were playing against another participant in another cubicle (the other cubicle was actually empty) They were then asked to play a game where the person who presses a button first could give their opponent a punishment (blast of loud noise)Results Loudest and longest blasts of noise were given by the participants who had played Wolfenstein Women gave greater punishment than menConclusion Playing violent video games makes people think in an aggressive way and that long-term use could result in permanent aggressive though patterns

EvaluationStrengthsWeaknesses

The researchers had a lot of control over the experiment. They made sure all participants had the same instructions and procedure. This makes the results reliable as they study can be repeated exactly the same againEven though the participants were told the study was to test motor skills, they could have guessed the aim of the study

The findings have useful implications in the real world. It tells us that we need age restrictions for video games The study was not true to everyday life (we usually play video games at home)

The study broke ethics- they deceived the participants and they could have caused them harm with the loud noise

Charlton et al (2000): St Helena StudySt Helena is a small isolated island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is 2000km from mainland Africa and only accessible by boat. It has a population of about 5000 people, with just over 1000 school children. It is a very close-knit community where everyone knows each other.Aim To investigate the effects of TV on childrens behaviourProcedure A natural experiment as the researchers did not set up anything. TV was already planned to be introduced (Independent Variable= before TV and after TV. Dependent Variable= childrens behaviour) They started observing 2 years before TV was introduced to the island They gave questionnaires to the childrens parents and teachers about their behaviour They observed children in the playground They content analysed what and how much the children watched TV Video cameras were placed in classrooms

Results Very little difference in behaviour before and after introduction of TVConclusion Due to the close-knit nature of the community, TV did not make the children more aggressive Evaluation StrengthsWeaknesses

It was a natural experiment which means it has greater realism than a laboratory experiment It could be said that because the community was close-knit, the parents and teachers did not report aggression because they did not want the researchers making bad judgements about them

The cameras were discreet so the children would act naturally as they did not know they were being observed Other psychologists have criticised the study as there were not the same programmes being shown in St Helena as in other countries (eg, Power Rangers and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles were not shown in St Helena)

Williams et al (1981) TV and aggressionAim To see if aggression in children increased after the introduction of TVProcedure They researched 3 towns before and after the introduction of TV Notel had no TV Unitel had one TV channel Multitel had several TV channels They measured aggression in the playground and classroom They looked at the leisure activities the community were involved in They measured the IQ of the children They measured the creativity and reading ability of the childrenResults The children in Notel were twice as aggressive after the introduction of TV Children and adults in Notel spent less than half the time they had previously spent on leisure activities as they were watching more TV Children became less creative IQ scores dropped slightly after TV was introduced Although aggression increased in all towns over the 2 years, aggression levels in Notel increased the mostConclusion TV increased aggression, lowered creativity and intelligence Evaluation StrengthsWeaknesses

The study was a natural experiment so has far greater realism than laboratory experiments The researchers could not control what or how much TV the children watched (many may have not watched violent shows)

Children were observed for 2 years, before and after TV so their behaviour could be directly compared The researchers spent a lot of time observing so their results could be bias to fit their aim

The children were observed in natural surroundings, and the researchers did not start recording their behaviour until the children were used to their presence so they acted naturally How can you measure behaviour? MAYBE USING A GRAPH

Similarities and difference between Charlton & WilliamsSimilaritiesDifferences

Both natural experimentsSt Helena was a remote island but Notel was on the mainland

Both real communities Different sense of community- St Helena was a small close-knit community where everyone knew each other

Neither community had access to TV before the study began Different guidance and parental monitoring(St Helena was proud of its community spirit and good behaviour record)

Both studies used observations and questionnaires Cultural differences between the 2 locations

Cultural Theory of Aggression (Nurture)If some cultures are more aggressive than others, it would suggest that our levels of aggression are not determined by natural occurrences. Instead we are affected by the environment we are brought up in.Ramirez et al (2001)Aim to investigate whether aggression varied between cultures to investigate aggression levels between males and femalesProcedure 400 psychology students who volunteered Half were Spanish, half were Japanese All had to complete a questionnaire measuring verbal aggression, physical aggression, anger and hostility The questionnaires included Likert-style questions (1=strongly agree, 5= strongly disagree)Results Japanese students showed more physical aggression than the Spanish Spanish students showed more verbal aggression than the Japanese Males from both cultures showed more aggression and hostility than females Males and females in both cultures showed the same level of angerConclusion The cultural stereotype of Japanese being shy is inaccurate The finding that the Spanish are more verbally aggressive fits the stereotype The study supports the widely held view that males are more aggressive than females

EvaluationStrengthsWeaknesses

The questionnaires provided quantitative data (numbers) so cannot be interpreted differently by other researchers The participants were psychology students and so may have tried to guess the aim of the study (response bias). Or may have answered the questions in a social desirable way

It was an ethical study as the students knew the results would be published They could only answer how they think they would act. In reality they may act very differently

The job of an Educational PsychologistSkills required Good listening skills Communication skills such as empathic listening (responding in a way that shows you have listened) The ability to talk to a range of different people (old, young, shy, parents, teachers etc) Qualifications required Degree in Psychology recognised by the BPS (Brtish Psychological Society) Experience in education (you no longer have to have trained as a teacher) 3 year doctorate in educational psychologyChartered status You have satisfied the requirements of the BPS and are registered on their Directory of Chartered Psychologists listWho you might work for The Local Education Authority responsible for all state schools in the area An independent school (fee-paying school) Self-employedWhat an Educational Psychologist does Statutory (legal) duty- they carry out assessments of children with special needs. The Education Act of 1996 has set out a Code of Practice. This code requires that children with special needs achieve their full potential. The Ed Psych carries out the assessment to make sure they achieve their potential by involving other agencies. Consultation- they talk to teachers and other staff and parents to give advice on how to fulfil a childs needs Individual assessments- they carry out IQ test and other standardised tests (literacy , numeracy, physical abilities and language). They carry out tests for dyslexia. They have to use open questions when talking to children so they dont influence their responses Planning intervention-after gathering information the Ed Psych plans and intervention. This means planning a way to solve the problem. They advise the teacher/parent/pupil but do not put the plan into action themselves. They will however, check up on progress and review. Training- they train teachers, parents and children Research- they may choose to carry out a research project (eg, how to help children in year 7 with social skills) Multi-agency working- working with health workers, social services and education personel to support a child or family System-Level working- they may advise on systems in schools, eg bullying policies in schools Keeping up-to-date- they must keep up to date with new theories and ways of working (CPD-continuing professional development) Multi-Professional diagnosis- a psychiatrist will formally diagnose disorders such as ADHD but an Ed Psych may be involved in early diagnosis and refer the child to the Psychiatrist

