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TheProjectGutenbergEBookofTheChildren:SomeEducationalProblems,byAlexanderDarroch

ThiseBookisfortheuseofanyoneanywhereatnocostandwithalmostnorestrictionswhatsoever.Youmaycopyit,giveitawayorre-useitunderthetermsoftheProjectGutenbergLicenseincludedwiththiseBookoronlineatwww.gutenberg.org

Title:TheChildren:SomeEducationalProblems

Author:AlexanderDarroch

ReleaseDate:May11,2007[EBook#21419]

Language:English

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKCHILDREN***

ProducedbyBryanNess,MartinPettitandtheOnline

DistributedProofreadingTeamathttp://www.pgdp.net(ThisbookwasproducedfromscannedimagesofpublicdomainmaterialfromtheGooglePrintproject.)

_TheSocialProblemsSeries_

EDITEDBY

OLIPHANTSMEATON,M.A.,F.S.A.

THECHILDREN

_TheSocialProblemsSeries_

THECHILDREN

SOMEEDUCATIONALPROBLEMS

BY

ALEXANDERDARROCH,M.A.

PROFESSOROFEDUCATIONINTHEUNIVERSITYOFEDINBURGH

LONDON:T.C.&E.C.JACK16HENRIETTASTREET,W.C.ANDEDINBURGH

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1907

CONTENTS

CHAP.PAGE

I.INTRODUCTION--THEPRESENTUNRESTINEDUCATION1

II.THEMEANINGANDPROCESSOFEDUCATION13

III.THEENDOFEDUCATION22

IV.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEPROVISIONOFEDUCATION31

V.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THECOSTOFEDUCATION46

VI.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEMEDICAL

EXAMINATIONOFSCHOOLCHILDRENANDTHEMEDICALINSPECTIONOFSCHOOLS54

VII.THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEFEEDINGOFSCHOOLCHILDREN66

VIII.THEORGANISATIONOFTHEMEANSOFEDUCATION77

IX.THEAIMOFPHYSICALEDUCATION85

X.THEAIMOFTHEINFANTSCHOOL98

XI.THEAIMOFTHEPRIMARYSCHOOL107

XII.THEAIMOFTHESECONDARYSCHOOL118

XIII.THEAIMOFTHEUNIVERSITY126

XIV.CONCLUSION--THEPRESENTPROBLEMSINEDUCATION131

THECHILDREN

CHAPTERI

INTRODUCTION--THEPRESENTUNRESTINEDUCATION

Theproblemsastotheendorendsatwhichoureducationalagenciesshouldaiminthetrainingandinstructionofthechildrenofthenation,andoftherightmethodsofattainingtheseendsoncetheyhave

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beendefinitelyandclearlyrecognised,areatthepresentdayreceivinggreaterandgreaterattentionnotonlyfromprofessededucationalists,butalsofromstatesmenandthepublicgenerally.For,inspiteofallthathasbeendoneduringthepastthirtyyearstoincreasethefacilitiesforeducationandtoimprovethemeansofinstruction,thereisadeep-seatedandwidelyspreadfeelingthat,somehoworother,matterseducationallyarenotwellwithus,asanation,andthatinthisparticularlineofsocialdevelopmentothercountrieshavepushedforward,whilstwehavebeencontenttolagbehindintheeducationalrear.

Thefaultsinourpresenteducationalstructurearemany,andinsomecasesobvioustoall.Inthefirstplace,itissaid,andwithmuchtruth,thatthereisnosystematiccoherencebetweenthedifferentpartsofoureducationalmachinery,andnothorough-goingcorrelationbetweenthevariousaimswhichtheseparatepartsofthesystemareintendedtorealise.AsMr.DeMontmorencyhasrecentlypointedout,wehavealwayshadanationalgroupofeducationalfacilities,moreorlessefficient,butwehaveneverhad,nordoweyetpossess,anationalsystemofeducationsodifferentiatedinitsaimsandsocorrelatedastoitspartsastoform"anorganicpartofthelifeofthenation."[1]Aneducationalsystemshouldsubserveandfosterthelifeofthewhole:itshouldbesoorganisedastomaintainasufficientandefficientsupplyofalltheserviceswhichanationrequiresatthehandsofitsadult

members.Foritisonlyinsofarastheeducationalsystemofanycountryfulfilsthisendthatitcanbe"organic,"andcanbeentitledtotheclaimofbeingcalledanationalsystem.

Thislackofcoherencebetweenthedifferentpartsofoureducationalsystemandthewantofanysystematicplanorunityrunningthroughthewholeisduetomanycauses.Asanation,wearelittleinclinedtosystem-making,andasaconsequencetheproblemofeducationasawholeandinitstotalrelationtothelifeandwell-beingoftheStatehasreceivedbutscantattentionfrompoliticians.Educationalquestions,inthiscountry,arerarelytreatedontheirownmeritsandapartfromconsiderationsofaparty,political,ordenominationalcharacter,andhencetheproblemswhichhavereceivedattentioninthepastandevoke

discussionatthepresentareconcernedwiththenatureoftheconstitution,andlimitsofthepowerofthebodiestowhomshouldbeentrustedthelocalcontroloftheeducationalagenciesofthecountry,ratherthanwiththeproblemsastotheaimswhichweshouldseektorealisethroughoureducationalorganisation,andofthemethodsbywhichtheseaimsmaybebestrealised.Hence,asanation,wehaverarelyconsideredforitsownsakeandasawholetheproblemoftheeducationofthechildren.Anduntilwehavedoneso--untilwehavemadecleartoourselvesthekindoffuturecitizenwhichasaStatewedesiretorearup--oureducationalagenciesmustmanifestalikeindefiniteness,alikeinconsistency,andalikewantofconnectionasdooureducationalaimsandideals.

Again,closelyconnectedwiththisfirst-nameddefectinoureducationalorganisation,andinfactfollowingfromitasalogicalconsequence,isourfatalmethodofdevelopingthisorthatpartofoureducationalsystemandofleavingtheotherpartstodevelop,ifatall,withoutanycentralguidanceorcontrol,untilatlengthwerealisethattheneglectedpartsalsorequireattention,andmustsomehoworotherberefittedintothewhole._E.g._,since1870therehasbeenagreatadvanceintheextentandintentofelementaryeducationinbothEnglandandScotland,butthisprogresshasbeenofaone-sidednature,andtherehasbeennocorrespondingadvanceeitherintheperfectingofthe

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educationalsystemasawhole,orintheco-ordinationofthevariousgradesofeducation.InScotland,sincethepassingintolawoftheEducationBillof1872,themeansofelementaryeducationhavebeenwidelyextendedandthemethodsofteachinghavebeengreatlyimproved,buttherehasbeennocorrespondingadvanceintheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducation,andasaconsequence,atthepresentday,wefindmanydistrictswithoutadequateprovisionforcarryingontheeducationoftheyouthofthecountrybeyondthePrimarySchoolstage.Secondaryeducationhasbeenprovidedinsomecentresbymeansofendowments;inothersthroughtheextensionoftheterm"elementary"soastoincludeeducationofamoreextendednaturethanwasoriginallyintendedtobecoveredbythatterm.InEnglanduntil1902,verymuchthesameconditionsprevailed,butsincethen,mainlyinordertoremedythestateofthingscreatedbythejudgmentintheCockertonCase,thecontrolofprimary,secondary,andtechnicaleducationhasbeenplacedinthehandsoftheCountyandBoroughCouncils,whoareempowered"toconsidertheeducationalneedsoftheirarea,andtotakesuchstepsasseemtothemdesirable,afterconsultationwiththeBoardofEducation,tosupplyoraidthesupplyofeducationotherthanelementary,andtopromotethegeneralco-ordinationofallformsofeducation."TinderthepowerssograntedmuchhasbeendonethroughoutEnglandduringthepastfewyearstoextendandmakeefficientthemeansofhighereducation;toerectschoolswhichshallprovidetrainingforthefutureservicesrequiredbythecommunityandtheStateofthemorehighlygiftedofits

members,andtoco-ordinatetheworkofthevariousagenciesentrustedwiththecareandeducationofthechildrenofthenation.

ThroughthefailureoftheEducationBillsof1904and1905topassintolaw,Scotlandstillawaitsthecreationoflocalauthoritieschargedwiththecontrolanddirectionofallgradesofeducation,andinthisrespecthereducationalorganisationismuchmorelooselycompactedthanthesystemwhichnowexistsinEngland.

Further,inScotland,onaccountoftheabsenceofonecontrollingauthority,weoftenfindinthosedistrictsinwhichtheprovisionforhighereducationisample,imperfectco-ordinationbetweentheaimsandwork,ontheonehand,ofthePrimarySchool,andontheother,of

schoolsprovidinghighereducation.Fromthiscausealsoitfollowsthat,unlikeourGermanneighbours,wehavemadelittleprogressindeterminingthedifferentfunctionswhicheachparticulartypeofHigherSchoolshallperforminthesocialorganism,andhavenotassignedtheparticularserviceswhichtheStaterequiresofeachparticulartypeofHigherSchool.ItissurelymanifestthattheservicewhichthemodernindustrialStatelooksforfromitsmembersisnotthesameinkindandismuchmorecomplexinitsnaturethanthatwhichwasrequiredduringthemediÃ¦valperiod,andthatifthisserviceistobeefficientlysupplied,thenthereisneedforHigherSchoolsvariedintypeandhavingvariousaims.

Thiswantofunitybetweenthevariouspartsofoureducationalsystem

manifestsitselfagainintheindefinitenessofaimofmanyofourHigherSchools,andinthelackofco-ordinationbetweentheHigherSchoolontheonehand,andinstitutionsprovidinguniversityandadvancedinstructionontheother.Uptillquiterecently,thesoleaimofourSecondarySchoolswastoprovidestudentsfortheUniversitiesandtosupplytheneedsofthelearnedprofessions.Butwiththeeconomicdevelopmentofthecountry,andasaconsequenceofthekeeninternationalcompetitionbetweennationandnationintheeconomicsphere,therehasarisenademandforahighereducationdifferentinkindfromthatprovidedbytheolderUniversities,andaneedforatype

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ofSecondarySchooldifferentinaimandcurriculumfromthatwhichlooksmainlytotheprovisionofstudentsintendingtoenteruponsomeoneorotheroftheso-calledwellrecognisedlearnedprofessions.Itishere,whencomparedandcontrastedwiththeeducationalsystemsofsomeofourContinentalneighbours,thatwefindtheweakestpointinourownsystem,andatthepresenttimeourmosturgentneedisfortheextensionandbetterequipmentofthecentralinstitutionsofthecountrywhichprovidehighertechnicalandcommercialinstruction.

Thisunsatisfactoryconditionofthingsisdueinlargemeasure,aswehavealreadypointedout,toourinnatedislikeasanationofallsystem-making,andtothedistrustfeltbymanymindsofanyandeveryformofStatecontrolofeducation.Hence,partlyfromthesecauses,partlyasaresultofhistoricalconditions,ithasfollowedthatvariousauthoritieshaveinthiscountrytheguidanceandcontrolofeducation,withtheusualresultofwantofunityofaim,oflackofcorrelationofmeans,andinsomecasesofoverlappingandwasteofthemeansofhighereducation.

Inthesecondplace,whilemuchhasbeendonesincetheadventofcompulsoryelementaryeducationtobetterthemeansofeducationandtoincreasethefacilitiesforthehigherinstructionoftheyouthofthecountry,thereisawidespreadbeliefthatallthehopesheldoutbytheearlyadvocatesofuniversalcompulsoryeducationhavenotbeen

realised,andthatourPrimarySchoolsinlargemeasurehavefailedtoturnoutthetypeofcitizenwhichaStatesuchasoursrequiresforherafter-service.

UniversaleducationhasnotprovedapanaceaforallthesocialevilsoftheCommonwealth,andwhileitmustbeadmittedthatmuchgoodhasresultedfromtheadoptionofuniversalandcompulsoryeducation,yetatthesametimecertainevilshavefollowedinitstrain.

Sincetheinstitutionofuniversaleducation,itmaybearguedthatthechildrenofthenationhavereceivedabettertrainingintheuseofthemoremechanicalartsofreading,writing,andarithmetic,butthetendencyhasbeentolookupontheacquisitionoftheseartsas_endsin

themselves_,ratherthanasmereinstrumentsforthefurtherextensionanddevelopmentofknowledgeandpractice,andhenceourPrimarySchoolsystem,toalargeextent,hasfailedtocultivatetheimaginationofthechild,andhasalsofailedtotrainthereasonandtodevelopinitiativeonthepartofthepupil.Therehasbeenmoreinstruction,ithasbeensaid,duringthelastthirtyyears,butlesseducation;fortheprocessofeducationconsistsinthebuildingupwithinthechild'smindofpermanentandstablesystemsofideaswhichshallhereafterfunctionintheattainmentandrealisationofthevariousendsoflife.Now,ourschoolpracticeisstilllargelydominatedbytheoldconceptionthatmerememoryknowledgeisall-important,andasaconsequencemuchoftheso-calledknowledgeacquiredduringtheschoolperiodisfoundvaluelessinafterlifetorealiseanydefinitepurpose,foritisonlyinsofar

astheknowledgeacquiredhasbeensystematisedthatitcanafterwardsbeturnedtouseinthefurtheranceoftheaimsofadultlife.

Fromthisitfollowsthat,sincemuchoftheknowledgeacquiredduringtheschoolperiodhasnobearingontherealandpracticalneedsoflife,thePrimarySchoolinmanycasesfailstocreateanypermanentorrealinterestintheworkseitherofnatureorofsociety.

ButamuchmoreseriouschargeislaidattimesagainstourPrimarySchoolsystem.Itiscontendedthatduringthepastthirtyyearsithas

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donelittletoraisethemoraltoneofthecommunity,andithasdonestilllesstodevelopthatsenseofcivicandnationalresponsibilitywithoutwhichthemoralandsocialprogressofanationisimpossible.Ourhugecityschoolsaremanufactoriesratherthaneducationalinstitutions--placeswhereyearlyacertainnumberoftheyouthofthecountryareturnedoutabletosomeextenttomakeuseofthemechanicalartsofreadingandwriting,andwithasmatteringofmanybranchesofknowledge,butwithlittleornotrainingforthemoralandcivicresponsibilitiesoflife.Thisisevident,itisurged,ifweconsiderhowlittletheschooldoestocounteractandtosupplanttheevilinfluencesofabadhomeorsocialenvironment.WhattruththeremaybeinthesechargesandwhatmustbedonetoremedythisstateofmatterswillbediscussedwhenweconsiderlatertheexistingElementarySchoolsystem.Hereitissufficienttopointoutthatoneofthecausesatworkto-daytendingtoarousearenewedinterestineducationalproblemsisthefeelingnowbeginningtofindexpressionthatthekindofuniversalelementaryeducationprovidedsomehoworotherfails,andhasfailed,toproduceallthatwasinthebeginningexpectedofit--thatithasinthepastbeentoomuchdivorcedfromtherealinterestsoflife,andthatitmustberemodelledifitistofittheindividualtoperformhisdutytosociety.

Athirdfaultoftenfoundwithourexistingschoolsystemisthatinthecaseofthemajorityofthechildrentheprocessofeducationstopsat

tooearlyanage.Thebeliefisslowlyspreadingthatifwearetoeducatethoroughlythechildrenofthenationsoastofitthemtoperformefficientlytheafterdutiesoflife,somethingofamoresystematiccharacterthanhasasyetbeendoneisrequired,inordertocarryonandtoextendtheeducationofthechildaftertheElementaryschoolstagehasbeenpassed.ForitisevidentthatduringthePrimarySchoolperiodallthatcanbeexpectedinthecaseofthelargernumberofchildrenisthattheschoolshouldlayasoundbasisintheknowledgeoftheelementaryartsnecessaryforallsocialintercourse,andfortherealisationofthesimplerneedsoflife.Abeginningmaybemade,duringthisperiod,intheformationandestablishmentofsystemsofknowledgewhichhavefortheiraimtherealisationofthemorecomplextheoreticalandpracticalinterestsofafterlife,butunlesstheseare

furtheredandextendedintheyearsinwhichtheboyispassingfromyouthtomanhood,thenasaconsequencemuchofwhathasbeenacquiredduringtheearlyperiodfailstobeofuseeithertotheindividualortosociety.

Again,itissurelyunwisetogivenoheedtothesystematiceducationofthemajorityofthechildrenduringtheyearswhentheyaremostsusceptibletomoralandsocialinfluences,andtoleavethemoralandsocialeducationoftheyouthduringtheadolescentperiodtotheunregulatedanduncertainforcesofsociety.

Lastly,inthisconnectionitiseconomicallywastefulforthenationtospendlargelyinlayingthemerefoundationsofknowledge,andthento

adoptthepolicyofnon-interference,andtoleavetotheindividualparenttherightofdeterminingwhetherthefoundationsolaidshallbefurtherutilisedornot.

