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The Placebo Effect in Epilepsy Trials: Where Does it Come From? The Placebo Effect in Epilepsy Trials: Where Does it Come From? Institute of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology Unit, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy AED XI, 28 April 2011 Emilio Perucca Emilio Perucca

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Page 1: The€Placebo€Effect€in€Epilepsy€Trials: Where€Does€it€Come ...az9194.vo.msecnd.net/pdfs/110404/07.03.pdf · Placebo€effect Any€effect€attributable€to€a€pill,€potion€or€procedure,€but

The Placebo Effect in Epilepsy Trials:Where Does it Come From?

The Placebo Effect in Epilepsy Trials:Where Does it Come From?

Institute of Neurology and Clinical Pharmacology Unit,University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

AED XI, 28 April 2011

Emilio PeruccaEmilio Perucca

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OutlineOutline

v Definitions

v Magnitude of the improvement onplacebo in epilepsy trials

v Causes, correlates and predictors

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DefinitionsDefinitions

Placebo effect

Any effect attributable to a pill, potion or procedure, butnot to its pharmacodynamic and specific properties1

Placebo­associated improvement

Any clinical improvement which occurs duringadministration of placebo (for example, in the placeboarm compared with baseline)

1Wolf S, Pharmacol Rev 1959;11:689­704

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0

10

20

30

40

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?Responder Rates on Placebo in Recent RCTs in Adults with

Refractory Partial Seizures

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?Responder Rates on Placebo in Recent RCTs in Adults with

Refractory Partial Seizures

Trials published in 2008­2009

13%17%18% 18%

Plac

ebo 

resp

onde

r rat

e (%

)

29%

21% 21%26%  26%

14%

20%19% 19%

23%

32%36%

39%

9%

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0

10

20

30

40

50

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?Responder Rates on Placebo in Recent RCTs in Adults with

Primarily Generalized Tonic Clonic Seizures

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?Responder Rates on Placebo in Recent RCTs in Adults with

Primarily Generalized Tonic Clonic Seizures

17%

32%

Plac

ebo 

resp

onde

r rat

e (%

) 45%49%*

* calculated overmaintenance phase

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0102030405060708090

100

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?An Analysis of Three Epilepsy Trials in 28 Dogs

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?An Analysis of Three Epilepsy Trials in 28 Dogs

Decrease in Seizurecounts vs Baseline

67%

Plac

ebo 

resp

onde

r rat

e (%

)

0%

60%

79%

100%

36%

50% SeizureReduction Rates

Munana et al, J Vet IntMed 2010;24:166­70

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Possible Causes of Placebo­AssociatedImprovement in Epilepsy

Possible Causes of Placebo­AssociatedImprovement in Epilepsy

v Chance

v Regression to the mean, natural history

v Patient’s bias (tendency to “please” caregivers, desire toenter or to remain in the trial)

v Observer’s bias (unconscious tendency to find what oneexpects, or hopes for)

v Higher level of care during the trial

v Emotional / psychological influences on seizuresusceptibility

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Changes in Seizure Frequency on PlaceboOccur in Both Directions

Changes in Seizure Frequency on PlaceboOccur in Both Directions

Between 3 and 9% of patients overall showed  agreater than 100% increase in seizure frequency(vs baseline)

Tiagabine trials (n=275) 49%Topiramate trials (n=216) 48%Levetiracetam trials (n=310) 45%

E. Somerville, Neurology 2002;59:79­83

Percentage of Patients with Increased Seizures in thePlacebo Arm (Trials in Partial Epilepsy)

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Factors Reported to Influence Placebo­associated Improvement in Epilepsy Trials

Factors Reported to Influence Placebo­associated Improvement in Epilepsy Trials

v Seizure type (generalized tonic­clonic vs partial) orfrequency

v Age

v Number of underlying AEDs

v Duration of the assessment period

v Method used to calculate response

v Year in which trial was conducted

v Location where trial was conducted

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Placebo Responder Rates in Partial Epilepsy are Greaterin Children Than in Adults: A Metanalysis of 32 RCTs

Placebo Responder Rates in Partial Epilepsy are Greaterin Children Than in Adults: A Metanalysis of 32 RCTs

05

101520253035404550

Placebo arm

Mea

n re

spon

der r

ate 

(%)

Rheims et al, PLoS Medicine 2008;5:e166

Adults    Children                     Adults      Children

AED arm

p=0.00130%37%

10%

19%

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Factors Correlating with Placebo­AssociatedResponder Rates: A Metanalysis of 63 Trials in

>14,000 Adults with Partial Epilepsy

Factors Correlating with Placebo­AssociatedResponder Rates: A Metanalysis of 63 Trials in

>14,000 Adults with Partial Epilepsy

Responder rates on placebo:

v Tend to increase with increasing duration of treatment(p=0.059)

v Are higher during maintenance than during entire treatmentperiod (p=0.005)

v Increased over the years (p=0.001).

v Are higher with LOCF than with completer’s analysis(p<0.001)

v Seem to show geographical variation

Rheims et al, Epilepsia 2011;52:219­233

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Time Course of Seizure­Free Days in Active and Placebo Armsfrom a Pooled Analysis of Pregabalin Trials in Partial Epilepsy

Ramsay et al, Epilepsia 2009;50:1891­8

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Placebo trials: n =75, r =0.45, p<0.001

Has Placebo Response in Epilepsy TrialsIncreased over the Years?