Educational Psychology and Anger ManagementAn Ed Psych will be approached if a child shows anger in the classroom as the child wont learn when they are angry. They also affect other children in the classroom. It is important for a child to learn to control their anger.Observing the child and the situation The Ed Psych may go into the classroom to see what triggers the behaviour and to look for patterns The teacher is also asked to keep records and is given a form so they know what to look out for The aim is to identify an incident before it occursGathering Evidence Parents are always invited to the school to discuss issues Sometimes the Ed Psych visits the childs house The Ed Psych tries to determine whether the behaviour is shown at home as well or just at school The Ed Psych then asks the teachers whether they notice a pattern to their behaviour at school (eg, certain lessons, children, members of staff, time of day etc) The Ed Psych also talks to the childHelping to solve the problem They help the teacher to identify signs before an outburst They help the child to identify when an incident will happen and teach them techniques to calm them down They will refer the child to other specialists if they think this will help

The WatershedCensorship- information is censored if it is considered to be harmful. Eg, military information is censored to stop it getting into the wrong hands. Moral censorship is when information is censored for moral and ethical reasons. The material is thought to be too obscene for some viewers (eg, pornography, violence swearing).

British Board of Film Classification (BBFC)- set up in 1912. Categorises films to indicate what age group the film is suitable for. Eg, a U film is suitable for children from the age of 4. It has no bad language. There is some kissing and some nudity (as long as it is not sexual), mild violence is OK and mild horror is allowed if there is a reassuring ending.

The Watershed- in the UK there is a 9pm watershed, which means that certain programmes are only allowed to be shown after 9pm. It is designed to protect children from viewing unsuitable material such as acts of sex and violence.

Authoritarian Governments- a style of government where people have to accept the governments decision. There will be strict censorship of most types of media in these countries to allow the government to keep controlPaternalistic Government- a style of government where the government takes a father role and decisions are made for the good of everyone. Again, most media is censored in this type of country. Arguments for and against censorship and the watershed

ForAgainst

Research from 18 workshops carried out by programme makers (ITV and BBC) found that 95% of adults and 72% of children thought the watershed should stay to protect childrenCumberbatch (1999) found that 89% of people said they (not regulators) should decide what they watch and 62% thought that parents should be responsible for what their children watch

It is useful because it helps show parents what programmes are suitable for young children Censorship restricts peoples freedom to choose what they want to watch. In a free country people should be free to watch what they like

Research has shown that children learn by watching others (Social Learning Theory) so it is a good idea to prevent children watching violence on TVIt can restrict freedom of speech

Censorship protects children from viewing acts they are not ready for. Paternalistic and Authoritarian governments may use censorship to control their society and restrict the freedom of their citizens

Are Criminals Made or Born?Biological explanations of criminalityThere are several ways to study whether criminality has a biological basis. We can look at genetics to link it to criminality.

Family Studies This includes comparing the family trees of criminals and non criminals. If more relatives are criminals there could be a biological basis for criminality and vice versa.Adoption Studies They look at adopted relatives, siblings and twins that are adopted at young age. By taking the environment out of the picture we can be sure that genetics are the cause of criminality. Mednick- studied adopted children. He found that adopted children with criminal records also had biological fathers with criminal convictions even though was not raised by them. This was true even when siblings had been raised in different adoptive homes. Twin StudiesTwo types of twins- Identical and non identicalIdentical twins look the same because all their genes are in common. Non-identical have half their genes in common. Christianson studied 3586 pairs of twins in Denmark. Found if an identical twin was a criminal 52% of the time the other twin was also a criminal. This was only true in 22% of cases with non identical twins Found link with property crime not violent crime. Chromosone abnormalities Blood samples can be taken from criminals to see if they have any chromosome abnormalities that cause criminal behaviour. Normal men have an XY chromosome Researchers found men with extra Y chromosome (XYY) are more likely to be violent and criminal. This is not inherited However it is not true of all violent criminalsXYY bad guysThese murderers were found to have a chromosome abnormality- Richard Speck, John Wayne Gacy, Arthur Shawcross

Social Explanations Family patterns are the experiences children have during their family life. DivorceMaternal DeprivationFamily SizeParental Occupation

Children who come from broken homes are twice as likely to become a criminal Boys can be affected as have no father figure role modelGirls become depressed rather than aggressive Higher likelihood that children will suffer negatively if were serious arguments before the divorceMain caregiver forms a special bond with a childCan become distressed when separated from themIf happens during first 2 years can have long lasting effectsJohn Bowlby found 12 of the 14 boys who felt no guilt after their crime had been separated from their primary caregiver before 2 years oldFarrington found families with 6 or 7 children were more likely to be linked to criminalityDue to lack of attention and supervision each child was given Families with low income offer fewer educational opportunities-been linked to persistent youth offending and drug useJobs parents have is only slight link to criminalityWestern showed fathers occupation not an indicator of crime. But mothers occupation did have an effect.

Women who worked in jobs such as factory workers were more likely to have children turn to crime- due to the long hours.

Understanding family patterns It is very difficult to pinpoint the exact reasons for criminal behaviour. Farrington concluded that it is usually a number of factors that lead to criminalityFarrington Studied 411 boys from London over 40 years Factors linked to crime: Low supervision of parents Poor housing Parental neglect Harsh or inconsistent parenting Separation of parents Low achievement at school None of these factors alone determines criminal behaviour. Strongest research suggests that prolonged separation from caregiver and argument sin family home may influence an individual to turn to crime.