Afourthcriticismurgedagainstoureducationalsystemisthatinthepastwehavepaidtoolittleattentiontothetechnicaleducationofthosedestinedinafterlifetobecometheleadersofindustryandthecaptainsofcommerce.OurHigherSchoolsystemhasbeentoopredominantlyofonetype--ithastakentoonarrowaviewofthehigherservicesrequiredbytheStateofitsmembers,andoureducational

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systemhasnotbeensoorganisedastomaintainandfarthertheeconomicefficiencyoftheState.Foritmaybecontendedthattheeconomicefficiencyoftheindividualandofthenationisfundamentalinthesensethatwithoutthis,theattainmentoftheothergoodsoflifecannotorcanbeonlyimperfectlyrealised,anditisobviousthataccordingtothemeasureinwhichtheeconomicwelfareoftheindividualandoftheStateissecured,inlikemeasureissecuredtheopportunityforthedevelopmentandrealisationoftheotheraimsoftheindividualandofthenation.

Thusthepresentunrestasregardsoureducationalaffairsmaybelargelytracedtothefourcausesenumerated.Wehavebeguntorealisethatoureducationalsystemlacksdefinitenessofaim,andthatitsvariouspartsarebadlyco-ordinated;that,inshort,wedonotasyetpossessanationalsystemofeducationwhichministerstoandsubservesthelifeoftheStateasawhole.Wearefurtherbeginningtoperceivethattheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducationistooimportantamattertobelefttothecareoftheprivateindividual,andthateducationmustbetheconcernofthewholebodyofthepeople.Henceithasbeensaidthatonthecreationofanationalsystemofeducation,fittedtomeettheneedsofthemodernState,dependslargelythefutureofBritainasanation.

Again,allthatwashopedforastheresultofuniversalcompulsory

educationhasnotbeenrealised,andthefeelingisgrowingthatthereissomethingdefectiveintheaimsofourPrimarySchoolsystem,andthatitfails,andhasfailed,todevelopintheindividualthemoralandsocialqualitiesrequiredbyaStatesuchasours,whichisbecomingincreasinglydemocraticincharacter.Further,wearelearning,partlythroughexperience,partlyfromtheexampleofothercountries,thattheperiodduringwhichourchildrenmustbeundertheregulatedcontroloftheschoolandofsocietymustbelengthened,ifwearetorealisethefinalaimofalleducation,whichistoenabletheindividualontheintellectualsidetoapplytheknowledgegainedtothefurtheranceandextensionofthevariouspurposesoflife,andonthemoralsidetoenablehimtousehisfreedomrightly.

Lastly,asanation,wearebeginningtodiscoverthatwithoutthebettertechnicaltrainingofourworkmen,andespeciallyofthosetowhominafter-lifewillbeentrustedthecontrolanddirectionofourindustriesandcommerce,wearelikelytofallbehindtheotheradvancednationsintheraceforeconomicsupremacy.

But,inadditiontothesenegativeforcesatwork,tendingtoproducedissatisfactionwithoureducationalposition,theopinionisgrowingstrongerandclearerthattheeducation,physical,intellectual,andmoral,ofthechildrenofthenationisamatterofsupremeimportanceforthefuturewell-beingandthefuturesupremacyofthenation,andthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethattheopportunityisfurnishedtoeachindividualtorealisetothefullallthe

potentialitiesofhisnaturewhichmakeforgood,sothathemaybeenabledtorenderthatservicetothecommunityforwhichbynatureheisbestfitted.Compulsoryelementaryeducationisbutonestageintheprocess.Wemust,asanation,atleastseethatnoinsuperableobstaclesareplacedinthepathofthosewhohavetherequisiteabilityanddesiretoadvancefartherinthedevelopmentoftheirpowers.Moreover,ifneedbe,wemust,inthewordsofRousseau,compelthosewhofromvariouscausesareunwillingtorealisethemselves,toattaintheirfullfreedom.

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Thisdemandforthebetterandfullereducationofthechildrenofthenationismotivedpartlybythegrowingconvictionthatthefreedom,political,civil,andreligious,whichweasanationenjoy,canonlybemaintained,furthered,andstrengthenedinsofaraswehaveeducatedourchildrenrightlytounderstandandrightlytousethisfreedomtowhichtheyareheirs.Democracy,asaformofgovernmentandasapowerforgood,isonlypossiblewhenthemassofthepeoplehavebeenwiselyandfullyeducated,sothattheyareenabledtotakeanintelligentandcomprehensiveinterestinallthatpertainstothegoodandfuturewelfareoftheState.Ademocracyofillorpartiallyeducatedpeoplesoonerorlaterbecomesanochlocracy,[2]rulednotbythebest,butbythosewhocanworkupontheself-interestofthebadlyorone-sidedlyeducated.Atruedemocracyisinfacteveraristocratic,intheoriginalsenseofthatterm.Afalsedemocracyevertendstobecomeochlocratic,andtheonlysafeguardagainstsuchastateofconditionsarisinginacountrywhererepresentativegovernmentexistsisthespreadofhighereducation,andtheinculcationofarightconceptionofthenatureandfunctionsoftheStateandofthedutiesofcitizenship.

Butfurther,thedemandforincreasedfacilitiesforhigherandtechnicaleducationismotivedlargelybytheconvictionthatintheeducationofourchildrenwemustinthefuturemorethanwehavedoneinthepasttakemeanstosecurethefitnessoftheindividualtoperformefficientlysomespecificfunctionintheeconomicorganisation

ofsociety.Andthedemandproceeds,notfromanydesiretonarrowdowntheaimsofeducation,toplaceitonapurelyutilitarianbasis,butfromthebeliefthatthesecuringofthephysicalandeconomicefficiencyoftheindividualisoffundamentalandprimaryimportancebothforhisownwelfareandthewell-beingandprogressoftheState,andthatinproportionaswesecurethehighereconomicefficiencyofalargerandlargernumberofthepeoplewealsosecuretheessentialconditionforthedevelopmentandextensionofthoseothergoodsoflifewhichcanbeattainedbythemajorityofanationonlyafteracertainmeasureofeconomicprosperityandeconomicsecurityisassured.

Thesocialevilsofourownorofanytimecannot,ofcourse,beremovedbyanyoneremedy,butaneducationwhichendeavourstosecurethateach

individualshallhavetheopportunitytodevelophimselfandtofithimselffortheafterperformanceoftheserviceforwhichbynatureheissuitedmaydomuchtomitigatetheevilsincidentupontheindustrialorganisationofsociety.Ifthisendistoberealised,thenthreethingsatleastarenecessary.Wemustseekbysomemeansorothertocheckthelargenumberofourboysandgirlswho,afterleavingthePrimarySchool,driftyearbyyear,eitherthroughtheignoranceorthecupidityorthepovertyoftheirparents,intotheranksofuntrainedlabour,andwhointhecourseoftwoorthreeyearsgotoswelltheranksoftheunskilled,casualworkers,andbecomeinmanycases,inthecourseoftime,theunemployedandtheunemployable.Inthesecondplace,wemustendeavourtosecurethebettertechnicaltrainingoftheyouthduringtheiryearsofapprenticeship,andsotendtoraisethe

generalefficiencyoftheworkersofthenationwhateverthenature--manualormental--oftheiremployment.Inthethirdplace,wemustendeavour,bymeansofoursystemofeducation,toincreasethemobilityoflabour.InthemodernState,wherechangesintheindustrialorganisationarefrequent,theworkerwhocanmosteasilyadapthimselftochangingcircumstancesisbestassuredofconstantemployment,andagreatpartofthesocialevilsofourtimemaybetracedtothiswantofmobilityonthepartofalargenumberofourworkers.

Themobilityoflabourisofcoursealwaysdeterminedwithincertain

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limits,butmuchmayandcouldbedonebypursuingfromthebeginningarightmethodineducatingthechildtodevelopitspowerofself-adaptationtotheneedsofachangingenvironment.

Iftheseresultsaretobeattained,thenweshallhave,asanation,tomakecleartoourselvestherealmeaningandpurposeofeducation;weshallhavetomakeexplicitthenatureoftheendswhichwedesiretosecureastheresultofoureducationalefforts,andweshallhavetoorganiseoureducationalagenciessothattheendsdesiredshallbesecured.

Letusnowconsiderthequestionofthemeaning,purpose,andendsofeducation.

FOOTNOTES:

[1]_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,p.1.

[2]_Ochlos_,amob.

CHAPTERII

THEMEANINGANDPROCESSOFEDUCATION

"Ofalltheanimalswithwhichtheglobeispeopled,thereisnonetowardswhomnatureseems,atfirstsight,tohaveexercisedmorecrueltythantowardsman,inthenumberlesswantsandnecessitieswithwhichshehasloadedhim,andintheslendermeanswhichsheaffordstotherelievingofthesenecessities.Inothercreaturesthesetwoparticularsgenerallycompensateeachother.Ifweconsiderthelionasavoraciousandcarnivorousanimal,weshalleasilydiscoverhimtobeverynecessitous,butifweturnoureyetohismakeandtemper,hisagility,hiscourage,hisarms,andhisforce,weshallfindthathis

advantagesholdproportionwithhiswants....Inmanalonethisunnaturalconjunctionofinfirmityandofnecessitymaybeobservedinthegreatestperfection.Notonlythefoodwhichisrequiredforhissustenanceflieshissearchandapproach,oratleastrequireshislabourtobeproduced,buthemustbepossessedofclothesandlodgingtodefendhimagainsttheinjuriesoftheweather:thoughtoconsiderhimonlyinhimself,heisprovidedneitherwitharms,norforce,norothernaturalabilitieswhichareinanydegreeanswerabletosomany'necessities.''Tisbysocietyaloneheisabletosupplyhisdefectsandraisehimselfuptoanequalitywithhisfellow-creatures,andevenacquiresasuperiorityoverthem."[3]InthesetermsHumedrawsthedistinctionbetweenmanandtheanimals,andif,forthetermSociety,wesubstitutethewordEducation,thenweshallmoretrulydescribethe

meansbywhichmanovercomeshisnaturalinfirmitiesandmeetshisnecessities.

Butwehavetoask,Whereindoesmandifferfromtheanimals?whatpowerorfacultydoeshepossessoverandabovethosepossessedbyhimselfandtheanimalsincommon?andhowdoesithappenthatashiswantsandneedsincreaseandmultiplythemeanstosatisfythemalsotendtoincrease?Now,theanimalisguidedwhollyormainlybyinstinct.Inthecaseofmanyanimalsthewholeconductoftheirlifefrombirthtodeathisgovernedbythismeans.Inthecase,indeed,ofsomeofthehigher

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animals,thereisalimitedpowerofmodifyingthisgovernmentbyinstinctthroughtheexperienceacquiredduringthelifetimeoftheindividual.Butmanalonepossessesthepowerorfacultyofreason.Anditisthroughthepossessionofthispowerthathealoneofallcreaturescanbeeducated;itisthepossessionofthispowerwhichplaceshimabovetherestofcreation,anditisinthepossessionofthispowerthatthepossibilityofhisgreatness,andalsoofhisbaseness,lies.Now,aninstinctmaybedefinedasaninbornandinheritedsystemofmeansfortheattainmentofadefiniteendofsuchanaturethatoncetheappropriateexternalstimulusisappliedthesystemtendstoworkitselfoutinanautomaticmanneruntiltheendisattained,andindependentlyofanycontrolexercisedbytheindividual.Theworkingoutofsuchanactionmaybeaccompaniedbyconsciousness,butthepowerofmemorywouldonlybevaluableinsofarastheinstinctwasimperfect,andinsofarasthebetterattainmentoftheendwasfosteredbydirectindividualexperience.Thusthegreatertherangeofinstinctthelessthescopeofandthelesstheneedforeducation--_i.e._,foracquiringexperiencesthatwillfunctioninrenderingmoreefficientfutureaction;andconversely,thelesstherangeofinstinctthegreatertheneedforeducation,foracquiringexperiencesthatmayfunctionintheguidanceanddirectionoffutureaction.

Now,inmantherangeofinstinctissmall.Infact,itisquestionable

whetherinthestrictusageofthetermhepossessesanyoneperfectinstinct.Buttoovercomethisweaknessofhisnaturehepossessesthepowerorfacultyofreason,andthisconsistsintheabilitytoself-find,toself-adapt,andtoself-establishsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdefiniteends."Man'ssplendidpoweroflearningthroughexperienceandofapplyingthecontentsofhismemorytoforecastandmouldthefutureishispeculiarglory.Itisthiswhichdistinguisheshimfromandraiseshimaboveallotheranimals.Thisitisthatmakeshimman.Thisitisthathasenabledhimtoconquerthewholeworldandtoadapthimselftoamillionconditionsoflife."[4]Thisitisthatalsomakespossibletheeducationofthechild,andraisesthehopethatbyatrueranddeeperconceptionoftheprocessofeducationweshallbeenabledtomouldthecharacterofthechildrentoworthyends.

Butalthoughmanispre-eminentlytherationalanimal,yetreasononlyoperates,andcanonlyoperate,insofarasitiscalledintoactivitybytheneedofsatisfyingsomeinbornoracquireddesire.Thatis,manpossessesnotonlyreason,butalsocertaininstinctivetendenciestoaction.Inearlylife,theinstinctsofcuriosity,ofimitation,ofemulation,andthevariousformsoftheplayinstinctareeverincitingthechildtoaction,andeverevokinghisreason-activitytoacquirenewexperienceswhichshallfunctioninthemoreefficientperformanceoffutureaction.Atalaterstageotherinstinctivetendenciesmaketheirappearance,as_e.g._theparentalinstinct,andserveasmotivesforthefurtheracquisitionofnewexperiences--fortheestablishmentofothersystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdesiredends.Butasthe

childpassesfrominfancytoyouthandmanhood,theseinstinctivetendencies,althougheverpresent,altertheircharacter,andacquiredendsorinterestsbecomethemotivesofactions.Buttheseacquiredendsorinterestsarenotsomethingcreatedoutofnothing:theyaregrafteduponandariseoutoftheinnateandinheritedinstinctivetendenciesofman'snature.Thus,_e.g._,theinstinctofmereself-preservationmaypassintothedesiretoattainacertainstandardoflife,ortomaintainacertainsocialstatus;theinstinctofcuriosityintothedesiretofindoutandtosystematiseknowledgeforitsownsake.Butfortherealisationoftheseinstinctiveends,whetherintheircrudeor

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acquiredforms,thefindingandtheestablishmentofsystemsofmeansineverycaseisnecessary,andinorderthattheymayberealisedmanmustacquiretherequisitecapacitiesforaction.Inthecaseoftheanimaltheinstinctorimpulsetoactionisinherited,butthecapacityforactionisalsoinbornorinnate.Manpossessesalltheinnateendsorinterestswhichtheanimalpossesses.Moreover,upontheseinnateendsorinterestscanbegraftedendsorinterestsinnumerableandvariedincharacter,butinorderthattheymaybesatisfiedhemustthroughtheevokingintoactivityofreasonfindandadaptmeansfortheirattainment.Thusthegeneralnatureofourconscioushumanlifeisthatthroughoutwearestrivingtoattainendsofamoreorlessexplicitnature,andendeavouringtofindoutandtoestablishmeansfortheirattainment.Whetherintheperformanceofsomesimple,practicalact,orintryingtoobserveaccuratelywhatispresentedtousthroughthesenses,orinendeavouringtorealiseimaginativelysomethingnotdirectlypresentedtothesenses,orinperforminganabstractprocessofthought,theactivityofreasoninitsformalaspectiseveroneandthesame.Henceineducationwehavenottodowiththedevelopmentofmanypowersorfacultiesbutwiththedevelopmentortheevolutionoftheonepowerorfacultyofreason,andtheprocessofdevelopmentinitsgeneralnatureisalwaysthesameinkind--viz.,theprocessofsystematicallybuildingupknowledgewhichshallfunctioninthefuturedeterminationofconduct.Whatvariesineachcase,ateachstageofdevelopment,isthenatureofthematerialwhichgoestoformthisor

thatsystem,andthecharacteroftheidentityorlinkofconnectionwhichbindsparttopartwithinanygivensystem.Asystemofknowledgemaybebuiltupofperceptualelements,ofideasderiveddirectlythroughthemediumofthesenses.Ofsuchacharacterarethesystemsofknowledgepossessedbytheartistandthemusician.Again,asystemofknowledgemaybecomposedwhollyormainlyofimages--ofrememberedideas,soalteredandsomodifiedastoformandfitintoanewwhole.Lastly,theelementswhichgotoformthecomponentpartsofthesystemmaybeofaconceptualcharacter.Thuswemayselectthenumberaspectofthingsforconsiderationandtreatment,andsobuildupandestablishwithinthemindofthechildanumbersystem.Butineachandeverycasethepoweratworkistheactivityofreason,andtheendeverinviewintheselectionandintheformationofthesystemisthesatisfactionof

someendorinterestdesiredeitherforitsownsakeorasameanstosomefurtherandremoterend.