Rheims et al, Epilepsia Epilepsia 2011;52:219­233

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Has Effect Size in Active Treatment Arms of EpilepsyTrials Decreased over the Years?

Rheims et al, Epilepsia 2011;52:219­233

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Is Increase In Placebo Responder Rates Over TimeRelated to Increase in Number of Study Sites?

An Analysis of Trials in Pediatric Depression

Is Increase In Placebo Responder Rates Over TimeRelated to Increase in Number of Study Sites?

An Analysis of Trials in Pediatric Depression

Bridge et al, Am J Psychiatry 2009; 166:42–49

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Does Geographical Variation Contribute?Observations from a Recent Add­on Trial comparing

Pregabalin, Lamotrigine and Placebo

Does Geographical Variation Contribute?Observations from a Recent Add­on Trial comparing

Pregabalin, Lamotrigine and Placebo

“… trial sites in one country enrolled many patients (91out of the 433 total population) new to this level ofmedical care and showed an unusually enhancedresponse in the placebo group. … . their responses toplacebo were nearly three times that seen in patientsfrom other countries (53% vs 19% seizure reduction...)”

“… The factoring of this unusually large placebo effectwith regression to mean effect and Hawthorne effecthas undoubtedly contributed to lack of efficacy versusplacebo for these two established AEDs… ”

Baulac et al, Epilepsy Res. 2010; 91:10­9

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0

10

20

30

40

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?Responder Rates on Placebo in Recent RCTs in Adults with

Refractory Partial Seizures

How Large is Placebo­Associated Improvement?Responder Rates on Placebo in Recent RCTs in Adults with

Refractory Partial Seizures

Trials published in 2008­2009

13%17%18% 18%

Plac

ebo 

resp

onde

r rat

e (%

)

29%

21% 21%26%  26%

14%

20%19% 19%

23%

32%36%

39%

9%

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Does a true placebo effect exist inepilepsy?

Does a true placebo effect exist inepilepsy?

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“We found little evidence in general that placebos hadpowerful clinical effects. Although placebo had no significanteffects on objective or binary outcomes, they had possible smallbenefits in studies with continuous subjective outcomes and for thetreatment of pain.”

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Some Neurotransmitters Associated withPlacebo Responses Based on Data from

Imaging Studies

Some Neurotransmitters Associated withPlacebo Responses Based on Data from

Imaging Studies

v Opioid transmitters (pain studies)

v Dopamine (studies in Parkinson’s disease)

v Serotonin (studies in depression)

Diederich and Goetz, Neurology 2008;71:677­684

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ConclusionsConclusionsv The causes underlying placebo­associated improvement

in epilepsy trials are  multifactorial

v Available evidence does not allow to disentangle therelative contribution of individual factors

v No reliable predictors exist of being responder on placeboat individual level –some correlates identified atpopulation level are intriguing

v Better understanding of factors influencing placebo­associated improvement is important to improve thedesign of epilepsy trials

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Sagital view of cingulate increases during placebo administration in hemodynamicimaging studies in analgesics studies (  ), acupuncture analgesia (   ), emotionalprocessing/anxiolysis (   ).

Faria et al, Eur Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 18:473­85

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Placebo trials: n =75, r =0.45, p<0.001

Relative Risks for Being a Responder (Drug vs Placebo)for 5 AEDs: Partial Epilepsy Trials, Children vs Adults

Rheims et al, PloS Medicine 2068; 5:e166

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All trials (U.S. trials in black)                                 U.S. trials onlyn =31,  p<0.0018                                                   n= 23, p=0.0018

Has Placebo Response Increased over the Years?Trials in Schizophrenia

Chen et al, Pharm Statistics 2010;9:217­29

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Time Course of Seizure­Free Days in Active and Placebo Armsfrom a Pooled Analysis of Levetiracetam Trials in Partial Epilepsy

French et al, Epilepsia 2005;46:1304­7

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Comparison between Responders and Non­responders in the Placebo Arms of Levetiracetam

Trials in Adults with Partial Seizures (n=904)

Comparison between Responders and Non­responders in the Placebo Arms of Levetiracetam

Trials in Adults with Partial Seizures (n=904)

v Age of epilepsy onset was higher in responders thanin non­responders (20.8 vs 15.2 years, p = 0.019)

v Responder rates were higher when there was onebaseline AED compared with >2 or more (69.0% vs45.6%, p=0.056)

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Has Placebo Response Increased over the Years?Trials in Major Depression

Walsh et al, JAMA 2002:287:1840­7

Placebo trials: n=75, r=0.45, p<0.001