Childbearing

The ways in which parents bring up their children is known as childbearing strategies. Hoffman identified 3 types:Induction: explaining to a child what they have done wrong and consequences of their actions. Encourages empathyLove withdrawal: withdraws affection to make them feel guilty for bad behaviour. Power assertion: parent smacks the child or tells them off. This strategy is one most associated with delinquency and can develop into aggression. Although his theory seems to suggest that parents are responsible it is clear that may factors contribute to delinquency, it is likely this is just one factor amongst many.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy According to the self-fulfilling prophecy, when people are treated in accordance with a stereotype then they are more likely to act in this way. If people expect us to behave badly or in a criminal way then we will conform to that expectation. Low expectations : Good example is how were treated at school. If a teacher thinks were not doing well they expect less from us. Leads to poor performance.

Rosenthal & Jacobsen: Tested whether achievement could be self-fulfilling. Gave children an IQ test and told teachers who were bloomers and average. This was a lie. Found that teachers gave all their attention to the bloomers. Re tested children and found that the IQ of pretend bloomers had actually risen and average children fallen. Teachers expectations had affected their ability.

All in a name: Jahoda studied Ashanti people in Africa Believe the name of boys can be linked to temperament and the day of the week they were born. From studying arrest records found boys born on Wednesday were more aggressive People around them may have treated them differently as expected them to behave aggressively . Understanding self-fulfilling prophecy Problem with this theory is that it would be very unethical to treat someone differently to see if it affected their behaviour Sometimes we choose not to let other peoples expectations to influence us-we prove them wrong.

Nature vs. NurtureThis is the debate where some believe that criminals or born or made. Nature- argues criminal behaviour is inherited through our genes. Therefore if a family member is a criminal we are more likely to be criminals ourselves. Another theory is that abnormal chromosomes can affect aggression.

Nurture- It is our upbringing that causes criminality. Refers to family patterns such as divorce, and family size. Links to how we are raised, what childbearing strategies our parents use. Also idea of self fulfilling prophecy. Theilgaard (1984) The Criminal Gene Aim: He wanted to see if criminals had a particular gene that could be responsible for criminal behaviour. Procedure Theilgaard and colleagues took blood samples from 30,000 men born in 1940s 16 had the XXY abnormality 12 had XYY abnormality Criminal history and background was taken and given intelligence and personality tests

Interviewing and researcher bias Theilgaard used a social worker who didnt know the aim of the study to interview the men. Avoided problem of researcher bias. Results Found that XYY males had slightly lower levels of intelligence than average and tended to be more aggressive towards other people However there were far more similarities between the XXY males and XYY males than there were differences. No solid evidence of a criminal gene was found. Evaluation StrengthsWeaknesses

all tests and interviews were conducted b an independent social worker, therefore would not have been biased and led the males to answer in a particular way

Theilgaard used a vast range of tests to measure different aspects of mens lives, backgrounds and personality.

There was only a small sample of men-hardly surprising only 1 in 1000 males are born with XYY chromosome

Cannot be sure that all XYY males are more aggressive or lower intelligence as only 12 tested

The link between aggression and aggression is only a correlation; there could many other reasons for the aggression in these males-such as frustration at school due to lower intelligence.

Sigall and Ostrove(1975) : Attractiveness and jury decision- making

Aim Whether attractiveness affected jury decision making Whether there was a relationship between attractiveness and type of crime committed Used two crimes of burglary and fraud Procedure 120 participants given piece of card with a crime written on it and a photo of a woman known as Barbara Helms Split into 6 groups of 20 participants. Each group saw either an unattractive picture of Barbara or attractive picture and read about the fraud or burglary she had committed. All participants asked to rate how attractive she was. Then asked the jurors to give Barbara a sentence from 1-15 years. Results

Attractive photoUnattractive photoNo photo

Burglary2.805.305.10

Fraud 5.454.354.35

Shows similar length of sentence awarded for both crime with unattractive photo and no photo. However the attractive photo had a big effect- they though she should spend longer in prison for fraud and less for burglary Attractive people associated with fraud because they use their good looks to swindle money out of others. However we do not believe a good looking person could break into somewhere and steal Conclusion Highlights the importance good looks can have on juries. Good looking people get away with crimes but if they have used their looks to commit the crime they are less likely to get away with it. Evaluation StrengthsWeaknesses

Used good controls; participants all given same instructions, Findings are reliable

A control group was useful to show whether photos affected the decisions or not.

Participants didnt know what other groups were doing so less likely to guess

Study could be used in real life to inform jurors not to base decision on looks

Asked to rate the attractiveness of Barbara. This made sure they agreed that the person was attractive as peoples opinions of attractiveness can varyNot realistic as it is not what a jury would not normally experience-juror would see them in person

Juries only normally decide if defendant is guilty or not, not give out sentences.

Madon(2004) Self fulfilling prophecy and drinking behaviour Aim See if parents expectation of their childs drinking habits would become a reality. Procedure Questioned 115 children aged between 12 and 13 and their parents Parents were asked to guess how much alcohol their children drank or would drink over the coming year Year later children asked to say how much alcohol they actually consumed Results Found children who drank most alcohol were the ones whose parents had predicted they would It only took one parent to have a negative opinion of their childs drinking to show a relationship with high levels of drinking However the child seemed at greater risk of higher alcohol use of both parents held negatives beliefs Conclusion EvaluationStrengthsWeaknesses

Large sample of participants, results likely to be true

Gives a strong warning to parents about the impact of negative beliefs on children

Parents may not have influenced their children at all, just accurate

Many other people influence children not just parents

Study only shows a correlation

A questionnaire may have social desirability bias-children may say they drink more to look tough

Socially sensitive because it can viewed as parent-blaming

Is criminal research practical and ethical?Problems with biological research Problems with social research Ethical problems