Further,asystemofknowledgemaydiffernotonlyinthenatureofthematerialsofwhichitiscomposed,butalsointhemodeofitsformation;_i.e._,thenatureoftheidentitywhichbindsparttopartwithinthesystemmayvaryincharacter.Nowitisuponthenatureofthesystemswhichweultimatelyforminthemindofthechildanduponthemethodwhichwepursueinourprocessofsystemorknowledgemakingthattheresultantcharacterofoureducationdepends.

Asystemofknowledgemayberelatedasregardsitspartsbysomequalitativeorquantitativebondofidentity.Allsciencesofmere

classificationareformedinthisway,andtheformationofsuchsystemsisinsomecasesanecessarypreliminarytotheevolutionofthehigherformsofsystem.Buttheimportantpointtonoteisthatallsuchsystemsarevaluableonlyasameanstothefurtherrecognition,thefurtherclassification,ofsimilarinstances.Anindividualwhosemindwaswhollyformedinthiswaymightbecomparedtoawell-arrangedmuseum,whereeverythingisclassifiedandarrangedonthebasisofqualitativeidentity.Butmanifestlythismerearrangingandclassifyingofknowledgehasonlyalimitedvalue.Suchsystemscanneverbeusedasmeansfortherealisationofanypracticalneedoflife,canneverby

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themselvesleadustointrinsicallyconnectedknowledge.

Asecondandhigherformofsystemisestablishedwheneverthebondofconnectionbetweenpartandpartisanidentityoffunctionoroflaw.Alllanguagesystemsareofthisnature,andthemorehighlysyntheticthelanguagethemoreintrinsictheconnectionthereisbetweenthepartsofthesystem.Further,itshouldbenotedthatsystemsofthischaractercanbeusedfortheattainmentofotherendsthanthoseofmererecognitionandclassification.They,ofcourse,canbeusedasinstrumentsofintercourse,ofculture,andofcommerce.Buttheymayfurtherbeutilisedineducationinthetrainingofthepupiltoself-applyasystemofknowledgetothesolutionofrelativelynewproblems,anditisforthisreasonmainlythattheancientlanguagespossesstheirvalueaseducationalinstruments.

Lastly,systemsofknowledgemaybeformedinwhichtheinter-relationofparttopartwithinthesystemisthatofidentityofcauseandeffect.Intheestablishmentofscientificknowledgetheaimistoshowthecausalinter-relationofparttopartwithinasystematicwholeorunity.Hencealso,asinthecaseoflanguagesystems,systemsofthisnaturearecapableofbeingusedtotrainthepupiltoself-applyknowledgeinthesolutionofpracticalandtheoreticalproblems,andintherealisingofthepracticalendsoflife.Onceagainitmustbenotedthatintheestablishmentofthevarioussystemsofknowledgetheone

activityeverpresentisthatofreasonseekingevertoconnectparttopartinorderthatsomeendorinterestmaybeattained.Moreover,wemaymisusethepowerofreason,andemployitintheattainmentofendswhicharevaluelessinthesensethattheyfurthernorealinterestorendinlife.Thisisdonewheneverknowledgeiscrammed,wheneverthebondofconnectionbetweenonepartofknowledgeandtheotherisextrinsic,andwheneverfactsareconnectedandrememberedbybondsofamoreorlessaccidentalorfactitiousnature.Andsincesuchknowledgecanfurthernodirectinterestorendinlife,itsacquisitionmust,asarule,bemotivedbysomestrongindirectinterest.Asaconsequence,whenevertheindirectinterest,whateveritsnaturemaybe,--thefearofpunishment,orthepassingofanexamination,--ceasestooperate,thenthedesireforfurtheracquisitionalsoceases.Henceitfollowsthat

theestablishmentofanysuchsystemisofcomparativelylittlevalue.Itmaypavethewayatalaterperiodfortheformationofasystemofintrinsicallyconnectedknowledge,butasageneralrulesuchsystems,becausetheycannotbeused,tendsoontodropoutofmind,andtobeofnofurtherconsequenceinthedeterminationofconduct.Butfurther,thismisuseofreason,thisincitingofthemindtomemorisefactsunrelatedexceptbytheirmereaccidentaltimeorspacerelations,willifpersistedintendtorendertheindividualdull,stupid,andunimaginative.

Thesystemsofknowledge,then,ofmostvaluearethosewhichestablishintrinsicconnectionsbetweenpartandpart;foritisonlybymeansofsystemsofthischaracterthatactioncanbedeterminedandknowledge

extended.InthissensewemayagreewithHerbertSpencer[5]thatscienceorsystematisedknowledgeisofchiefestvaluebothfortheguidanceofconductandforthedisciplineofmind.AtthesametimewemustnotfallintotheSpencerianerrorofidentifyingscience"withthestudyofsurroundingphenomena,"andinmakingtheantithesisbetweenscienceandlinguisticstudiesonebetweendealingwithrealthingsontheonehand,andmerewordsontheother.

Further,sincetheestablishmentofasystemofmeansisalwaysthroughtheself-findingandtheself-formingofthesystem,thisfurnishesthe

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keytotheonlysoundmethodofeducation--viz.,thatthechildmustbetrainedintheself-discoveringandtheself-connectingofknowledge.ThisdoesnotmeanthatthemethodshouldbeheuristicinRousseau'ssense,thatthechildshouldbetoldnothing,butbelefttorediscoverallknowledgeforhimself.Butitdoesmeanthatintheimpartingofthegarneredexperienceoftheracethechildmustbetrainedinthemethodsbywhichtheracehasslowlyandgraduallybuiltupaknowledgeofthemeansnecessaryfortherealisationofthemanyandcomplexendsofcivilisedlife.

Beforepassingontoconsidertheendsatwhichweshouldaimintheeducationofthechild,itmaybewellbrieflytosummarisetheconclusionsreached.

1.Manisdistinguishedfromtherestofcreationbythepossessionofreason:theanimallifeismainlyorwhollyguidedbyinstinct.

2.Manliketheanimalspossessesinstinctsorinstinctivetendencies,butfortheirrealisationhemustseekoutandestablishsystemsofmeansfortheirattainment.Bereftoftheseinstinctivetendenciesofhisnature,manwouldhavenoincentivetoacquireexperiencesforthemoreefficientguidanceofhisfutureconduct.

3.Inthecourseofthedevelopmentandextensionofexperiencetheregraduallybecomesgraftedupontheseinnateinstincts,interestsorendsofanacquirednature,andoneofthemainfunctionsofeducationistocreate,foster,andestablishonapermanentandstablebasis,interestsofethicalandsocialworth.

4.Thepowerofreasonisnooccultpower:itissimplythecapacityforfindingandestablishingsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofends;oritmaybedefinedasthepowerofacquiringexperienceandofself-applyingthisexperienceinthefutureguidanceofconduct.

5.Theevolutionofintelligenceinmanistheevolutionofthisreason-activitytotheattainmentofnewandmorecomplextheoreticalandpracticalendsorinterests.Atanearlystagethesystemsofknowledgeestablishedarefortheattainmentoftherelativelysimpleneedsoflife,andarecomposedofperceptualandimaginedelements.Atalaterstagethesystemsformedmaybeofthemostcomplexnature,andarecomposedofconceptualelements.

6.Manistheonlybeingcapableofeducationinthestrictusageoftheterm.Healonemustacquirethemeansfortherealisationofthevariousdesiredendsoflife.

7.Theprocessofeducationisaprocesswhich,utilisingas

motivestoacquirementtheinstinctivetendenciesofthechild'snature,seekstoestablishsystemsofmeansfortheirrealisation,andupontheseinnateorinborninstinctstograftacquiredendsorinterestswhichshallhereafterfunctionintheattainmentofendsofeconomic,ethical,andsocialworth.

8.Theonlytrulyeducativemethodisthemethodwhichtrainsthepupiltofind,establish,andapplysystemsofknowledgeintheattainmentofendsoffeltvalue.

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FOOTNOTES:

[3]Hume's_TreatiseofHumanNature_,Bk.III.partii.sec.2.

[4]_PrinciplesofHeredity_,byG.ArchdallReid,p.235.

[5]Cf.HerbertSpencer,_Education_,especiallychap.i.

CHAPTERIII

THEENDOFEDUCATION

Wehaveseenthattheprocessofeducationistheprocessofacquiringandorganisingexperiencesthatwillfunctioninthedeterminationoffutureconductandensurethemoreefficientperformanceoffutureaction;orwemaysaythattheprocessisonebywhichmeansaregraduallyestablishedandfixedinthemindfortheattainmentofendsofvaluefortherealisationofthevariedandcomplexinterestsoflife.

Now,thisacquisitionandorganisationofexperienceisneverentirely"lefttotheblindcontrolofinheritedimpulse,"noristhechildwhollylefttogatherandorganisehisexperiencesupontheincentiveofanyinnateoracquiredinterestthatmayforthetimeengagehiswill.Thevariousagenciesofsociety--thehome,theschool,theshopandyard--areeverconstantlyseekingtoestablishsuchorsuchsystemsofideas,andtopreventtheformationofothersystems.Henceitfollowsthateducationisnotamerenaturalprocess--notaprocessofacquiringexperienceinresponsetothedemandsofthisorthatnaturalneed,butthatitisaregulatedprocess,controlledwiththeviewoffinallyleadingthechildtoacquirecertainexperiences,toorganisecertainsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofsuchorsuchends.

Moreover,atvariousperiodsinhistory,theendorendsofeducation,thekindsofexperiencethoughtnecessaryandvaluableforthechildtoacquirehavevaried,andstillvary,andmustvaryaccordingtothenatureofthecivilisationintowhichthechildisbornandtowhichhiseducationmustsomehoworotheradjusthim;_i.e._,thereisnoonetypeofexperience,noonekindofeducation,whichisequallysuitedtomeettheneedsofthechildborninamodernindustrialStateandthechildwhoseeducationmustfithimhereaftertofulfilhisdutiesasamemberofasavagetribe.

Further,indeterminingthenatureoftheexperiencesusefultoacquire,wemusttakeintoaccountnotonlythecivilisationtowhichthechild

istobeadjusted,butwemustalsotakenoteofthenatureoftheserviceswhichthegivensocietyrequiresofitsadultmembers.Theseservicesvaryincharacter,andtherecanbenoonekindofeducationwhichequallyfitstheindividualtoperformefficientlyanyandeveryservice.Topostulatethiswouldbetoaffirmthatthereisakindofexperienceusefulfortherealisationindifferentlyofanyandeverypurposeofadultlife,andtoaffirmthatasystemofknowledgeacquiredandorganisedfortheattainmentofcertaindefiniteendscanbeusedforthefurtheranceofendsdifferentincharacterandhavingnointrinsicconnectionwitheachother.Further,toassertthatthereis

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onetypeofeducationequallysuitedtotrainandtodevelopthereason-activityoftheindividualineverydirectionistoneglectthefactthatindividualsdifferininnatecapacity.Thesedifferencesaredueinparttodifferencesintheextentandcharacterofthereceptivepowersofindividuals,andaretobetraced,probably,todifferencesinthesizeandconstitutionofthesensoryareasofthebrain,andareduealsoinparttoinborndifferencesinthecapacityforacquiringandutilisingexperiences.Asaconsequenceofthesedifferencesoneindividualwillacquireandorganisecertainkindsofexperiencemorereadilythanothers.

Butnotonlyhavetheendssoughttoberealisedthroughtheeducationalagenciesofsocietyvariedinthepast--notonlydowefindthattheidealsatpresentvaryincharacteraccordingtothestageofcivilisationwhichtheparticularcountryhasreached--wealsofindthattheagenciesofsocietydeterminingthecharacterandendofeducationalsovary.Forinthediscussionoftheendssoughttobeattainedbymeansofeducation,wemustrememberthatthesearenotdeterminedbytheteacher,butby"theadultportionoftheCommunityorganisedintheformsoftheFamily,theState,theChurch,andvariousmiscellaneousassociations"[6]desirousofpromotingthewelfareofthecommunity.AtonetimetheChurchlargelydeterminedthecharacterandendsofeducation,butthetendencyatthepresenttimeisfortheStatetocontrolmoreandmoretheeducationoftherisinggeneration.Insome

countriestheentirecontrolofallformsofeducation,primary,secondary,andtechnical,hascomeundertheguidanceoftheState,andinourowncountryelementaryeducationisnowlargelyunderthecontroloftheStateauthorities,andtheotherformsofeducationtendincreasinglytocomeunderthiscontrol.Notonlyisthisso,buttheperiodduringwhichtheStateexercisesitscontrolovertheeducationofthechildisgraduallybeinglengthened.

Manycausesareatworktendingtoproducetheseresultsinthefirstplace,itisbeingclearlyrealisedthattherecanbenothorough-goingco-ordinationofthevariousgradesofinstructionuntilalltheagenciesofeducationineachareaareplacedunderoneauthorityactingundertheguidanceofsomecentralbodyresponsiblefortheorganisation

anddirectionoftheeducationofthedistrictasawhole.Further,therecanbenosatisfactorysettlementoftheproblemastowhatparticularfunctioneachdistincttypeofHigherSchoolshallperformuntilthewholemeansofeducationareunderonedeterminingauthority.

Inthesecondplace,thehighereducationofthechildrenofthenationistooimportantamattertobeleftentirelytothecareoftheprivateindividual,anditscostistoogreatinmanycasestobewhollybornebyeachindividualparent.Butthisprovision,organisation,andcontrolofthemeansofhighereducationbytheStatedoesnotnecessarilyimplythatitshouldbefree--thatthewholeburdenshouldbelaidontheshouldersofthegeneraltaxpayer.Yetunlessmeansareprovidedbywhichthepoorbutcleverboycanrealisehimself,thenthereissomuch

losstothecommunity.

Inthethirdplace,theorganisationofallformsofeducationandthemoreextendedprovisionofhigherandespeciallyoftechnicaltrainingisnecessary,iffornootherreasonthanasameansofeconomicprotectionandeconomicsecurity.

Lastly,thebetterorganisationofoureducationalagenciesisnecessaryasameansofsecuringademocracycapableofunderstandingthemeaningofmoralandcivicfreedomandofusingthisrightly.

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Butwhiletheconcretenatureoftheendstowhichoureducationaleffortsaredirectedmayvaryinaccordancewiththeneedsofachangingandprogressivecivilisation,neverthelessthegeneralnatureoftheendssoughttobeattainedbytheeducationofthechildrenofanationispermanentandunchangeable.Thatis,wehavetorecogniseauniversalaswellasaparticularelementinoureducationalideals.Now,theuniversalaimofalleducationis,orrathershouldbe,tocorrelatethechildwiththecivilisationofhistime;toleadhimtoacquirethoseexperienceswhichwillinafter-lifeenablehimtoperformablyandrightlyhisdutiesasaworker,asacitizen,andasamemberofanethicalandspiritualcommunityorganisedforthesecuringofthewell-beingoftheindividual.Andthehigherthecivilisation,themoredifficult,themorecomplex,andthemorelengthenedmustbethisprocessofacquiringexperiencesnecessarytofittheindividualtohisenvironment.Hence,whatevertheparticularnatureoftheenvironmentmaybe,theaimofeducationmustbethefittingoftheindividualtohisnaturalandsocialenvironments.Hencealsoanyorganisationofthemeansofeducationmusthaveasitsthreefoldobjectthesecuringofthephysicalefficiency,oftheeconomicefficiency,andtheethicalefficiencyoftherisinggeneration.Inshort,asMr.Bagley[7]putsit,thesecuringofthesocialefficiencyoftheindividualmustbetheultimateaimofalleducation.Tobesociallyefficientimpliesthatastheresultoftheprocessofeducationcertainexperiences,andthe

powerofapplyingthem,havebeenacquiredbyeachindividual,sothatbythismeansheisenabledtoperformsomeparticularsocialserviceforthecommunityofadirectlyorindirectlyeconomicnature.Forif,astheresultoftheeducativeprocess,weestablishsystemsofmeansfortherealisationofendswhichhavenosocialvalue,thensofarwehavefailedtomaketheindividualsociallyefficient."Theyouthwewouldtrainhaslittletimetospare;heowesbutthefirstfifteenorsixteenyearsofhislifetohistutor,theremainderisduetoaction.Letusemploythisshorttimeinnecessaryinstruction.Awaywithyourcrabbed,logicalsubtleties;theyareabuses,thingsbywhichourlivescanneverbemadebetter."[8]InthesewordsMontaignewritesagainstthefalseidealthatthemereaccumulationofknowledgeapartfromanypurposeitmayserveinenablingusbettertounderstandeitherthe

worldofnatureorofhistoryshouldbetheaimofeducation,andthroughoutalleducationwemusteverkeepinmindthatknowledgeacquiredmustbecapableofbeingusedandappliedfortherealisationofsomesocialpurpose,otherwiseitissomuchuselesslumber,totheindividualaburden,soondropped,tosocietyvalueless,sinceitcanmaintainandfurthernorealinterestofthecommunity.

Buttobesociallyefficientimpliesnotmerelythattheindividualshouldbefittedtoperformsomeserviceeconomicallyusefultothecommunity,itfurtherimpliesthatastheresultoftheprocessofeducationthereshouldhavebeenacquiredcertaincapacitiesofactionwhichrestrainhimfromundulyinterferingwiththefreedomofothers.Hemustacquirecertainexperienceswhichrestrainhimfromhindering

thefullandfreedevelopmentofothers;hemustbetrainedtousehisfreedomrightly,toacquirethosecapacitiesforactionwhichfithimtotakehisplaceinthemoralcosmosofhistimeandgeneration.Further,asMr.Bagleyalsopointsout,tobesociallyefficientimpliesinadditionthattheindividualshouldcontributesomethingfurthertotheadvancementofthecivilisationintowhichheisborn,andthuspassontohissuccessorsanincreasingheritage.

Thethreefoldaimofalleducation,then,istosecurethephysical,theeconomic,andtheethicalefficiencyofthefuturemembersofthe

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community;andoureducationalagenciesmustthroughoutkeepthisthreefoldaspectinview.

Tosecurethephysicalefficiencyofthechildisnecessary,inthefirstplace,becauseastrong,healthy,vigorousbodyisagoodinitself,apartfromthefactthatwithoutsoundhealththeotherendsoflifecannot,orcanbeonlyimperfectlyrealised.Itisanerroneouspointofviewtomaintainthatmanymenhavedonegoodintellectualworkinspiteofphysicalill-health,andevenincaseswheretherewaspresentsomephysicaldefect.Therealthingtokeepinmindisthattheseindividualsdonotrepresenttheaverage,andthatforthenormalindividualweakhealthorthepresenceofphysicaldefectlessenshisintellectualandmoralvigour.Wecan,inthelightofmodernpsychology,nolongerregardmindandbodyasseparateentitieshavingadevelopmentindependentofeachother,butmustregardthemasconditioningandconditionedbyeachother.

Inthesecondplace,thecareofthephysicalhealthofthechildisimportant,becauseanyimpairmentordefectinthesenseorgans--theavenuesofexperience--impliesacorrespondingdefectorwantinmentalgrowth,andasaconsequencetendstorendertheindividualeconomicallyandsociallylessefficientinafter-life.

Inthethirdplace,andthistruthisbeinggraduallyputintopractice

intheeducationoftheweak-mindedandofthephysicallydefective,soundphysicalhealthisoneoftheconditionsofrightmoralactivity.ThistruthRousseauemphasisedwhenhedeclared:"thattheweakerthebody,themoreitcommands;thestrongeritis,thebetteritobeys.Allthesensualpassionsfindlodgmentineffeminatebodies,andthelesstheyaresatisfiedthemoreirritabletheybecome.Thebodymustneedsbevigoroustoobeythesoul:agoodservantoughttoberobust."

Weshallinquirefurtherintothisquestionwhenwecometotreatofthephysicaleducationofthechild,butwhatwewishtopointoutisthatoneaimofalloureducationaleffortsmustbetosecurethephysicalefficiencyoftherisinggeneration,onthegroundsthatsoundphysicalhealthisagoodinitself;isameanstothesecuringoftheeconomic

efficiencyoftheindividualandofsociety;andisaconditionofsecuringtheethicalefficiencyoftheindividual.

Inthesecondplace,thesecuringoftheeconomicefficiencyoftheindividualmustbeoneoftheaimsofoureducationalefforts.Thisdoesnotimplythatoureducationalcurriculumshouldbebasedonpurelyutilitarianlines,andthatallsubjectswhoseutilitarianvalueisnotimmediatelyapparentshouldbebanishedfromtheschoolroom.Butitdoesimplythatwhetherintheeducationoftheprofessionalmanoroftheindustrialworkerallinstructioneitherdirectlyorindirectlymusthaveasitsfinalresulttheefficiencyoftheindividualasaworker.Aneducationwhichfitstheindividualtousehisleisurerightlymayhaveasmucheffectinincreasingtheproductivepowersofthe

individualasthatwhichlooksmorenarrowlytohistechnicaltraining.Further,wemustrememberthatthelargernumberbyfarofthechildrenofthemodernStatemustinafter-lifebecomeindustrialworkers,andthatanysystemofeducationwhichneglectsthisfact,whichmakesnoprovisionforthetechnicaltrainingofthechildrenoftheworkingclasses,andhasnoadequatesystemofselectingandtrainingthosewhobyinnatecapacityarefittedtobecometheleadersinindustry,isasystemnotinharmonywiththecharacteristicsofmodernlife,andthatunlessthiseconomicefficiencyissecured,thentheopportunityforthedevelopmentoftheotherendsoflifecannotbesecured.

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Lastly,thesecuringoftheethicalefficiencyofthefuturemembersoftheStatemustbeoneofourultimateaims.Theethicalaimofeducationmaybesaidtobethesupremeend,inthesensethatitistheessentialconditionforthesecurity,thestability,andtheprogressofsociety;andalsofromthefactthattheethicalspiritofdoingtheworkforthesakeoftheworkshouldpermeatealleducation.

Inconcludingthischapterwhatneedstobeemphasisedisthatwhiletheprocessofeducationremainseverthesame,everconsistsinacquiringandorganisingexperience,inandthroughtheworkingofreasonincitedtoactivitybytheneedofsatisfyingsomenaturaloracquiredinterest,inorderthatfutureactionmayberenderedmoreefficient,andwhilstthegeneralnatureoftheendstobeattainedmaybesaidtobepermanentandunchangeable,yettheparticularandconcreteendsatwhichweshouldaimintheeducationofourchildrenisapracticalquestionwhicheverynationhas,fromtimetotime,toaskandanswerafreshinthelightofhernationalidealsandinviewofhernationalaspirations.Nay,further,itisaquestionwhichwitheverynecessarychangeinherinternalorganisation,andwitheveryfundamentalalterationinherrelationtoherexternalneighbours,hastobeaskedandansweredanewbyeachandeveryStatedesirousofretainingherplaceamongstthenationsoftheworldandofsecuringthewelfareandhappinessofherindividualmembers.Itismainlybecauseweasanation

havenotrealisedthistruththatoureducationalorganisationhas,neitherintheexplicitnessandclearnessofitsaims,norinthedistinction,gradation,andco-ordinationofitsmeans,attainedthesamethoroughnessandself-consistencyasthatpossessedbytheeducationalsystemsofsomeofourContinentalneighbours.

FOOTNOTES:

[6]Cf.ProfessorFindlay,_JournalofEducation_(Sept.1899),also"_PrinciplesofClassTeaching_,"p.2.

[7]Cf._TheEducativeProcess_,chap.iii.,esp.pp.59,60(Macmillan).

[8]Montaigne,_TheEducationofChildren_,L.E.Rector,Ph.D.(_InternationalEducationSeries_),Appleton,NewYork.

CHAPTERIV

THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEPROVISIONOFEDUCATION

Theendofeducationis,aswehaveseen,thesecuringofthefuture

socialefficiencyoftherisinggeneration,andthemethodineverycaseisthroughtheevokingofthereason-activityoftheindividualtoorganiseandestablishinthemindsoftheyoungandimmature,systemsofideaswhichwillhereafterfunctionasmeansintheattainmentofendsofdefinitesocialworth.

Thequestionnowarisesastowhethertheprovisionandorganisationoftheagenciesofeducationmaybesafelylefttothecareandself-interestoftheindividualparent,orwhetheronprinciplesuchprovisionisadutywhichdevolvesupontheState.

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TheprincipleoftheStateprovisionofthemeansofelementaryeducationhasnowpracticallybeenadmitted,andwhetherwiselyorunwisely,thelargerpartbyfarofthecostofthisprovisionnowfallsupontheshouldersofthegeneralandlocaltaxpayer._E.g._,inEnglandin1902thereweresixhundredandthirty-threethousandfee-payingchildreninthePublicElementarySchools,andoverfivemillionsreceivingtheireducationfree.[9]Further,bytheEducationAct(England)of1902andbytheEducationandLocalTaxationAccount(Scotland)ActofthesameyeartheprincipleoftheStateaidfortheprovisionofthemeansofsecondaryandtechnicaleducationmaybesaidalsopracticallytohavebeenrecognised.BytheformerActcertainImperialfundsderivedfromtheincomeonProbateandLicencedutieswerehandedovertotheCouncilsofcountiesandboroughsforexpenditureontheprovisionofthemeansofeducationotherthanelementary,andatthesametimethesebodieswereempowered,iftheythoughtitnecessary,toimposealimitedrateforthesamepurpose.InScotlandatthesametimeacertainpartofScotland'sshareofthe"whisky"moneywassetasidefortheprovisionofsecondaryeducationinurbanandruraldistricts,andSecondaryEducationCommitteeswereappointedinthecountiesandprincipalboroughschargedwiththeallocationofthefundstowardstheaidandincreaseoftheprovisionofhighereducationintheirrespectivedistricts.

Butwhilethishasbeendone,thequestionastowhetherandtowhatextenttheStateshouldundertaketheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducationisstilloneonwhichthereisnogeneralagreement.IfitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethattheprovisionofthemeansofeducation,elementary,secondary,technical,anduniversity,isadequatetotheattainmentoftheendofsecuringthefuturesocialefficiencyofallthemembersofthecommunity,thenitmustbeadmittedthatthemeansatpresentprovidedforthispurposearetotallyinadequate,andthatthemethodfollowedinfurnishingthisprovisionisnotofakindtoensurethatthefundsgrantedarespentinthemannerbestcalculatedtoextendtheagenciesandtoincreasetheefficiencyofthehighereducationofthechildrenofthenation.ThislatterobjectionappliesmoreespeciallyinthecaseofScotland.Inthatcountrycertain

nominatedbodieswhoareresponsibleonlytothemselvesandtotheScotchEducationDepartmentareentrustedwiththeexpenditureofthemoniesreceivedfortheextensionofthemeansofhighereducation,andsincethesebodiesstandinnointimateconnectionwiththerepresentativebodiesentrustedwiththecontrolofelementaryeducation,noefficientco-ordinationofthetwogradesofeducationispossible.Further,insomecasessectionalinterestsratherthantheeducationalinterestsofthedistrictasawholearethemainmotivesatworkindeterminingthedistributionofthefundsamongstthevariousbodiesclaimingtoparticipateinitsbenefits.Theuncertaintyoftheamountofincomeavailableforthispurpose,andthelimitationinEnglandofthepowerofrating,mightalsobeurgedinobjectiontothispeculiarlyEnglishmethodofprovidingthemeansforthehigher

educationoftheyouthofthecountry.

Similarreasonstothoseurgedpriorto1870infavouroftheStateprovisionofelementaryeducationmaybeurgedinfavouroftheextensionoftheprincipletohighereducation.ThesereasonsarenowheremoreclearlystatedthaninthewritingsofJohnStuartMill.

Indiscussingthefunctionsofgovernment,MilllaysdownthateducationisoneofthosethingswhichitisadmissibleonprinciplethataGovernmentshouldprovideforthepeople,andalthoughinadducingthe

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reasonsfortheStateundertakingthisdutyheisconcernedmainlywiththeprovisionofthemeansofelementaryeducation,yetlookingtothealteredsocialconditionsofourowntime,andtakingintoaccountthedifferenceintheeconomicrelationswhichexistnowbetweenGreatBritainandherContinentalrivals,theargumentsadvancedbyMillarenolessapplicablenowtotheextensionoftheprincipleofStateprovision.Letusconsiderthesearguments.

Inthefirstplace,Milldeclaresthatthereare"certainprimaryelementsandmeansofknowledgethatallhumanbeingsbornintothecommunitymustacquireduringchildhood."Iftheirparentshavethepowerofobtainingforthemthisinstructionandfailtodoso,theycommitadoublebreachofduty.Thechildgrowsupanimperfectbeing,sociallyinefficient,andmembersofthecommunityareliabletosufferseriouslyfromtheconsequencesofthisignoranceandwantofeducationintheirfellow-citizens.

Inthesecondplace,Millurgesthatunlikethatthegivingofotherformsofhelp,theprovisionofeducationisnotoneofthethingsinwhichthetenderofhelpperpetuatesthestateofthingswhichrendershelpnecessary.Instructionstrengthensandenlargestheactivefaculties;itseffectisfavourabletothegrowthofthespiritofindependence--itishelptowardsdoingwithouthelp.

Inthethirdplace,hedeclaresthatthequestionoftheprovisionofelementaryeducationisnotonebetweenitsprovisionbytheGovernmentontheonehand,anditsprovisionthroughvoluntaryagenciesontheother.ThefullcostoftheeducationofthechildrenofthelowerworkingclassesinGreatBritainasinothercountrieshasneverbeenwhollypaidforoutofthewagesofthelabourer,andhencethequestionliesbetweentheStateprovisionofeducationanditsprovisionbycertaincharitableagencies.Asarule,whenprovidedbythelatter,itisbothinefficientinquantityandpoorinquality.

Lastly,MilllaysdownthatinthematterofeducationtheinterventionofGovernmentisnecessary,becauseneithertheinterestnorthejudgmentoftheconsumerisasufficientsecurityforthegoodnessof

thecommodity.

ButatthesametimehestrenuouslyinsiststhatthereshouldbenomonopolyofeducationbytheState.Itisnotdesirable,hedeclares,thatagovernmentshouldhavecompletecontrolovertheeducationofthepeople.Topossesssuchacontrolandactuallytoexertitwouldbedespotic.TheStatemay,however,requirethatallitspeopleshallhavereceivedacertainmeasureofeducation,butitmaynotprescribefromwhomorwheretheymayobtainit.

Atthepresentday,andunderthechangedeconomicconditionswhichnowprevail,itcannolongerbeassertedthattheimpartingofthemereelementsofknowledgeisadequateeithertosecurethefuturesocial

efficiencyofthechildrenofthelowerclassesofsocietyorthatsuchamodicumofinstructionasisprovidedbyourElementarySchoolsissufficienttoprotectthecommunityfromtheignoranceofitsilleducatedandbadlytrainedmembers.The"hooliganism"ofmanyofourlargecitiesisduetooursystemofhalfeducating,halftrainingthechildrenoftheslums,oflayingtoomuchstressontheacquisitionofcertainmechanicalartsinourPrimarySchoolsandinconceivingthemasendsinthemselves.Further,oursystemofprimaryeducationfailsonitsmoralside,andthisintwoways.Itseemsunawareofthefactthatallmoraleducationisanendeavourtoimplantinthemindsoftheyoung

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desiresthatshallimpelthemhereaftertogoodratherthantoevil,andthatthisendcanonlybeattainedinsofarasthenaturalinstinctivetendenciesofthechild'snaturewhichmakeforgoodarecultivatedandtrained,andinsofarasthoseotherinstinctivetendencieswhichmakeforsocialdestructionareinhibitedbyhavingtheircharacteralteredsoastobedirectedintochannelswhichmakeforthesocialwelfare.Inthesecondplace,weleaveofftheeducationofthechildrenattooearlyanage.Wehandoverthechildrenofthepoorerclassesduringthemostcriticalperiodoftheirlivestotheinfluencesofthestreetsandofthebadhome,counteractedonlybytheeffortsoftheslumvisitororthemissionary.Afterfurnishingthemwiththemereinstrumentsofknowledge,weentrusteithertothemortheirparentsthelibertyofusing,misusing,ornon-usingtheinstrumentsprovided.Moreover,wedonothingofasystematicnaturetoinstilintotheyouthofourpoorercitizensthefactthattheyaremembersofacorporatecommunityandfuturecitizensofaState,andthathereaftertheyhavedutiestowardsthatStatetheperformanceofwhichistheonlyrationalgroundoftheirpossessionofrightsasagainsttheState._E.g._,inmanyofourslumswehavethebestexamplesofindividualismrunmad,oftheconceptionthattheindividualisalawuntohisprivateself,andthatallgovernmentissomethingalien,somethingforcedupontheindividualfromtheoutsideandimpinginguponhisprivatewill,insteadoflawbeingwhatitreallyis,anexpressionofthesocialconditionsunderwhichthewelfareoftheindividualandofsocietymaybeattained.

Further,itmustbemaintainedthatourpresentpolicyineducationiseconomicallywasteful.Tospend,aswedoyearly,largerandlargersumsofmoneyontheelementaryeducationofourchildren,andthen,inalargenumberofcases,tofailtoreachtheendsofsecuringeitherthesocialefficiencyoftheindividualortheprotectionofsocietyagainsttheignoranceofitsmembers,issurely,tosaytheleast,unwise.Again,ifwereallysetbeforeusthisaimofthesocialefficiencyofthefutureindividual,wemustdosomethingtocarryontheeducationofthechildrenofthepoorerclassesaftertheElementarySchoolstagehasbeenpassed.