Chromosome abnormalities are very difficult to detect There are may different types of criminals-a criminal gene as a general; concept is unlikely to be found Many criminals are successful and not caught so cant be used in the study It is only link and there may be another causes for criminal behaviour Criminals and their families are questioned- may not have a great memory, asking criminals themselves can be unreliable and it could be away of them not taking responsibility for their actions To tell a criminal their behaviour is due to chromosomes or family genes would leas them to not take responsibility for their actions Investigating self fulfilling prophecy can reinforce existing labels The studies conducted always maintain participants anonymity If a genetic link was found to criminality could be very dangerous as could be used to control individuals

Gathering information from Convicted offendersConvicted criminals are sometimes used in criminal research, such as murderers and rapists. We can ask direct questions on their crimes and about their families who may also have been convicted of crimes. It is a valid way of investigating crimes but it has problems. Practical Problems Convicted killers may use the research as a way of gaining early release by saying sorry. This might lead to results that reflect dishonesty not truth They may try to glorify their crimes They might feel guilty about their crimes and feel uncomfortable talking about it May belie the information they give could be used to convict another criminal. They fear that the other criminals might get back at them. This could lead to distress Might withhold certain information to protect themselves. Ethical Problems The process can be therapeutic for some criminals as they can get it off their chest But others may feel intimidated and threatened by being asked personal questions Criminals should not be treated any different from other participants They have the same human rights as any other member of society They should have the right to consent, to withdraw, have privacy respected and be debriefed. No harm or distress should be caused They might feel guilt about their crimes and feel uncomfortable

Offender Profiling Offender profiling is the name of a process the police use to catch criminals. It helps to narrow down the suspects Features such as the type of crime, victim, and the time of day the location all can tell us more about the type of person who committed the crime. There are often similarities between crimes committed by the same person that can be picked out The way in which an offender commits a crime is a reflection of their self Sometimes they will not change their normal behaviour when they commit a crime. This is known as criminal consistency The aims of offender profiling The profile can give clues about evidence that might be found on the criminal such as souvenirs The profile can help police to predict the types of future victims and offences It can also suggest very useful interview techniques for the police to useCreating a profile1. Analysis of the crime-police make detailed records of victims, place etc2. Build a list of probable feature of a criminal e.g. Race, sex, occupation, marital status, criminal historyDoes it work? A handful of profiles have been successful There are some which have led to victimisation and entrapment of innocent people Many people argue it is just guesswork The problem with measuring the success of a profile is that it is just one link in a chain of many when police try to catch a criminal-there are many factors which affect the successful arrest of a criminal But a profile does guide the police, if the profile is wrong the criminal could slip through the net Most police officers believe it is usefulThe case of John Duffy The case 26 sex attacks between 1982 and 1986 as well as 3 murders All committed against young women All in and around London, near railway stationsWitness report Women victims approached near railways Man attempted to talk to women before attacking them Forced into side street Used a knife and hands restrained with a rope Attempted to forma relationship with the women Cleaned the victim to remove any physical evidence The profile David Canter developed a profile based on the evidence He reasoned that Duffy tied up his victims just because he was not a strong man so was too small to restrain them himself As he was small he could approach his victims without them seeing him a s a threat Looking at the man John Duffy you can tell the profile was accurate. Canter used the criminal consistencies hypothesis to good effect John Duffy found and arrested 7 November 1986 and convicted of 3 murders and 7 counts of rape.

The job of the Forensic PsychologistWhat they do Works in courts to uncover psychological issues Looks at psychological aspects of criminal activity Looks at psychological issues to do with treating criminals Sets up treatment programmes and evaluates them. Work on offender behaviour to look at the needs of the prisoner as well as staff Also a research role-might gather data May give advice in court and advise parole boards Work with other agencies, assessing problems and coming up with interventions

Who do they work with? Work with offenders and prison staff to reduce and manage stress Might work with victims and witnesses to support them and help them overcome problems. Might work width judges and juries in court

The problems with psychopathic disorders This is defined as having no guilt or conscience and showing behaviour that is very aggressive or violent. The person does not function normally with regards to social norms and rules Treatability of psychopathic disorders is in debate They can be detained in hospitals to protect the public but are not always on a treatment programme, should they be in hospital or a prison? To be treatable they must show progressBecoming a Forensic Psychologist

Who might they work for?

Mainly for HM prison service. Can also be employed by NHS because they work in secure hospitals

Can work in young offender units or probation

could be self employed or work in universities teaching and doing research

Skills required

Communication is main skill

Listen carefully and speak comfortably with people

Be able to write well and produce concise reports

Observes a lot to gather information so need to know body language

Need problem solving skills

Qualifications required

Degree in psychologyWork experience is preferred before applying for a masters in forensic psychology It is one of the fastest growing areas of psychology They work with criminals themselves as well as people working with criminals such as the police

Chartered status

Need to have satisfied requirements of the British Psychological Society

Being on the list gives you credibility which is important if you are self employed

How a forensic psychologist might help treat offenders Treatment of offenders It is the forensic psychologist who is likely to develop rehabilitation programmes Might develop one to one programmes or group therapies. Aim is to address both behaviour and psychological needsPersonal Construct therapy It is an example of the sort of therapy that can be used by forensic psychologists. might involve the following: 1. Thinking of the people you know2. Writing down one way in which the two of them are the same and one way they are different3. Repeating steps 1 and 2 a number of times so that you come up with more people Personal construct therapy is based on the idea that an individual sets their own constructs of how they see other people. In this therapy the psychologist helps the person to understand their constructs and then does it again later to see how theyve changedTreating Drug abuse Drug abuse is linked to crimes such as stealing., nay crimes committed to fund their habit If treated properly should not reoffend Treatment would involve prescribing substitute drugs and providing support and counselling Probation service can help give them adequate housing and funding UK drug Policy Commission says not enough evidence of effective treatments for drug abuse. Maybe because they return to community where they mix with other abusers Life pressures can lead to drug abuse in the first place as well as pressures of being an ex prisonerTreating sexual offenders It is mandatory that sex offenders attend a treatment programme One issue is what causes sex offending. If it is biological then biological treatments are likely to be appropriate However medication is not considered effective partly because the underlying causes many be non sexual One difficulty in planning treatment for sex offenders is that the offenders themselves vary in temperament, reasons why they offend and the types of sex crimes committedSex offender problems that may need treating Intimacy problemsPoor childhood relationships with parents can lead to loneliness and lack of skills in intimacy. Could also have distorted views of what is acceptable behaviour Social skills problemsChild molesters tend to lack confidence and have difficulty mixing socially. Sex offenders are thought to misinterpret signals from women. Some may also see aggression as socially acceptable