OneofthestrongestpointsintheGermansystemofeducation,as

comparedandcontrastedwithourown,isthecarewhichistakenofthehighereducationofthechildrenoftheworkingclassesduringtheperiodwhenitismostimportantthatsomecontrolshouldbeexercisedovertheyouthofthecountry,throughoutthetimewhentheboyismostopentotemptation,andwhenthemoralforcesofsocietyarepotentforgoodandevilinshapingandforminghischaracter.ThegreatmajorityofthechildreninamodernStateareandmustbedestinedforindustrialservice;thegreatmajorityofthechildrenoftheworkingclassesmust,atorabouttheageoffourteen,leavethePrimarySchoolandenteruponthelearningofsometrade.Butmanifestlyatthisearlystagethelargernumberarenotfittedtoguideandcontroltheirownlives;andifmoraleducationaims,asitoughttoaim,atfittingtheindividualforfreedom,atfittinghimtoguideanddirecthisownlife

inthelightofaself-acceptedandaself-directedideal,thensomemeasureofcontrol,ofguidance,andofregulationisnecessaryintheyearswhenthechildispassingfromyouthtomanhood.Now,itisthisfact,thistruth,whichtheGermansasanationhaverealised.TheydeclarethatitisneitherwisenorprudentnorfortheultimatebenefitoftheStatetoleavethevastmajorityoftheyouthwithoutguidance,andsometimesevenwithoutpropermoralcontrolexercisedoverthemduringthegreatformativeperiodoftheirlives.Nay,further,theybelievethataStatewhichneglectsitsdutyhereisnotdoingwhatitoughttodoforthefuturemoralgood,forthefutureeconomicwelfare,

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andforthefuturehappinessofitsindividualmembers.Hence,inseveraloftheGermanStates,theStatecontroloverthechilddoesnotceasewhenatfourteenyearsofageheleavestheElementarySchool,butiscontinueduntiltheageofseventeen;andthisiseffectedbytheestablishmentofcompulsoryEveningSchools.Inparticular,byalawwhichcameintoforceinBerlinonthe1stApril1905,everyboyandgirlinthatcity,withcertaindefinitelyspecifiedexceptions,mustattendatanEveningContinuationSchoolforaminimumofnotlessthanfourhoursandamaximumofnotmorethansixhoursperweek.Moreover,thisenactmenthasbeenrenderednecessarynottolevelupthemajority,buttoleveluptheminority.ThisdevelopmentisadevelopmentforwhichthevoluntaryEveningContinuationSchoolpreparedtheway;andcompulsoryattendancehasbecomepossibleonaccountofthewillingnessoftheGermanyouthtolearn,andofhisdesiretomakehimselfproficientinhisparticulartradeorprofession.Further,theschoolauthorities,inthismatterofcompulsoryattendanceatanEveningContinuationSchool,havewiththemtheheartyco-operationofthegreatbodyofemployers;andtheburdenofseeingthatthepupilattendsregularlyisnotputupontheparentbutupontheemployer.Bythesemeans,andbyotheragenciesofavoluntarycharacter,everycareistakenthattheBerlinyouthshallhavetheopportunityoffindingthatemploymentforwhichbynatureheisbestsuited,andthatthereafterheshalllearnthoroughlytheparticulartradeorcallinghemayenterupon.

Contrastwhatwedo,orratherwhatwedonotdo,inthismatterofprovidinghighereducationforthesonsanddaughtersoftheworkingclasses.InourlargetownsthegreatmajorityofourboysandgirlsleavetheElementarySchoolatorbeforetheageoffourteen.Inmanycasestheinstructiongivenduringthisperiodsoonpassesaway,andleaveslittlepermanentresultbehind.EveningContinuationSchoolsareindeedprovided,butonlyasmallproportionofouryouthtakesadvantageofthismeansoffurtherinstruction.Thelargernumberofthechildrenofthelowerworkingclassesdrift,forayearortwo,intovariousformsofunskilledemployment,choseninmostcasesbecausetheimmediatepecuniaryrewardisheregreaterthaninthecaseoflearningatrade;andafterspendingtwoorthreeyearsinemploymentswhichdo

nothingtoeducatethem,somedrift,byaccident,intothisorthatparticulartrade,whiletheothersremainbehindtoswellthenumberoftheunskilled.Duringthisperiodnothingofanorganisednatureisdonetosecurethephysicalefficiencyoftheyouthofourworkingclasses;nothingoralmostnothingisdonetosecurehisfutureindustrialefficiency;and,asaconsequence,yearafteryear,asanation,wegoonfosteringanarmyofloafers,increasingtheranksoftheunskilledworkers,andeveninourskilledtradesaddingtothenumberofthosewhoaremereprocessworkers,attheexpenseofproducingworkersacquaintedboththeoreticallyandpracticallywitheverydepartmentoftheirparticularcalling.Nowonderthatthedelegatesofthebrass-workers[10]ofBirmingham,contrastingwhattheyhaveseeninBerlinwithwhattheydailyseeintheirowntradeathomeandintheir

owncity,bitterlydeclarethattheBerlinyouthhasfrominfancybeenunderbettercareandtrainingathome,atschool,attheworks,andintheArmy;andconsequently,asaman,heismorefittedtobeentrustedwiththelibertywhichtheBirminghamyouthhasperhapsfromchildhoodonlyabused.

Spacedoesnotpermitmetogoatfullerlengthintothisquestion,butbeforeleavingtheparticularproblemletmeputtheissueplainly,becauseitisanissuewhichweasanationmustsoonclearlyrealise,andmustanswerineitheroneorotheroftwoways.Wemaygoonasat

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present,insistingthatacertainamountofelementaryeducationiscompulsoryforall,andleavingitamatterfortheindividualparentandtheindividualyouthtotakeadvantageofthemeansofhighereducationprovidedvoluntarily,andasarulewithoutanygreatdirectcosttothem.Inthisway,trustingtothevoluntaryagenciesatworkinsociety,wemayhopethateitherthroughenlightenedself-interest,orthroughahigherconceptionofthedutyoftheindividualtotheState,orthroughaloftiermoralidealbecomingprevalentandactualinsociety,anincreasingnumberofparentswillseethatthemeansprovidedforthehighereducationoftheirchildrenaredulytakenadvantageof,andthatthemajorityoftheyouthwillmakeittheiraimtousethesemeanstosecuretheirphysicalandindustrialefficiency.Ifweadoptthiscourse,thenitmustbethedutyoftheschoolauthoritiesofthevariousdistrictstoseethatEveningSchoolsofvarioustypessuitedtotheneedsofthevariousclassesofstudentsaredulyprovided,andthatnoinsurmountableobstaclesareplacedinthewayofthosedesirousandanxioustotakeadvantageofthemeansofhighereducation.Further,itmustbecomethedutyoftheemployersofthecountrytoseethattheyouthareencouragedineverywaytotakeadvantageofinstructiondesignedwiththeabove-namedendinview,andmoreoverthegeneralpublicmustdoallintheirpowertoco-operatewithandtoaidtheendeavoursofschoolauthoritiesandemployersoflabour.Inthisway,ashasbeenthecaseinBerlin,thevoluntarysystemofEveningContinuationandTradeSchoolsmaygraduallyandin

timepavethewayforthecompulsoryEveningSchool.Withoutdoubtthiswerethebetterway,ifitcouldbeeffectedandthatquickly.

Butifinthismatterwehavedelayedtoolong--ifwehaveallowedoureducationalpolicyinthepasttobeguidedbyaone-sidedandnarrowindividualism--iffortoolengthenedaperiodwehavepermittedourpoliticalactiontobedeterminedbythefalseidealthat,inthematterofprovidingforandfurtheringhiseducationasacitizenandasanindustrialworker,libertyforeachindividualconsistsinallowinghimtochooseforhimself,regardlessofwhetherornotthatchoiceisforhisownandtheState'sultimategood,thenitmaybenecessaryintheimmediatefuturetotakestepstoremoveorremedythisdefectinourpresenteducationalorganisation.Foritisnecessary--essentially

necessary--onvariousgroundsthattheeducationoftheboysandgirlsofourworkingclassesshouldnotceaseabsolutelyattheElementarySchoolstage,[11]butthat,withcertaindefiniteandwell-consideredexceptions,allshouldcontinueforseveralyearsthereaftertofitthemselvesforindustrialandsocialservice.Ifthisresultcanbeeffectedbymoralmeans,goodandwell;ifnot,legalcompulsionmust,soonerorlater,beresortedto.Foritis,asithasalwaysbeen,afundamentalmaximofpoliticalactionthattheStateshouldandmustcompelhermemberstoutilisethemeansbywhichtheymayberaisedtofreedom.

ThesecondlineofargumentwhichMillfollowsinhisadvocacyofthe

Stateprovisionofeducationisthatinstructionisoneofthecasesinwhichtheaidgivendoesnotfosterandre-createtheevilwhichitseekstoremedy.Educationwhichisreallysuchdoesnottendtoenervatebuttostrengthentheindividual.Itseffectisfavourabletothegrowthofindependence."Itisahelptowardsdoingwithouthelp."

Onsimilargrounds,wemayurgethatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethatthemeansforthehighereducationoftheyouthofthecountryareadequateinquantityandefficientinquality.Thebettertechnicaltrainingofourworkmenisnecessaryifwearetosecuretheireconomic

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self-sufficiencyandfitthemtobecomesociallyusefulasmembersofacommunity.Oneaimthereforeunderlyinganyfutureorganisationofeducationmustbetosecuretheindustrialefficiencyoftheworkerandtoensurethattheresultsofscienceshallbeutilisedinthefurtheranceoftheartsandindustriesoflife.Thiscanonlybeeffectedbythebetterscientifictraining,bythemoreintensiveandthemorethorougheducationofthosechildrenofthenationwhobynaturalabilityandindustryarefittedinafter-lifetoguideandcontroltheindustriesofthecountry.

Mr.Haldane,[12]duringthepastfewyears,inseasonandoutofseason,hascalledtheattentionofthepublicofGreatBritaintothefactthatintheorganisationandequipmentoftheirsystemoftechnicaleducationGermanyismuchinadvanceofthiscountry,andthattheGermanpeoplehavethoroughlyandpracticallyrealisedthat,iftheyaretocompetesuccessfullywithothernations,thenoneoftheaimsoftheireducationalsystemmustbetoteachtheyouthhowtoapplyknowledgeinthefurtheranceandadvancementoftheeconomicinterestsoflife.WiththisendinviewwehavetheestablishmentthroughouttheGermanStatesofnumerousschoolsandcollegeshavingastheirchiefaimtheapplicationofknowledgetotheartsandindustries.Inourowncountrythisbranch--thisveryimportantbranch--ofeducationhasbeenleft,forthemostpart,tothecareofprivateindividuals,andalthoughtheStatehasdonesomethinginrecentyearstoencourageanddevelopthis

sideofeducation,yetmuchmorerequirestobedone;and,aboveall,itisdesirablethatwhateverisdoneinthefutureshouldbedoneinaregular,systematic,andorganisedmannerandwithdefiniteaimsinview.

ButitisnotmerelyinthehigherreachesofGermaneducationthattheindustrialaimiskeptinview.Itpervadesandpermeatesthewholesystemfromthelowesttothehigheststages.EveninthePrimarySchooltherequirementsofpracticallifearenotleftoutofsight.Inschool,saidaformerPrussianDirectorofEducation,"childrenaretolearnhowtoperformduties,theyaretobehabituatedtowork,togainpleasureinwork,andthusbecomeefficientforfutureindustrialpursuits.ThishasbeentheaimfromtheearliesttimesofPrussianeducation;andto

thisdayitisplainlyunderstoodbyallStateandlocaladministrativeofficers,aswellasbyallteachersandthemajorityoftheparents,thatthepeople'sschoolhasmoretodothanmerelyteachthevehiclesofculture--reading,writing,andarithmetic"--thatthechiefaimisrather"thepreparationofcitizenswhocanandwillcheerfullyservetheirGodandtheirnativecountryaswellasthemselves."

Inthethirdplace,thequestionoftheprovisionofthemeansofhighereducationisnotonebetweenitsprovisionontheonehandbymeansoftheGovernment,andontheotherbymeansofpurelyvoluntaryagencies.Highereducation,_e.g._,inScotlandhasrarelybeenprovidedandpaidforatitsfullcostbytheindividualparentorbyassociationsofindividualparents,buthasbeenmaintained,insomecasesinahigh

degreeofefficiency,byendowmentsleftforthispurpose.Theseendowmentsarenowinmanycasesinsufficienttomeetthedemandmadeforeducation,andthestreamofprivatebenevolenceinprovidingthemeansofeducationhaseitherceasedtofloworflowsinanirregularanduncertainfashion.Further,theincomesofeventhemoderatelywell-to-doofourmiddleclassesarenotsufficienttobearthewholecostofthemoreexpensiveeducationrequiredtofittheirsonsanddaughtersfortheafter-serviceofthecommunity.Hence,justasinMill'stimethequestionoftheprovisionofelementaryeducationlaybetweentheStateprovisionandtheprovisionbymeansofcharitable

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agencies,soto-daytheproblemoftheprovisionofsecondaryandtechnicaleducationisbetweenitsadequateprovisionandorganisationbytheState,anditsinadequate,uncertainprovisionbymeansoftheendowmentsofthepastandbythecharitableagenciesofthepresent.Manifestly,inthelightofmodernconditions,withtheeconomiccompetitionbetweennationandnationbecomingkeenerandkeener,andknowingfullwellthatthefuturebelongstothenationwiththebestequippedandthebesttrainedarmyofindustrialworkers,wecannolongerrestcontentwithanyhaphazardmethodofprovidingthemeansofhighereducation:whateverthecostmaybe,wemustrealisethatthetimehascometoputoureducationalhouseinorderandtoestablishandorganiseoursystemofhighereducationsothatitwillsubserveeachandeveryinterestoftheState.Thiscanonlybeeffectedinsofarasthenationasawholerealisestheneedforthebettereducationofthechildren,andtakesstepstosecurethatthisshallbeprovided,andthatthereshallbeaffordedtoeachtheopportunityoffittinghimselfbyeducationtoputhistalentstothebestusebothforhisownindividualgoodandthegoodofthecommunity.Lastly,asMillurges,theself-interestoftheindividualisneithersufficienttoensurethattheeducationwillbeprovided,norinmanycasesishisjudgmentsufficienttoensurethegoodnessoftheeducationprovidedbyvoluntarymeans.

But,inadditiontothereasonsurgedbyMillfortheStateprovision

andcontrolofthemeansofelementaryeducation,andthesereasonsare,aswehaveseen,asurgentandascogentto-dayfortheextensionoftheprincipletotheprovisionofthemeansofsecondaryandtechnicaleducation,stillfurtherreasonsmaybeadvanced.

Inthefirstplace,therecanbenoco-ordinationofthedifferentstagesofeducationuntilalltheagenciesofinstructionineachareaordistrictareplacedunderonecentralcontrol.Untilthisiseffectedwemusthaveattimesoverlappingoftheagenciesofinstruction.Insomecasestheremayalsobewasteofthemeansofeducation.Ineverycasetherewillbeageneralwantofbalancebetweenthevariouspartsofthesystem.

Inthesecondplace,oneobjectofanyorganisationofthemeansofeducationshouldbetheselectionofthebestabilityfromamongstthechildrenofourElementarySchoolsandthefurthereducationofthisabilityatsomeoneorothertypeofIntermediateorSecondarySchool.Inorderthatthismaybeeconomicallyandefficientlyeffected,theinstructionoftheElementarySchoolshouldenablethepupilatacertainagetofithimselfintotheworkoftheHighSchool,andourHighSchools'systemshouldbesodifferentiatedintypeastofurnishnotonetypeofsucheducationbutseveralinaccordancewiththemainclassesofservicerequiredbythecommunityofitsadultmembers.Manifestlysuchaco-ordinationofthemeansandsuchagradingoftheagenciesofeducation,ifnotimpossibleonthevoluntaryprinciple,isatleastdifficultofcompleterealisation.

Hence,onthegroundthatthehighereducationoftheyoungisnecessaryforthesecuringoftheiraftersocialefficiency,onthegroundthatitisnecessaryfortheeconomicandsocialsecurityofthecommunity,onthegroundthataidinhighereducationisahelptowardsdoingwithouthelpandthatitsprovisioninmanycasescannotbefullymetbythevoluntarycontributionoftheindividual,wemayurgetheneedfortheState'sundertakingitsadequateandefficientprovision.

Further,wemustrememberthattheStatemusttakea"longer"viewof

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theproblemofeducationthanispossiblefortheindividual.Atbestthelatterlooksbutonegenerationahead.Heiscontenttosecuretheeducationandthefuturewelfareofhischildren.InthelifeoftheStatethisisnotsufficient.Shemustlooktotheneedsoftheremotefutureaswellasoftheimmediatepresent,andhencehereducationaloutlookmustbewiderandgofartherthanthatofanymereprivateindividual.Lastly,ifweunderstandthetruenatureandfunctionoftheState,weneedhavenofearthattheStateshouldcontroltheeducationofallthepeople.Whatwehavetofearontheonesideisthebureaucraticcontrolofeducation,andontheotheritscontrolanddirectionbyoneclassintheinterestsofitself.TheStateexistsfor--thereasonofitsverybeingistosecure--thewelfareoftheindividual,andtheStateapproachesitsperfectionwhenitsorganisationisfittedtosecureandensurethewidestscopeforthefullandfreedevelopmentofeachindividual.

Theevilofbureaucracycanberemovedonlybyourrepresentativebodiesbecomingmoreeffectivevoicesofthesocialandmoralwillofthecommunity,justastheevilofclasscontrolcanonlybeeffectuallyabolishedbytheriseandspreadofthetruedemocraticspirit,everseekingthattheagenciesoftheStateshallbedirectedtowardstheremovingoftheobstacleswhichhinderthefullrealisationofthelifeofeachofitsmembers.

FOOTNOTES:[9]Cf.GrahamBalfour,_EducationalSystemofGreatBritain_,p.27,2nded.

[10]_Brass-workersofBerlinandBirmingham_(King).

[11]"Itmustnotbeforgottenthattheinstructionofthecommonschools(_Volksschule_),closingwiththepupil'sfourteenthyear,endstoosoon,thattheperiodmostsusceptibletoaid,mostinneedofeducation,theyearsfromfifteentotwenty...arenownotonlyallowedtolieperfectlyfallow,buttoloseandwastewhathasbeensolaboriouslyacquiredduringtheprecedingperiodatschool."Inthe

ruralpartsofNorthernGermanyeffortsarebeingmadetoremedythisevilbytheinstitutionofschoolsprovidinghalf-yearwintercourses.Cf.ProfessorPaulsen's_TheGermanUniversitiesandUniversityStudy_,p.117(Englishtranslation).

[12]Cf._EducationandEmpire_.

CHAPTERV

THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THECOSTOFEDUCATION

ButwhilewemayholdthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethatthemeansfortheeducationofthechildrenofthenationisbothadequateinextentandefficientinquality,andsoorganisedthatitaffordsopportunitiesforeachtosecuretheeducationwhichisneededtoequiphimforhisafter-workinlife,itbynomeansfollowsasalogicalconsequencethatthewholecostofthisprovisionshouldbebornebythecommunityinitscorporatecapacityandthattheindividualparentshould,ifhesochooses,berelievedfromanydirectpaymentforthe

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educationofhischildren.Toassertthiswouldbeimplicitlytoaffirmthattheeducationofaman'schildrenisnopartofhisduty--thatitisanobligationwhichdoesnotfalluponhimasanindividual,butonlyasamemberofacommunity,andthatsolongashepayswillinglytheproportionofthecostofeducationassignedtohimbytaxesandrates,hehasfulfilledhisobligation.Education,onsuchaview,becomesamatterofnationalconcerninwhichasaprivateindividualtheparenthasnodirectinterest.ThispositioncarriedouttoitslogicalconclusionwouldimplythatthechildandhisfuturebelongwhollytotheState,anditwouldalsoinvolvetheestablishmentofacommunalsystemofeducationsuchasissetforthinthe_Republic_ofPlato.Further,suchapositionlogicallyleadstothecontentionthattheothernecessitiesofliferequisiteforsecuringthesocialefficiencyofthefuturemembersoftheStateshouldalsobeprovidedbytheStateinitscorporatecapacityactingastheguardianoftheyoung,andfromthiswearebutashortwayfromthepositionthatitbelongstothecommunitytosuperintendthepropagationofthespecies,andtoregulatethemarriagesofitsindividualmembers.ThisisStatesocialisminitsmostextremeform,andiscontrarytothespiritofatrueliberalism,atruedemocracy,andatrueChristianity.

Theopposingposition--thepositionofliberalismuntaintedbysocialism--isthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseethatasfaraspossiblethesocialinequalitieswhicharisethroughtheindividualistic

organisationofsocietyareremovedorremedied,andthatequalityofopportunityissecuredtoeachtomakethebestofhisownindividuallife.Intheeducationalspherethisimpliesthatanyobstaclesinthewayofaman'seducatinghischildrenshouldberemoved,ifandinsofarastheseobstaclesareirremovablebyanyprivateeffortofhisown,andthattheopportunityofobtainingthebestpossibleeducationshouldbeopentothechildrenofthepooriftheyarefittedbynaturetoprofitbysuchaneducation.Itfurtherimpliesthatthemeansofhighereducation,providedatthepublicexpense,shouldnotbewastedonthechildrenofanyclassifbynaturetheyareunfittedtobenefitbythemeansplacedattheirdisposal;_i.e._,anationalsystemofeducationmustbedemocraticinthesensethatthemeansofhighereducationshallbeopentoall,richandpoor,inorderthateachindividualmaybe

enabledtofithimselffortheparticularserviceforwhichbynatureheisbestsuited.Itmustsee,further,thatanyobstacleswhichpreventthefulluseofthesemeansbyparticularindividualsare,asfarasmaybepossible,removed.Anationalsystemofeducation,ontheotherhand,mustbearistocraticinthesensethatitisselectiveofthebestability.Lastly,itmustberestrictive,inorderthatthemeansofhighereducationmaybeutilisedtothebestadvantage,andnotmisusedonthosewhoareunfittedtobenefittherefrom.

CloselyconnectedwiththepositionthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseenotmerelytotheadequateandefficientprovisionofthemeansofeducation,butalsothatthewholecostoftheprovisionshouldbebornebytheState,isthecontentionthatbecausetheStateimposesalegal

obligationupontheindividualparenttoprovideacertainmeasureofeducationforhischildren,itisalsoalogicalconclusionfromthisstepthateducationshouldbefree."Theobjectofpubliceducationistheprotectionofsociety,andsocietymustpayforitsprotection,whetherittakestheformofapolicemanorapedagogue."[13]

Buttheprovisionofthemeansofelementaryeducation,andtheimposingofalegalobligationuponeachindividualparenttoutilisethemeansprovided,isnotmerelyorsolelyfortheprotectionofsociety.Educationconfersnotonlyasocialbenefituponthecommunity,buta

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particularbenefitupontheindividual.ItsprovisionfallsnotwithinthemerelynegativebenefitsconferredbytheStatebyitsprotectionofthemajorityagainsttheignoranceandwickednessoftheminority,butitbelongstothepositivebenefitsconferredbyGovernmentuponitsindividualmembers.TheStateinpartundertakestheprovisionofthemeansofeducation,asMillpointedout,inordertoprotectthemajorityagainsttheevilconsequenceslikelytoresultfromtheignoranceandwantofeducationoftheminority.Asthisprovisionconfersacommonbenefitonall,sofar,butonlyinsofar,aseducationisprotective,canitscostbelaidupontheshouldersofthegeneraltaxpayer.

ButtheprovisionbytheStateofthemeansofeducationisnotmerelyundertakenfortheprotectionofanygivensocietyagainsttheignoranceandthelawlessnessofitsownindividualmembers,itisalsoundertakeninordertosecuretheincreasedefficiencyofthenationasaneconomicandmilitaryunitinantagonism,moreorless,withsimilarunits.Atthepresentdaythisisonemainmotiveatworkinthedemandmadeforthebetterandmoreintensivetrainingoftheindustrialclasses.TosecuretheindustrialandmilitaryefficiencyofthenationisexplicitlysetforthasthemainaimoftheGermanorganisationofthemeansofeducation.Wemaydeplorethistendencyofourtimes.Wemaycondemntheriseoftheintenselynationalspiritofthemodernworld,andregretthattheidealofuniversalpeaceanduniversalharmony

betweenthenationsoftheearthseemstofadeforeverandforeveraswemove.Butwehavetolookthefactsintheface,andtorealisethattheeducationalsystemofanationmustendeavourtosecuretheindustrialandmilitaryefficiencyofitsfuturemembersasameansofsecurityandprotectionagainstothercompetingnationsandasoneoftheessentialconditionsfortheself-preservationoftheparticularStateinthatwarofnationagainstnationwhichHobbessoeloquentlydescribes:"Forthenatureofwar,consistsnotinactualfighting;butintheknowndispositionthereto,duringallthetimethereisnoassurancetothecontrary."[14]

Insofar,then,astheprovisionofeducationbytheStateisundertakenwiththisendinview,itmaybemaintainedthatpart,at

least,ofthecostofitsprovisionshouldbebornebythegeneraltaxpayerinreturnforthegreaternationalandeconomicsecuritywhichheenjoysthroughthegreaterefficiencyofthenationasaneconomicandmilitaryunit.

Butthespreadandthehigherefficiencyofeducationconfersinadditionbothalocalandanindividualbenefit.Itconfersalocalbenefit,insofarasbyitsmeansadvantagesaccruetoanyparticulardistrict.Itconfersanindividualbenefit,insofarasthroughthemeansofeducationplacedathisdisposaltheindividualisenabledtoattaintoahigherdegreeofsocialefficiencythanwouldotherwisehavebeenpossible.

Further,ifwelookatthisquestionnotfromthepointofviewofbenefitreceived,butfromthatoftheobligationimposed,wereachasimilarresult.ItisanobligationupontheStatetoseethatthemeansofeducationandtheirdueco-ordinationandorganisationareofsuchanaturebothinextentandinqualityastofurnishacompletesystemofmeansforthetrainingupoftheyouthofthecountrytoperformefficientlyalltheservicesrequiredbysuchacomplexcommunityasthemodernState.ThisdutydevolvesupontheStatechieflyforthereasonsetforthbyAdamSmithinhisdiscussionofthefunctionsofgovernment.Itisthedutyofthesovereign,hedeclares,

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toerectandmaintaincertain"publicinstitutionswhichitcanneverbefortheinterestofanyindividualtoerectandmaintain,becausetheprofitcouldneverrepaytheexpensetotheindividual,orsmallnumberofindividuals,thoughitmayfrequentlydomuchmorethanrepayittoagreatsociety."[15]

ItbecomesfurtheranobligationplaceduponthelocalauthoritytoaidthecentralauthorityoftheStateintheestablishmentanddistributionofthemeansofeducation.Thelocalauthoritybyitsmoreintimateknowledgeoflocalcircumstancesisthemostcompetenttojudgeofthenatureoftheeducationsuitedtoserveitsownparticularneeds,andisbestqualifiedtoundertakethedistributionofthemeans.

Buttheobligationtotakeadvantageofthemeansforthefuturebenefitofhischildrenisamoralobligationplacedupontheshouldersoftheindividualparent.Itbecomesalegalobligationonlywhen,andinsofaras,themoralobligationisnotrealisedbyacertainnumberofthecommunity.Certainlyonereasonforthemakingoftheeducationofaman'schildrenalegalobligationistheprotectionofsocietyagainsttheignoranceandwickednessoftheminority,buttheotherandprincipalaimistoendeavourtosecurethatwhatatfirstwasimposedasamerelyexternalorlegalobligationmaypassintoamoralandinherentobligation,sothattheindividualfrombeinggovernedbyoutwardrestraintmayintimebegovernedbyaninwardandself-imposed

ideal.Itisnodoubtdifficultinanyparticularcasetodetermineexactlywhatprecisepartofthecostshouldbeallocatedtoeachofthethreebenefitingparties,butinanynationalorganisationofthemeansofeducationthisthreefolddistributionofcostshouldsomehoworotherbeundertaken.

Fromthisitfollows,thatwhileitmaylegitimatelybelaiddownthatupontheStatemustfalltheobligationofsecuringtheadequateprovisionandtheduedistributionofthemeansofeducation,yetthefurtherdutyoftheStateinthisrespectislimitedtotheremovingofobstacleswhichstandinthewayofthefulfilmentoftheparent's

obligationtoeducatehischildren,andtothesecuringtoeachchildequalityofopportunitytoobtainaneducationinkindandqualitywhichwillservetofithimhereaftertoperformhisspecialdutytosociety.

Althoughsince1891elementaryeducationhasbeenpracticallyfreeinthiscountryandthewholecostofitsprovisionisnowundertakenatthepublicexpense,yetexceptfromthesocialisticpositionthattheprovisionofeducationisacommunalandnotapersonalandmoralobligation,thispublicprovisionofthefundsforelementaryeducationcanbeupheldfromtheindividualisticpointofviewonlyontwogrounds.Inthefirstplace,itmightbemaintainedthattheprotectivebenefitderivedfromtheimpartingoftheelementsofeducationissogreattoallthatitscostmaylegitimatelybelaiduponthecommunity

initscorporatecapacity.ItisonthisgroundofeducationbeingbeneficialtothewholesocietythatAdamSmithdeclaresthattheexpenseoftheinstitutionsforeducationmay,withoutinjustice,bedefrayedbythegeneralcontributionsofthewholesociety.ButatthesametimeAdamSmithrecognisesthateducationprovidesanimmediateandpersonalbenefit,andthattheexpensemightwithequalproprietybelaidupontheshouldersofthosebenefited.

Inthesecondplace,itmaybemaintainedthattheimpositionofschoolfeescreatedsuchahindranceinalargenumberofcasestothe

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fulfilmentofthemoralobligationthatitwasexpedientonthepartoftheStatetoremovethisobstaclebyfreeingeducationasawhole.Insupportofthis,itmightbefurtherurgedthatthedifficultyofdiscriminatingbetweenthemarginalcasesinwhichtheimpositionofschoolfeesreallyprovedahindranceandthoseinwhichitdidnotisgreat,andthatthepartialreliefofpaymentofschoolfeeslaidthestigmaofpauperismuponmanywhofromunpreventablecauseswereunabletomeetthedirectcostoftheeducationoftheirchildren.

But,exceptonthegroundsthateithertheprotectivebenefittosocietyissogreatandsoimportant,orthatthechargingofanypartofthecostdirectlytotheparentimposesahindranceinalargenumberofcases,thereisnojustificationforthecontentionthatbecausetheStatecompelstheindividualtoeducatehischildren,thereforetheStateshouldfullyprovidethemeans.

Ifthisbeso,thenthefurthercontentionthatthemeansofeducationfromtheelementarytotheuniversitystageshouldbeprovidedatthepublicexpense,andthatnopartofthecostshouldbelaiddirectlyupontheindividualparent'sshoulders,mustalsobejudgedtobeerroneous.

ThefirstdutyoftheState,inthematteroftheprovisionofhighereducation,islimitedtoseeingthattheprovisionofthemeansof

highereducationisadequatetothedemandmadeforit;further,itmayendeavourtoencourageandtostimulatethisdemandinvariousways.Themeansbeingprovided,theseconddutyoftheStateistoendeavourtosecurethatanyhindrancewhichmightreasonablypreventtheuseofthesemeansbythosefittedtobenefittherefromshouldberemoved.ButtheonlyjustificationfortheinterferenceoftheStateisthatthecompulsionexactedinthematteroftaxesorotherwiseisofsmallmomentcomparedwiththecapacityforfreedomandintellectualdevelopmentsetfreeintheindividualsbenefited.Inotherwords,thecostinvolvedbytheremovalofthehindrancemustbereckonedassmallcomparedwiththeultimategoodtothecommunityasmanifestedinthehigherdevelopment--inthehigherwelfareofitsindividualmembers.

Butthepracticalrealisationoftheidealneednotinvolvethateducationshouldbefreefromthelowesttothetopmostrungoftheso-callededucationalladder.Itisindeedquestionablewhethertheladdersimilehasnotbeenapotentinstrumentingivingawrongdirectiontoouridealsoftheessentialnatureofwhataneducationalorganisationshouldaimat.Educationshouldindeedprovideasystemofadvancingmeans,butthesystemofmeansmayleadtomanyandvariousaimsinsteadofone.Howeverthatmaybe,whatwewishtoinsistuponisthattheState'sdutyinthismattercanbefulfillednotbyfreeingeducationasawhole,butbyestablishingasystemofbursariesorallowances,enablingeachindividualwhootherwisewouldbehinderedfromusingthemeanstotakeadvantageofthehighereducationprovided.

Intheawardingofaidofthisnature,thetwotestsofabilitytoprofitfromtheeducationandofneedofmaterialmeansmustbothbeemployed.Iftheformertestonlyisapplied,thentheresultisthatinmanycasestheadvantageissecuredbythosebestabletopayforhighereducation.Iftheobjectionbemadethatthegrantingofaidonmereneedshownistoplacethestigmaofpauperismupontherecipient,thentheonlyansweristhatinsothinkingtheindividualmisconceivestherealnatureoftheaid,failstounderstandthatitishelptowardsdoingwithouthelp--aidtoenabletheindividualtoreachahigherandfullerdevelopmentofhispowers,bothforhisownfuturewelfareand

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forthebettermentofsociety.

FOOTNOTES:

[13]_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,ibid.p.101.

[14]Hobbes,_Leviathan_,p.1.chap.xiii.

[15]AdamSmith,_WealthofNations_,ed.J.ShieldNicholson(Nelsons).