Problems with empathy Empathy means being able to take the view of someone else to have compassion. These skills are missing in sex offenders especially rapists and child abusers. Cognitive distortionsIf the sex offender has distorted thinking they can justify their behaviour to themselves

Cognitive behavioural therapy and behaviour modification Treatment for sex offending involves group therapy using cognitive behavioural principles CBT involves helping someone to change how they think about something and therefore behave differently Behaviour modification is also used. It is focused on helping someone change their behaviour not their thinking

How defendant characteristics affect jury decision making

What happens in a court room? Serious criminal offenses are dealt with in a court of law with a judge and jury. Jury is a group of 12 people who have been randomly selected from the local area Jury listens to all the evidence and testimony The jurors talk to each other in private before making a decision. If the jury comes to a guilty verdict the judge decides on a sentence However sometimes innocent people can be sent to prison by mistake and guilty people go free Psychologists try to find out why this happens Can juries make a mistake? They should base their decision only on what they see and hear in the courtroom This ought to be a fair process However they might be affected by other factors We often judge people in everyday life based on the way they look and sound and this means jurors can use it to decide someones guilt without even realising they are doing it

Defendant characteristicsRaceHigher proportion of ethnic minorities in prison (15%) than in the UK general population (8%). If we have a stereotypical view of black men ads more likely to commit a crime then we are more likely to find them guilty. Some studies found white jurors more likely to find clack defendants guiltySkilnick and Shaw found that both black and white jurors were less likely to find black defendants guilty and that black jurors we more likely to find white defendant guilty

AttractivenessWe often view attractive people as more intelligent. This means we are less likely to judge an attractive person as guilty. Taylor and Butcher conducted mock study and found that more attractive people were judged as less guilty and got shorter sentences than unattractive people

Accent

If a defendant is well spoken we might find them not guilty of robbery. If they have a strong regional scent the reverse is true because we might see them as needing the money more than the posh person.Mahoney and Dixon found that brummies were more likely to be found guilty of armed robbery than cheque fraud compared to someone with a posh accent

Why do we have phobias?Classical conditioning and PhobiasPavlov and his dogs Ivan Pavlov explained classical conditioning- a way that animals sand people can learn to link two things together He was studying eating in dogs by measuring their saliva; sometimes they produced it (response) before the food arrived. He thought this was because they could hear the footsteps (stimulus) of the person carrying the food. He tested this idea using a dog with a tube in its cheek to measure its saliva. Eventually the dog learned to associate the bell with the food

The bell had no effect at the start= neutral stimulus (NS)The food naturally produces salivation= unconditional stimulus = UCSThe natural salivation to food=unconditional; responseAfter the association process, the bell =conditioned stimulus (CS)The effect the bell has is salivation= conditioned response (CR)Before conditioning:Neutral stimulus=no effect, unconditional stimulus= unconditioned responseDuring conditioning:Neutral stimulus + unconditional stimulus= unconditioned responseAfter conditioning: Conditioned stimulus= continued response The conditioning process

Classical conditioning and phobias If a real fear is triggered by something when a harmless stimulus is present, an association made be made between the two This can cause a phobia to be learned Watson and Rayner produced a phobia in a little boy called Albert. Each time a white rat was shown to him a loud noise was made. The noise frightened him and he associated this fear with the rat. Alberts fear was generalised to all things white. Can phobias be changed? Even in people conditioned responses takes many trials to be learn. If a conditioned stimulus is repeated many times without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response is lost. This is called extinction. Extinction doesnt happen very easily. Once a phobia has been learned it is hard to loseLearning fears in one trial Classical conditioning usually takes many trials but phobias can be learned from a single event. This is called one-trial learning Example: A person be afraid of driving if they have one bad car accident

Social learning theory and phobiasRole models and learning Some research has shown that animals can learn to eat or avoid foods by observing the behaviours of other birds. In an experiment Coombes let two rats drink from a spout One rat had been given an injection to make it sick Later both rats avoided the drinking spout The rat which hadnt been sick learned not to drink because it had seen the other rat being sick Learning to avoid something unpleasant is similar to learning a fearSocial learning and phobias in animals Social learning applies to emotions as well as behaviours, for example people can copy the anger or sadness of a role model. Can fear be learned by observing others? Mineka et al found that their lab monkeys which had grown up in the wild were afraid of snakes. The ones born in captivity were not. He thought the ones born in the wild were scared because they had learned it from observing adults in the wild. To test this they watched the monkeys reactions to: Snakes (real, toys, models) Other things ( black and yellow cord, triangles etc) The wild born monkeys were only afraid of the snakes. The lab were not afraid of any of the objects The lab monkeys watched the wild born monkeys and learned to fear snakes Social learning can produce fear in animals even when the object of fear is not dangerousSocial learning and phobias in humans Why do phobias sometimes run in families? Children could be observing and imitating their parents fears. Evidence suggests that one factor affecting childrens dental phobia is whether their parents are anxious about the dentist (Townend). Lieb looked at why children have social phobias like being scared of new people. They found that children were more likely to have a social phobia of their parents did, so the children may have imitated their behaviour.