CHAPTERVI

THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--MEDICALEXAMINATIONANDINSPECTIONOFSCHOOLCHILDREN

InconsideringthequestionoftherelationoftheStatetoeducation,wehaveadoptedthepositionthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseetotheadequateprovisionofthemeansofeducation,totheirduedistributionandtotheirproperorganisation.AtthesametimewefoundthattheobligationoftheStateinthisrespectdidnotnecessarily

involvethatthewholecostofthisprovisionshouldbeborneatthepublicexpense,andthatnopartoftheburdenshouldbeplacedontheshouldersoftheindividualparents.Asregardstheprovisionofelementaryeducation,weindeedfoundthatthewholeburdenmightbelegitimatelylaiduponthegeneraltaxpayer,uponthegroundseitherthattheprotectivebenefitofelementaryeducationtothecommunitywasgreat,orthatthehindranceopposedbytheimpositionofschoolfeestothefulfilmentofaman'smoralobligationtoprovidefortheeducationofhischildrenwassogeneralthatacasemightbemadeoutforfreeingelementaryeducationasawhole.Butexceptfromthepositionthattheprovisionofeducationwasacommunalandnotapersonalobligation,wefoundnogroundsforthecontentionthateducationthroughoutitsvariousstagesshouldbeachargeuponthecommunityasawhole.

Buttheprovisionofthemeansofeducationmayinvolvemuchmorethanthemereprovisionofadequatelyequippedschoolbuildingsandoffullytrainedteachers,andwehavenowtoinquirewhatotherprovisionisnecessaryinordertosecuretheaftersocialefficiencyofthechildrenofthenation,andwhatpartofthisprovisionrightlymaybeincludedwithinthescopeofthedutiesoftheState.

IsthemedicalinspectionofchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchoolsoneoftheseduties,and,ifso,whatactiononthepartoftheStatedoesthisinvolve?

Theimportanceofthethoroughandsystematicmedicalexaminationof

childrenattendingschoolasanecessarymeasuretosecuretheirafterphysicalandeconomicefficiencyaswellasfortheirintellectualdevelopmentandwelfareduringtheschoolperiodhasbeenrecognisedbymanyContinentalcountries.Totakebutoneortwoillustrativeexamples,wemaynotethatinBrusselseveryplaceofpublicinstructionisvisitedatleastonceineverytenweeksbyoneofthesixteendoctorsappointedforthispurpose.Theschooldoctoramongstotherdutieshastoreportonthestateofthevariousclassrooms,theirheating,lightingandventilation,andalsoupontheconditioninwhichhehasfoundtheplaygrounds,lavatoriesandcloakroomsattachedtothe

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school.Casesofillnessinvolvingtemporaryabsencefromschoolarereportedtohimaswellasthecasesinvolvingprolongedabsencefromschool.

Childrenaremedicallyexamineduponadmissiontoschool,andarecordismadeoftheirage,height,weight,chestmeasurement,etc."Anynaturaloraccidentalinfirmityischronicled,stateofeyesandteeth,dentaloperationsperformedatschool,etc.Thisexaminationisrepeatedannually,soastokeeparecordofeachchild'sphysicaldevelopment."Greatattention,moreover,ispaidtothecleanlinessofthechildrenattendingschool,andthechildrenareexamineddailybytheteacherupontheirentrancetoschool.[16]

InmostofthelargetownsofGermanyasystemofperiodicalmedicalexaminationandinspectionofchildrenattendingschoolhasalsobeenestablished._E.g._,in1901Berlinappointedtendoctorsforthispurpose,withthefollowingamongstotherduties:--

1.Toexaminechildrenontheirfirstadmissionastotheirfitnesstoattendschool.

2.Toexaminechildrenwiththeco-operationofaspecialistforthepresenceofdefectintheparticularsenseorgans(sight,

hearing).3.Toexaminechildrenwhoaresupposedtobedefectiveandwhomayrequirespecialtreatment.

4.Toexamineperiodicallytheschoolbuildingsandarrangementsandtoreportonanyhygienicdefects.[17]

InEngland,althoughthereisnospecificprovisionfortheincurringoftheexpenseofconductingthemedicalinspectionofchildrenattendingthePublicElementarySchools,itisgenerallyheldthattheexpensemaybelegitimatelyincludedinthegeneralpowersassignedtoeducational

authoritiesundertheActof1870;and,especiallysince1892,inseveralareas,adefinitesystemofmedicalinspectionhasbeenestablished,andinmanyothersthereisalikelihoodthatsomesystemofmedicalinspectionwillbeorganisedintheimmediatefuture.AccordingtotheReportoftheInter-DepartmentalCommitteeontheMedicalInspectionandFeedingofSchoolChildren,publishedinNovember1905,outof328localeducationauthorities,48hadestablishedamoreorlessdefinitelyorganisedsystemofmedicalexamination,whilstineighteenotherdistrictsteachersandsanitaryofficershadundertakenorganisedworkfortheameliorationofthephysicalconditionofchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchools.Asarule,thisinspectionislimited"totheexaminationofthechildrenandtothediscoveringofdefectsofeyesight,hearing,orphysicaldevelopment."Whenthe

existenceofthedefectisdiscovered,theparentisnotified,butasageneralrulethepublicauthoritydoesnotincludewithinitsdutiesthetreatmentoftheailmentsanddefectsortheprovisionofremedialinstrumentswhenrequired.

Further,innocasehastherebeencarriedoutathoroughanthropometricrecord,suchasthatinvogueintheschoolsofBrussels,oftheconditionofthephysicalnatureofthechilduponadmissiontoschoolandhissubsequentphysicaldevelopment.

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InScotlandwefindnogeneraloradequatesystemofmedicalinspectioncarriedoutbythelocalschoolauthorities.TheReportoftheRoyalCommissiononPhysicalTraining(Scotland),issuedinMarch1903,declares,however,thatsuchasystemisurgentlyneeded,mainlyforremedialpurposes.Bythismeansdefectsintheorgansofsightorhearing,inmentaldevelopment,inphysicalweakness,orinstateofnutrition,suchasdemandspecialtreatmentinconnectionwithschoolwork,mightbedetected,andbysimplemeansremovedormitigated.ButalthoughintheEducation(Scotland)Billof1905provisionwasmadefortheinstitutionofmedicalinspectionatthepublicexpense,yetthroughthefailureoftheBilltopassnothingofasystematicnaturehasbeendonetoorganisethemedicalinspectionofElementarySchoolchildreninanydistrictinScotland.

Fromthisbriefaccountofwhateitherhasbeenalreadydoneorisproposedtobedone,itisapparentthatthereisagradualawakeningofthenationtothefactthatthecareofthephysicalnatureofthechildduringtheschoolperiodisoffundamentalimportancefromthepointofviewofthefuturewelfareandefficiencyofthenation.Intheendeavourtoreachthisaimitisnecessarythattheexaminationofthechildshouldbeundertakeninasystematicmanner,andthatmeansshouldbeadoptedfortheremedyofanydefects.Inparticulareverychildonadmissiontoschoolshouldbeexaminedinordertodiscoverwhetherthereisanydefectpresentinthespecialorgansofsense,[18]and

periodicalexaminationsshouldbemadeinordertodiscoverwhethertheschoolworkistendingtoproduceanyinjurytothevarioussenses.Foritisawell-knownfactthatoftencasesofseemingstupidityandseemingcarelessnessarenotdueeithertothewantofintelligenceontheonehandorofinattentionontheother,onthepartofthechild,butmaybetracedtoslightdefectsofeyesightandofhearing.Inorderthattheymaydiscoverthesedefectsteachersoughttobetrainedintheobservationofthemainsymptomswhichimplydefects,andshouldbepractisedintheartofapplyingthesimplerandmoreobviousremediesforeyeandeardefects.Moredifficultcasesshouldbereferredtothemedicalofficeroftheschool.Again,itoughttobeamatterofinquiryatthebeginningoftheschoolperiodastowhetherthechildpossessesanyphysicaldefectwhichwouldmakeitdifficultforhimtoundertake

thefullworkoftheschool.Insomecasesitwouldbefoundthatthechildwasaltogetherunabletoundertakethiswork,andmeasuresshouldbetakentoremedythedefectbeforethechildentersupontheschoolcourse.Lastly,itisnowrealisedthatmoreattentionmustbepaidtothedifferencesthatexistbetweenindividualchildren,andthatinthecaseofchildrenwithalowdegreeofintelligenceitismuchbetterbothforthemselvesandfortheschoolgenerallytoinstitutespecialclassesorspecialschoolsfortheireducation.

Butinorderthatthismedicalexaminationmaybethoroughlyandsystematicallycarriedout,speciallegislativeauthoritymustbegiventoeducationauthoritiestoincurexpenseunderthishead,andregulationsmustbelaiddownbythecentralauthorityforthecarrying

outofthisinspectionsoastosecuresomethinglikeauniformsystemofexaminationthroughoutthecountry.Forthispurposethereshouldbeattachedtoeachschoolareaamedicalofficer,orofficers,chargedwiththesoledutyofattendingtothehygienicconditionsunderwhichtheschoolworkiscarriedon,andofperiodicallyexaminingthechildrenattendingtheschoolsofhisdistrict.

ThatthedutyofcarryingoutthemedicalexaminationofschoolchildrenfallsupontheStateandshouldbemetoutofpublicfundsmaybejustifiedonvariousgrounds.Inthefirstplace,itisnecessaryas

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ameasureofprotection,inordertopreventthechild'sgrowingupimperfectly,andthusbecominginadultlifealessefficientmemberofsociety.Schoolworkoftenaccentuatescertaintroubles,andtheseifneglectedtendgraduallytorendertheindividualmoreandmoreunfittedtoundertakesomespecialoccupationinafter-life.Anyeyespecialistcouldfurnishevidenceofnumerouscasesinwhichtheeyeshavebeenruinedthroughsomeslightdefectbecomingintensifiedthroughmisuse.

Inthesecondplace,theexaminationforphysicalandmentaldefectcannotinalargenumberofcasesbelefttotheself-interestandjudgmentoftheindividualparent,andunlessundertakenbythepublicauthoritywillnotbeundertakenatall.

Inthethirdplace,ifitislefttomerelyvoluntaryagencies,itisimperfectlydone,andinmanycasesrecourseishadtothevariousvoluntaryagencieswhenthetroublehasbecomeacute,andinsomecasesimpossibleofremedy.

Onthesethreegrounds--ofitsnecessityforthefuturepublicwelfare,thattheself-interestoftheparentoftenprovesbutafeeblemotivepower,andthatthevoluntaryagenciesplacedatthedisposalofthepoorareunablesystematicallytoundertakethiswork--wemaymaintainthatthedutymaylegitimatelybelaidupontheState.

ButthefurtherquestionastohowfaritbecomesthedutyoftheStatetoundertaketheprovisionofremedialmeasureseitherinthewayofsupplyingmedicalaidorintheprovisioninnecessitouscasesofremedialmeasures,as_e.g._spectaclesinthecaseofdefectiveeyesight,isaquestionofmuchgreaterdifficulty.

Atpresentanypositivehelpofthisnatureistheexceptionratherthantherule,andisundertakenbyagenciesworkedonthevoluntaryprinciple,andtheremedialmeasuresadoptedarelimitedtothetreatmentofcertainminorailments._E.g._,inLiverpool,Birmingham,andotherplaces,Queen'snursesregularlyvisittheschools,andundertakeeitherinschooloratthehomesofthechildrensimplecurativetreatmentofminorsurgicalcases.Butwhileitmaybeheld

thatthedutyoftheStateislimitedtothemedicalexaminationofschoolchildreninordertodiscoverthepresenceofphysicalandmentaldefects,andthatthisbeingdone,anyfurtherresponsibility,whetherinthewayeitherofprovidingorprocuringremedies,fallsupontheindividualparent,yetwehavesufficientevidencetoshowthat,inmanycases,eitherthroughthepovertyortheapathyandindifferenceoftheparents,nostepsaretakeninthewayofprovidingthenecessaryremedies,andasaconsequencewehavegrowingupinourmidstchildrenwhoinafter-lifewill,throughthelackofsimplecurativetreatmentundertakenatthepropertime,becomemoreorlesssociallyinefficient.

Moreover,itistobenotedthatinthismattertheStatehasalreadyrecogniseditspublicobligationtoprovideremedialaidinits

provisionfortheeducationandlodgingoftheblind,thedeafandthedumb,andinthemeasurestakenwithinrecentyearsforthespecialeducationofthedefectiveandtheepileptic.Theprovisionforthesepurposesmayindeedbejustifiedonthegroundsthattheexpenseoftheeducationofchildrenoftheindustrialclassessoafflictedisbeyondthepowersofanyoneindividual,orgroupofindividuals,tosupply,andthatunlessundertakenbytheStateitwouldnotbeefficientlymade,withtheconsequenceofthrowingthemaintenancehereafteroftheseparticularclassesuponthecommunity:ontheground,therefore,ofthefutureprotectivebenefittosociety,suchexpensemaybe

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legitimatelylaiduponthecommunityasawhole.Further,inthesecases,thedangeroftheweakeningofthesenseofparentalresponsibilityisnotanextremedangertotheCommonwealth,sincetheaidisdefinitelylimitedtoarestrictednumberofcases,andsincethemoralobligationimposedupontheindividualtoprovidefortheeducationofhischildrencouldinmanycasesnotbefulfilledwithoutthebyfargreaterportionoftheexpensebeingprovidedbymeansofpublicorvoluntaryaid.

Inlikemanner,theexpenseofthespecialeducationofthemorallydefectiveinIndustrialSchoolsandinotherinstitutionsmaybejustifiedonthegroundofthepresentandfutureprotectivebenefittosociety.Inthesecasesparentalgovernmenthaseitheraltogetherceasedorbecometooweaktoactasaneffectiverestrainingforce,andasaconsequencethecommunityforitsownself-preservationhastoundertakethecontrolandeducationoftheactualorincipientyouthfulcriminal.IntheirReporttheRoyalCommissionersonPhysicalTraining(Scotland)sadlydeclarethatIndustrialandsimilarinstitutionscertainlygivetheboysandgirlswhocomeundertheirinfluenceadvantagesinfeedingandphysicaltrainingwhicharenotopentothechildrenofindependentandrespectablethoughpoorparents._ThecontrastbetweentheconditionofchildrenasseeninthepoorerdayschoolsandchildreninIndustrialinstitutions,whoseparentshavealtogetherfailedtodotheirduty,isbothmarkedandpainful._[19]

Andyetitmightbeurgedthattheprotectivebenefitlikelytobederivedinthefuturebytheprovisionofremedialmeansfortheremovalofthesimplerdefectsinthecaseofthechildrenofparentsunablewithoutgreatdifficultytosupplythesethemselvesisnolessevidentthaninthemoreextremecases.Butheretheonlysoundprincipleofguidanceistoaskwhethertheremedialmeasuresrequiredarereasonablywithinthepoweroftheparenttoprovide.Iftheyarenot,nocommunitywhichexercisesawiseforethoughtwillsufferchildrentogrowupgraduallybecomingmoreandmoredefective,moreandmorelikelyinafter-lifetobeaburdenuponitsresources.Butthisquestionoftheprovisionofremedialaidinvolvesamuchlargerquestion,whichweshallnowdiscuss.

APPENDIX

Asshowingtheneedforthesystematicexaminationofthespecialsenseorgans,IappendasummaryoftheresultsarrivedatandtheconclusionsreachedbyDr.WrightThomsonafterexaminationoftheeyesightofchildrenattendingthePublicElementarySchoolsundertheGlasgowSchoolBoard:--

"Theteacherstestedthevisualacutenessof52,493children,andfound18,565,or35percent.,tobebelowwhatisregardedasthe

normalstandard.

"Iexaminedthe18,565defectivesbyretinoscopy,andfoundthat11,209,or21percent.ofthewhole,hadoculardefects.

"Thepercentagewithoculardefectswasfairlyconstantinalltheschools,butthepercentagewithdefectivevisionwasveryvariable--_i.e._,manychildrenwithnormaleyeswerefoundtoseebadly.

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"Theproportionofthesecaseswashighestinthepoorandclosely-builtdistrictsandinoldschools,andwaslowestinthebetterclassschoolsandinthoseneartheoutskirtsofthecity.

"TheproportionofsuchcasesinthecountryschoolsofChrystonandCumbernauldwasmuchlowerthaninanyofthecityschools;andinIndustrialSchools,wherethechildrenarefedatschool,theproportionwaslowerthanamongBoardSchoolchildrenofacorrespondingsocialclass.

"Defectivevision,apartfromoculardefect,seemstobedue,partlytowantoftrainingoftheeyesfordistantobjects,andpartlytoexhaustionoftheeyes,whichiseasilyinducedwhenworkiscarriedoninbadlight,orthenutritionofthechildrendefectivefrombadfeedingandunhealthysurroundings.

"Regardingtrainingoftheeyesfordistantobjects,muchmightbedoneintheinfantdepartmentbythetotalabolitionofsewing,whichisdefinitelyhurtfultosuchyoungeyes,andthesubstitutionofcompetitivegamesinvolvingtherecognitionofsmallobjectsatadistanceof20feetormore.

"Teacherscandeterminethevisualacuteness,buttheycannotdecidewhetherornotanoculardefectispresent.

"Visualacuteness,especiallyamongpoorchildren,isvariableatdifferenttimes.

"Teachersshouldhaveaccesstosight-testingmaterialsatalltimes,andshouldhavetheopportunityofreferringsuspectedcasesformedicalopinion.