Phobias and Preparedness Evolution and phobias Some behaviours are adaptive and can help an animal stay alive. It shows that sometimes fear can be useful. Animals that respond with fear to dangerous situations are less likely to be injured However we often have irrational fears about objects or situations which arent dangerousPreparedness Seligman suggested we learn links between some things more easily than others. For example we are more likely to fear deep water than long grass. Evolution seems to have prepared us to learn about things that are threatening. This is called preparedness Seligman thought that less input was needed to learn an association to a prepared stimulus than to a non prepared one. He believed that prepared stimulus would have been threatening to humans early in their evolution. Such as fire, lightening, deep water People who avoided getting hurt would have had more children If playing it safe was partly controlled by genes, the children would also be more likely to survive This is an example of survival of the fittestLearning to fear some things and not others Seligman is saying that we have evolved to be conditioned to feat some things more easily than others. Preparedness is useful as it can explain more than simple classical conditioning However phobias are not random The ideas of preparedness can explain why some phobias are more common than others It also explains why we dont fear more modern things that are potentially dangerous such as knives and electricity

The Nature-Nurture debateWhat is nature? It is the biological factors that affect our development. We know that genes can influence our personality and whether we develop some mental illnesses So parents with phobia could pass them on to their children through their genesWhat is nurture? It is how out environment influences our development Social learning says that our behaviour changes because we observe models. In classical condition we learn by associating two stimuli such as bell and food for Pavlovs dogs Nature-nurture debate and phobias A tendency to learn phobias can be genetic. They can pass on their genes which may make their children more likely to learnt o be afraid Alternatively social learning theory says that if a parent had a phobia, the child would see the way the parent behaves and would imitate itEvidence for the nature argument The idea of preparedness supports the nature debate Suggests genetic influence on the kinds of things we feat Bennett and Levy showed that more people were afraid of animals with certain characteristics So people seem more often to fear stimuli that have been prepared by evolution Slater and Shield found that identical twins were more similar in their phobias than non identical twins. Evidence for the nurture debate Minkea found that monkeys learn fear through social learning Watson and Rayner used classical conditioning to make Albert frightened of a white rat. This shows environment can produce phobias What does the evidence tell us?Both nature and nurture seem to be important. They may even act together.

QuestionnairesWhat is a questionnaire? A set of questions that are written down and given to participants to answer. They can answer them by ticking boxes or writing in answers. They can also be done on computers. They are usually in fixed order and everyone answers all the questions. This is called a structured questionnaire. So that the participant knows what to do they are given standardised instructions. These help to make sure that all participants are treated the same. Closed questions They are very simple. They have a fixed number of possible answers and participants often tick. Example: yes/no. They produce numerical data and can be tallied to give totals for each answer. Open ended questions They produce more in depth answers. People can describe their feelings, opinions etc. These can be looked at for patterns, similarities etcRank style questions Ask participants to say how much more or less things are. This can be done in several ways. Participants can be asked to put a list in order or can choose one option in a list which is in order: e.g. I like them, I dont really like them, I dont mind them, I really hate themLikert type scales Asked to judge how much they agree with a statement. Can be used to measure peoples attitudes. E.g. Strongly agree, strongly disagree

Evaluating QuestionnairesStrengthsWeaknesses

Standardised instructionsThese tell participants what to do and are the same for everyone. They make sure that people in different conditions are not treated differently Informed consentThey need to know what its about so they can give their consent. the start of the questionnaire should give you enough information to decide whether you want to continue Right to withdrawThey should know they can withdraw and they dont have to answer all the questions. Representing real life This can be more realistic than some experiments in a lab. It is more relaxed and is more life like

Response biasParticipants sometimes fall into a pattern of answering. You might keep giving very similar views. Also might keep saying yes to every question or choosing middle answer. Sometimes they give the answers they think the researcher wants. Social desirability biasThey know someone will read it so want to look good. This can make them give socially acceptable answers rather than what they really believe Hiding the aimsSometimes researchers need to avoid participants knowing the aims as this might bias their responsesThis is a problem ethically as they canto give full informed consent

Experiments using animals: Ethical Issues

Causing pain and fear Some experiments can cause pain or fear. This is only done when it is essential to the experiment. The experimenter has to make sure that the lowest level of pain is used. Coombes: one rat was given an injection to make it sick- they would not have been made more sick than was needed Social Isolation In some experiments its important to keep animals on their own. Social animals such as dogs, rats and monkeys normally like to live in a group. For animals like this being on their own can distress them so it should be kept to a minimum In all the experiments the animals would have been kept on their own for part of the time. In Curios experiment it was important that the birds could hear but not see each other, so they had to be kept apart. Numbers of animals It is often important to use several animals to be sure the result is typical rather than a one off. However researchers still need to use as few as they can Mineka only tested six lab raised monkeys. This is a small amount for an experiment. Choice of species Different species find different things distressing. For example, a social animal would find isolation more unpleasant than a species that normally lives alone. Researchers should choose a species which will be the least distressed. Jones chose to use a rabbit to help Peter overcome his phobia. This was a good choice ethically as they are domesticated animals so are less frightened by contact with people.

Practical issuesStrengthsWeaknesses

Humans and animals are similarWe are more similar to some species than others. Moneys are more humans than dogs or cats, but they are more like humans than birds areAnimals that are like us have brains like us. This important because our brains control the way we learn. For example humans and animals both learn through classical conditioning and social learning Humans and animals are differentAlthough humans and animals are similar on some ways there are also important differences

Humans have bigger brains and are more complex

We can do things animals cant and learn in more complex ways

We can learn through insight where we can work out the answer. This is unusual in animals

This means the findings from these experiments on animals may not always apply to humans

Using controlsIn a lab want to control the variables, such as where the participant is, how much they can move, the food they eat. People arent likely to volunteer for this so do it on animals insteadControlling these factors improves the experiment

Deprivation People are unwilling to volunteer for experiments that involve deprivation. Instead animals are used. Depriving animals of food or companions is often important. It is possible to do on animals but very unethical to perform on humans as very harmful

Animals are interesting and can benefitIt is interesting to their behaviour regardless of whether it is useful for understanding humans

Jones (1924): curing a boys phobia Aim:To investigate whether a phobia in a little boys could be deconditioned and whether this would generalise to other objectsProcedure Peter was 2 years, 10 months when Jones first observed him She watched him play with beads in his cot and then showed him the rat. He screamed and was moved away leaving the beads When the rat touched the beads he protested but didnt when somebody else did Peters reactions to other objects were observed such as white ball, doll, fur coat He was shown a rabbit and was more afraid of it than the rat so this was used for deconditioning Peter had daily play sessions with 3 other children and the rabbit which was not feared by the others

Results Peters behaviour improved and worsened Sometimes peter got worse, stayed the same and got better Sometimes he was observed twice a day, sometimes not so often From session 8 onwards classical conditioning was used to help Peter Other children acted as role models and helped Peter to move closer to the rabbit He eventually accepted new animals, lost his fear of cotton, the coast and feathers and said I like the rabbit

ConclusionsBoth classical conditioning and social learning helped to decondition Peter.

It also reduced generalised fears and helped him to cope with new animals

EvaluationStrengths Jones made detailed observations over a long period which show clear progress and changes Asked other people to order the tolerance series so wouldnt be biased. She used different ways to help Peter

EvaluationWeaknesses The gaps between the sessions were variable Used two different techniques as well as other people who made Peter feel more confident. This makes it difficult to see which was most effective

Bennett-Levy and Marteau: Fear of animals Aim:To see whether we are more afraid of or avoid animals that:Move quickly

Move suddenly

Look very different from peopleProcedure They used 2 questionnaires Both asked questions about the same 29 animals. They were told none of them were dangerous Questionnaire 1- asked about fear of animals and close they would get to them on a fear scale 1-3 and nearness scale 1-5 Questionnaire 2- measured how the participants felt about each animal Total of 30 men and 34 women answered questionnaire 1. 49 different people answered questionnaire 2 Some were also interviewed

Findings Most feared animal was rat, least was rabbit Some animals were rated as more ugly. These animals were quite different in structure to humans, such as spiders and cockroaches They found that people were more afraid of some animals and less likely to get near them. for example even they knew the rats were harmless they were still, more likely to be afraid of them Overall people were less likely to approach ugly or slimy, speedy or suddenly moving animals More of afraid of these animals Thought that speedy animals moved suddenly Men and women judged ugliness in similar ways

Conclusions

The features of ugliness, sliminess, speediness and sudden movement all make animals more frightening

Ugliness is judged by how different an animal is from humans

Supports the idea that preparedness relates to an animals featuresEvaluationStrengths Different participants answered the 2 questionnaires, helped to make sure they didnt know what they study was about Used men and women as their phobias can be different Did not see actual animals which avoided ethical issues Findings are useful as an explain why fears are not always related to actual experiences

EvaluationWeaknesses Participants were told animals were not dangerous but many still thought the rats were harmful so the instruction was not successful Only a few people were interviewed

Heinrichs et al: Cultural differences in fearsAimWanted to see if being brought up in different cultures affected social anxiety Procedure Total of 909 uni students studying psychology were tested From 8 different universities in 8 different countries. All volunteered Divided into 2 groups- collectivist (Spain, Korea, Japan) and individualistic (USA, Australia, Canada, Netherlands, Germany) Given short descriptions of social situation and asked how would react]were also asked to complete a social anxiety and blushing questionnaire This measured their individual fear of social situations and interaction with other people. Blushing questionnaire measured their fear of embarrassment

Results Participants from collectivist cultures often responded in ways that showed high social anxiety Gave answers that avoided public interaction or speaking They were more fearful of blushing and scored higher on the social anxiety questionnaire compared to individualistic cultures

Conclusion Collectivist countries show greater social anxiety and fear of blushing that individualistic cultures This is because they have strict rules about acceptable behaviour. If someone breaks the norm they get a greater punishment They will also hold back through fear of letting a group down if they are wrong This is very different from individualistic where high value is placed on individuality-it is important to stand out from the crowd and shyness could be a burdenNature nurture debate This is relevant to nature nurture as it relates to development of fears and phobias This study explains that culture determines how we think and act In this way culture can actually make is anxious or confident in social situations Behaviour is a result of people around us so supports nurture side of the debate

The social norms we live in guide our behaviour. If social norms determine how we behave could it also determine the fears we have? Heinrichs and her team focused on how culture affects social anxiety. Social anxiety is a fear someone has of social situations such as meeting new people, being watched, public speaking and being the centre of attention

How to treat PhobiasThere are a number of possible therapies for treating phobias. Two of the more traditional types are flooding and systematic desensitisation. Flooding It is an extreme therapy based on the theory of classical conditioning. Involves confronting your fears directly Classical conditioning is based in principle of association. We can learn to associate one thing with another. Flooding is idea of getting people to associate their fears or phobias with relaxationHow is flooding done? Client is forced into situation where they are exposed t o the fear and cannot escape This is very stressful but body eventually clams down. Body naturally relaxes because it cant sustain an anxious state When we calm down we will learn to associate the fear with relaxation Joseph Wolpe tested this on a girl afraid of cars and drove her around for hours, after a while she calmed down and associated her fear with relaxation Problems with flooding It is not always considered a very ethical thing to do and people are not always going to want to be involved in it Not always effective, more ethical and more tested therapies are preferredSystematic Desensitisation Is similar to flooding but is less stressful for the patient Involves being exposed to the fear and principle is the same of associating fear with relaxation but is more gradual1. The patient identifies their fear2. They develop a list of least and most feared situations. This is called hierarchy of fears3. The therapist teaches patient relaxation techniques4. Therapist introduces patient to the situation at the lowest fear rating, then moves up to the next level5. Patient moves up the hierarchy becoming more relaxed each time. Gradually the patient confronts their works fears and associates with relaxation Ethics of treating PhobiasCausing distress Both flooding and desensitisation cause distress Because desensitisation is more gradual and allows more patient control it is less distressing We must also remember that:Patients are aware of the nature of the therapyThey are only used for the most serious phobiasPatients have to be clearly distressed ort unable to carry on with normal activities to access these therapiesPatients know what the therapy involves and whether they are able to withdraw or not. Other PhobiasPhobias take many forms. These are some common phobias: Achluophobia- fear of darkness Algophobia- fear of pain Xenophobia- fear of strangers Ophidiophobia- fear of snakesRight to Withdraw Patients who undergo flooding cannot withdraw as this could make fear worse in long term Systematic desensitisation is different because the patient can withdraw at any stage, this is because have much more control Unlike flooding withdrawing will not worsen a patients fear. If they withdraw early it will not help cure the patient completely bit it at least goes some way to helping them cope with the less threatening experiences of their phobia Because of the ethical issues of distress and right to withdraw, desensitisation is a much more popular therapy.

The Clinical PsychologistPsychologists in general deal with dysfunction in the sense of mental health problems and works in health settings. What a clinical psychologist doesWorks with those with mental health such as depression, anxiety or behavioural disorders.Works with people with physical illnesses to help them adjust, cope or make positive changes. Deals with anger and withdrawal in clients, which can be hard to do. Some of issues they deal with could be fears, phobias, disabilities etc.

Suggests solutionsSolutions can involve therapies, counselling or advice.

TrainingOften involved in training others.ResearchThey can undertake research themselves. This may be a specialism such as working with adults with head injuries.

Multi agency workingMust work in team and liaise with other agencies such as social services and doctors. Reporting on clients needs They need to listen to their clients and discuss issues. Likely to observe their clients behaviour. Might use psychometric testing.Chartered status CPD (continued professional development).

Becoming a clinical psychologistWho a clinical psychologist might work for Most work for the NHS. Problems like fears or with relationships are called illnesses Opportunities to work within private practice The British psychological society has a register of chartered clinical psychologists and they can be contacted about work through the BPS Some agencies outside hospitals employ them such as universities They work a normal week Monday-Friday Earnings can be from 30,000 to 70,000Skills Required Needs to be able to listen, understand and reflect on situation of others Help with solutions Understanding diversity Being able to look at your own experiences and how these affect others. Need to be prepared to search for solutions that are not at first obvious They need to be able to communicate well to clients and other professionalsQualifications Degree in psychology which is recognised by BPS Have relevant work experience Apply for a place on a doctorate course which last three years Once completed then they enter profession as a trainee clinical psychologist in NHSChartered Status Apply for chartered status with BPS Means you have met requirements to be called a psychologist Also involves continuing professional developmentClinical Psychology and PhobiasCognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) Very popular with clinical psychologists Has good results in many areas and is derived from scientific theories Uses twin approach of treating thoughts and behaviours Tires to replace negative thoughts with less negative thoughtsExposure based CBT This involves elements of changing the clients thinking patterns as well as lowering their fear response to the situations that are feared. Similar to systematic desensitisation According to Canada 90% of patients can overcome their phobias in this way even in a few sessions Works best for specific phobias rather than social phobias Process:1. Understand what phobia is e.g. is the fear of dogs about getting bitten or catching a disease2. Develop fear hierarchy3. Work with client to overcome each stage of fear. Session usually lasts between one and two hours Important features of exposure therapy: The procedure must be gentle and manageable Allow enough time for the fear to pass. client must feel at least some of the fear pass at each stage Sessions must take place often enough that progress is not lost one or two times a week is best During sessions client must challenge the thoughts linked with that fear his is how the therapy links with CBT Client has to face their fear so can be more confident Might need skills training as wellHypnotherapy This involves helping client into an altered state of awareness. They are not focussing on every day problems but have heightened awareness where they can accept suggestions from the therapist about overcoming phobias

Ethical Guidelineshttp://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://www.nkadd.org/files/Pictures/scales_of_justice.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.nkadd.org/CommunityEconomic/RegionalEthicsAuthority.asp&usg=__SteQ_rM0mDX4IN_8OwCKXa-VJqI=&h=380&w=351&sz=75&hl=en&start=10&um=1&tbnid=u1T8ahTXeRIr-M:&tbnh=123&tbnw=114&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dethics%2Bsclaes%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Dactive%26um%3D1

1. Consenta) Adult Participants The investigator should inform the subjects of the objectives of the investigation. A full description of the procedures to be undergone by the participant should be provided and any potential hazards should be discussed. This information sheet should be available in writing.b) ChildrenWhen research involves infants and children under 16 as participants, consent should be obtained from parents or those 'in loco parentis'. However, if a child clearly shows distress (eg, crying, refusing etc), the wishes of the child must be followed.

2. Right to WithdrawThe investigator must emphasize that the participant is a volunteer and as such may withdraw from the investigation at any time. Furthermore, wherever a situation turns out to be more stressful for an individual subject than anticipated by the investigator or by the subject, then the investigator has an obligation to stop the investigation.

3. DeceptionDeception of subjects or the withholding of relevant information should only occur when the aims and objectives of the research cannot be met by other means and when the proposed deception does not produce undue psychological stress. Where deception or the withholding of information has been necessary, participants must be told afterwards what the truth was.

4. DebriefParticipants should be told the real aim of the study when it is over. They should also be returned to the same state as when they started the study.

5.CompetenceA researcher must be qualified and capable of carrying out the research. Psychologist must be members of a professional body. For example, the British Psychological Society (BPS)

6. Confidentiality & Privacy Investigations shall endeavour to record information about subjects in ways which do not allow identification of individuals. If it proves necessary to record data concerning named individuals then this information must not be communicated to others in a way which allows identification, without the consent of the subject.a) Security of resultsInvestigators must take all reasonable steps to safeguard records of results, including those stored in a computer.b) Identifiable materialAny video, audio or photographic recording of subjects, except for those made of public behaviour in public places, may only be made with their express consent. Such material would normally only be accessible to the investigator and to others only with the subject's agreement. Thus a separate consent for recording is usually required.

7. Protection of participantsa) Physical harm: The investigator should refrain from any procedures involving harm and/or risk of harm to subjects. For example: pain, physical damage, exhaustion, sensory deprivation, hunger, thirst, sleeplessness.b) Psychological stress: This concept is difficult to define and to separate from physical stress. A useful guideline might be the extent to which any normal person would be distressed or worried by a particular procedure.

How can we protect participants? Before research is carried out all risk of harm should be investigated and minimised Psychologist should seek professional help from colleagues or advisors about how to minimise risk Participants should always be given the right to withdraw Counselling should be offered to all participants after the study Results should be kept confidential