"Anannualtestingbytheteachers,followedbymedicalinspectionofthechildrenfounddefective,wouldsooncauseallexistingdefectstobecorrected,andwouldleadtothedetectionofthosewhichdevelopduringschoollife."

Anexaminationof502childrenattendingtheChurchofScotlandTrainingCollegeSchool,Glasgow,asregardsdefectsineyesightandhearing,wasmadebyDrs.RowanandFullertonrespectively,withthefollowingresults:--

"Asregardseyesight--

"61.55percent.werepassedasnormal,whileofthosedefective7.57wereawareofthefact;somefewofthesehadalreadyreceivedtreatment,but30.88werequiteunawarethattherewasanythingwrong,theseunfortunatesbeingexpectedtodothesameworkas,

andholdtheirownwith,theirmorefortunateclassmates.

"Asregardshearing--54.4percent.werefoundnormal.27.6""weredefective.18.""weredistinctlydefective."

IappendtheveryvaluablesuggestionsandconclusionsofDr.Rowan,whoconductedtheexaminationontheeyesightofchildren:--

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"Afterexamining502children,whichinvolvedtheexaminationof1004eyes,oneisforcedtocertainconclusions.Thesechildrenaretakenatrandom,andinthiswaytheymaybeconsideredasafairsampleoftheirageandclass.

"Ithinkoneofthefirstthingsthatforcethemselvesonournoticeisthedifficultiesunderwhichmanyofthosechildrenlabour,andofwhichthey,theirparentsandteachersarequiteunaware.Thechildrenareconsidereddull,careless,orlazy,asthecasemaybe:theythemselves,poorunfortunates,donotknowhowtocomplain,andseemjusttostrugglealongasbesttheycan,thoughthisstruggle,withoutadequateresult,mustdiscouragethem,andinthisindirectway,too,maketheirfutureprospectsmorehopeless.

"Somewouldbeconsiderablybenefitedbytreatmentandoperation,orboth,whileforsomelittlecanbedone.Someofthosewhocouldbebenefitedaredeprivedofhelpbytheirparents'ignoranceorprejudice.

"Inthecaseofthoseforwhomlittleornothingcanbedone,andwhosesightisverydefective,itseemstomethequestionoughttoberaisedastowhethertheirpresentmodeofeducationshouldnotbereplacedbysomeother,whichwouldendeavourtodeveloptheir

abilitiesinotherwaysthanthroughtheireyesight;inshort,theyshouldhavespecialtrainingwiththeviewoffittingthemforsomeformofemploymentforwhichtheyaremorefittedthantheordinaryoccupationsofeverydaylife.Thisraisesadifficultquestion,andeachcasewouldhavetobesettledonitsmerits.Thedifficultymustbefaced;otherwisethechildrenwillsimplydriftandbecomeidleanduseless,while,ifeducated,atanyratepartly,onthesystemfortheblind,theywouldbecomeusefulmembersofsociety.

"Ithinknoone,afterstudyingtheresultofthisexaminationofwhatmaybebysomeconsideredasmallnumberofchildren,candoubtthatathoroughmedicalexaminationofallschoolchildrenshouldbemadewhentheyenterschool,andthisexamination

repeatedatregularintervals.

"Iholdthisappliesnotonlytothechildrenofthepoor,buttochildreninallranksoflife,asoneconstantly,andthat,too,inprivatepractice,meetswithcaseswherechildrenareconsidereddullandlazy,whiletherealfaultlieswiththeparents,whohavenottakenthetroubletoascertainthephysicalfitnessorunfitnessoftheirchildren.

"Iamgladtosayitisnowbecomingmorecommonforchildrentobetakentothefamilydoctor,toaspecialist,ortoboth,tobethoroughlyoverhauledbeforestartingschool-life;andinmanycaseswithmostsatisfactoryresults,astheirtrainingcanbe

modifiedortreatmentorderedwhichpreventsthedevelopmentofthosepathologicalconditionswhich,inmanycases,wouldlimitthechoiceofoccupation,or,ifthesearealreadypresent,theycanatleastbemodifiedorevenovercome.

"Iwishtoemphasisethefactthatthosethoroughmedicalexaminationsshouldberepeatedinthecaseofallchildrenatregularintervals,asinthiswayalonecanaproperphysicalstandardbemaintained,anddeviationsfromthenormaldetectedpromptlyandinmanycasescuredbeforethesuffererisawareof

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theirpresence.

"Howofteninexaminingouradultpatientsdowefindthemmuchsurprisedwhentheyaretoldandconvincedbyactualproofthatalltheirlifetheyhavedependedononeeyeonly!Thisfact,ofcourse,theysometimesaccidentallydiscoverforthemselves,andcomewiththestatementthattheeyehassuddenlygoneblind.Inthemajorityofthesecasestheweakereyeisuseless,andthepossibilityofmakingitofanyuseis,attheirage,practically_nil_."

FOOTNOTES:

[16]Cf._SpecialReportonEducationalSubjects_,vol.ii.

[17]Cf._ReportonElementarySchoolsofBerlinandCharlottenburg_,byG.Andrew,Esq.

[18]Cf.Appendix,pp.62-65.

[19]_ReportRoyalCommissiononPhysicalTraining_(_Scotland_),vol.i.(Neill&Co,.Edinburgh).

CHAPTERVII

THERELATIONOFTHESTATETOEDUCATION--THEFEEDINGOFSCHOOLCHILDREN

Amuchmoreimportantandfar-reachingquestionthanthatoftheStateprovisionforthemedicalexaminationandinspectionofchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchoolsisthequestionofwhether,andtowhatextent,theStateshouldundertaketheprovisionofschoolmealsforunderfedchildren.

Oftheexistenceoftheevilofunderandimproperfeedingofchildren,especiallyinmanyofourlargetowns,thereisnodoubt.Thenumerousvoluntaryagencieswhichhavebeenbroughtintoexistencetocopewiththeformeraresufficientevidencethattheevilexistsandthatitisofawidespreadnature.Again,thehighrateofinfantmortalityamongstthechildrenofthelowerclassesislargelyduetoignoranceonthepartofparentsofthenatureandproperpreparationoffoodsuitableforchildren.Further,thesocialconditionsunderwhichmanyofthepoorliveinourlargetownsisacontributingcauseofthisimproperfeeding.Inmanycasesthereisnoadequateprovisioninthehomeforthecookingandpreparationoffood,andinotherstheabsenceofthemotheratworkduringthedaynecessitatesthechildren"fending"for

themselvesintheprovidingoftheirmeals.However,inconsideringthisquestionwemustcarefullydistinguishbetweenthreedistinctcausesoperatingtoproducetheconditionofunderfeeding,andasaconsequenceresultinginthreedistinctclassesofunderfedchildren.Asthecausesorgroupsofcausesaredifferentinnature,sotheremediesalsovaryincharacter.Moreover,inmanycaseswefindallthreecausesoperating,nowoneandnowtheother,toproducethechronicunderfeedingofthechild.

Inthefirstplace,theunderfeedingofthechildmayarisethroughthe

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temporarypovertyoftheparentduetohistemporaryillnessortemporaryunemployment.Innormalcircumstances,inthesecasesreliefisbestaffordedbymeansofthevoluntaryagenciesofsociety.Inabnormalcircumstances,suchasarecausedbyawidespreaddepressionofindustry,theevilmaybemetbyaspecialeffortonthepartofthevoluntaryagenciesorbymunicipalitiesorotherbodiesprovidingtemporaryrelief-work.

Inthesecondplace,theunderfeedingofthechildmaybeduetothechronicandpermanentpovertyoftheparent.Thewagesofthebreadwinnerevenwheninfullworkmaybeinsufficienttoaffordadequatesupportforanumerousfamily.ThisconditionofthingsisnotpeculiartoGreatBritain,butisacommoncharacteristicinthelifeofthepoorofallcivilisednations.Thisiswheretherealstingoftheproblemofunderfeedinglies,andthecausesatworktendingtoproducethisconditionofthingsaretoodeep-seatedandtoowidelyspreadtoberemovedbyanyoneremedy.Moreover,inendeavouringtocurethisdiseaseoftheCommonwealthweareeverindangerofperpetuatingandintensifyingthecausesatworktendingtoproducetheevil.

Inthethirdplace,theunderfeedingofthechildmayarisethroughtheindifference,theselfishness,ortheviceoftheparents.Insuchcasestheparentscouldfeedtheirchildren,butdonot.ManifestlyincasesofthischaracterthereisnoobligationplacedupontheStateandno

rightfulclaimuponanycharitableagencytoprovidefoodforthechildren.Togiveaidsimplyweakensfurthertheparentalsenseofresponsibility,andleavesawidermargintobespentonviciouspleasures.ButwhilethereisnoobligationplacedupontheStatetoprovidethenecessariesoflifeforthechild,thereisneedandjustificationinsuchcasesfortheinterventionoftheState.Thereisneed,forotherwisethechildsuffersthroughthecriminalneglectoftheparents,andthecommunitymustinterfereforthesakeofthefuturesocialefficiencyoftheindividualandofthenation.Thereisjustification,forhereasinthecaseoftheparentsofthemorallydefective,parentalresponsibilityhaseitherceasedtoactorbecometooweakamotiveforcetobeeffectiveinsecuringthewelfareofthechild.Astheindividualparentneglectshisduty,soandtothe

correspondingdegreetowhichthisneglectextends,mustthedutybeenforcedbytheState.Butintheenforcingofthisorofanydutywemustbequitesurethattheneglectisreallyduetotheweakenedsenseofresponsibilityoftheparent,thatitisaconditionofthingswhichhecouldremoveifhehadthemoralwilltodoso,andthattheneglectisnotduetocausesbeyondthepoweroftheparenttoremove.

Casesinwhichthereisculpableneglectofthechildduenottopoverty,buttothefactthatthemoneywhichshouldgotothepropernutritionofthechildissquanderedindrink,oronotherenervatingpleasures,arethereforecasesinwhichrecoursemustbehadtomeasureswhichenforceupontheparenttheobligationtofeedandclothehischildren.Thereallydifficultquestionisastothebestmeansof

enforcingthisobligation.Manifestlytopunishbyfineorimprisonmentdoeslittleinmanycasestoalleviatethesufferingsofthechildren.Thepunishmentfallsuponthemaswellasupontheparent,andwherethelatterisdeadto,orcarelessof,thepublicopinionofhisfellows,itfailstoinitiatethatreformofconductwhichoughttobetheaimofallpunishment.Ifindeedbyimpositionoffine,orbyimprisonment,theindividualrealiseshisneglectofduty,repents,andasaconsequencereforms,thengoodandwell,butasaruletheneglectofthechildisinsuchcasesamoraldiseaseoflongstandingandnoteasilycured,andsowefindoftenthatneitherpunishmentbyfinenorimprisonment,even

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whenrepeatedseveraltimes,iseffectiveinmakingtheparentrealisehisresponsibilityandreformhisconduct.Allthewhilethechildgoesonsuffering.Heisnobetterfedduringtheperiodoffineorimprisonment,andthewrathoftheparentisoftenvisiteduponhisunoffendinghead.

Thesecondmethodofcureproposedistofeedthechildrenatthepublicexpenseandtorecoverthecostbyprocessoflaw.Butthepracticaldifficultiesincarryingoutthisplanaresimilarinkindtothoseformerlyexperiencedintherecoveryofunpaidschoolfees.Thecostofrecoveringisoftengreaterthantheexpenseinvolved,andasaconsequencelocalauthoritiesarenotinclinedtoprosecute.Further,thereisthedifficultyofdiscriminatingbetweenunderfeedingduetowilfulandculpableneglectandunderfeedingduetotheactualchronicpovertyoftheparent.Ifthisplanistobeeffective,somesimplermethodofrecoveryofcostthanthatwhichnowprevailsmustbeadopted. _E.g._,itmightbeenactedthatthesumdecreedforshouldbedeductedfromtheweeklywagesoftheparentbyhisemployer.Hereagainmanydifficultieswouldpresentthemselvesinthecarryingoutofthisplan.Inthecaseofcertainemploymentsthiscouldnotbedone.Inothercases,employerswouldbeunwillingtoundertaketheinvidioustask.Moreover,thecostofcollectionmightequalorbegreaterthanthecostincurred.Aboveall,suchamethodwoulddolittletoalleviatethesufferingsandbetterthenutritionofthechild.Inmostcasesthe

schoolprovidesbutonemealaday.Experiencehasshownthatinthecaseofchildrenofthedissolutethefreemealattheschoolmeanslessfoodathome.Werethecostdeductedfromtheweeklywagesoftheparent,theresultwouldbeintensified.Sogreathavebeenthedifficultiesfeltinthismatterthatwithoneortwoexceptionsnoforeigncountryhasmadetheattempttorecoverthecostoffeedingfromtheparent.Yetthediseaserequiresaremedy.Theevilistoodangeroustothefuturesocialwelfareofthecommunitytobeallowedtogoonuncheckedandunremedied.Moreover,toendeavourtoeducatethepersistentlyunderfedchildrenofourslumsistodothematwofoldinjury.Bytheexercisesoftheschoolweuseup,inmanycases,withlittleresult,thesmallstoreofenergylodgedinthebrainandnervoussystemofthechild,andleavenothingeitherfortherepairofthe

nervoussystemorforthegrowthofhisbodygenerally.Weprematurelyexhausthisnervoussystem,andbysodoingwehinderhisbodilygrowthanddevelopment.Tomakemattersworse,weofteninsistthatthechildinordertoaidhisphysicaldevelopmentmustundergoanexhaustingsystemofphysicalexerciseswhenwhatismostwantedforthispurposeisgoodandnourishingfoodandasufficiencyofsleep.Atthesametimethatweareneglectingthenutritionofhisbodywearespendinganincreasingyearlysumontheso-callededucationofhismind.What,then,istheremedy?Iffiningandimprisonmentoftheparentonlyaccentuatethesufferingsofthechild,iftheyfailtomaketheparentrealisehisresponsibilityandreformhisconduct,iftheprovisionofafreemealatschoolmeanslessfoodathome,thenthereisonlyonethorough-goingremedyfortheevil,andthatistotakethechildaway

fromtheparent,toeducateandfeedhimatthepublicexpense,andtorecoverthecostasfaraspossiblefromtheparent.InNorwaythisdrasticmethodhasbeenadopted.Underalawpassedonthe6thJanuary1896,theauthoritiesareempowered"toplaceneglectedchildreninsuitablehomesorfamiliesatthecostofthemunicipality,theparent,however,beingliable,ifcalledupon,todefraythecost."[20]

Thereasonsfortakingthisextremestepareobvious.Bynomethodofpunishingthepersistentlydissoluteandneglectfulparentcanyoubeassuredofsecuringthepropernutritionandwelfareofthechild.

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Parentalaffectioninthesecasesisdead,andparentalresponsibilityforthepresentandfuturewelfareofthechildhasceasedtoactasamotiveforce.Asaconsequence,thechildgrowsuptobe,atbest,sociallyinefficient,andliableinlaterlifetobeaburdenuponthecommunity.Inmanycases,theevilandsordidinfluencesofhishomeandsocialenvironmentsooncheckanyspringsofgoodinhisnature,andmorethanlikelyhebecomesinlaterlifenotmerelyasociallyinefficientmemberofthecommunitybutanactivesociallydestructiveagent.Hence,onthegroundofthefutureprotectivebenefittosociety,onthegroundofsecuringthefuturesocialefficiencyoftheindividual,onthegroundthatitisonlybysomesuchsystemwecaneverhopetoraisethemoralefficiencyoftherisinggenerationoftheslums,themethodaboveadvocatedisworthyofconsideration.

Againsttheadoptionofsuchamethodoftreatmentofthedissoluteparentmanyobjectionsmaybeurged,anditwouldbefoolishtominimisethedangerswhichmightfollowitssystematicandthoroughcarryingintopractice.Butthepossibleinjurytothecommunitythroughtheweakeningofthesenseofparentalresponsibilityseemstomesmallincomparisonwiththefuturegoodlikelytoresultfromtheincreasedphysical,economic,andethicalefficiencyofthenextgenerationwhichmightreasonablybeexpectedtofollowfromtherigorouscarryingoutofsuchaplanforatime.Thefearlestalargerandlargernumberofparentsmightendeavourtoridthemselvesofthedirectcareoftheirchildren,

ifthisplanwereadopted,neednotdeterus.Ifthisplanwerecarriedintopractice,thensomeextensionofthescopeoftheIndustrialActswouldberenderednecessary,andsomesuchextensionseemstohavebeeninthemindsoftheSelectCommitteeintheirReportontheEducation(ProvisionofMeals)Bill,1906,inconsideringtheirrecommendations.[21]

Buttheimportanceofthetwoclassesofcasesalreadyconsideredsinksintocomparativeinsignificancecomparedwiththethirdclassofcases.Temporaryunderfeedingcausedbytemporarypovertycanbemetinmanywayswithouttoanyappreciabledegreelesseningthesenseofthemoralobligationoftheparenttoprovidethepersonalnecessitiesoffoodandclothingforhischildren.Inthecase,again,ofthepersistently

dissoluteandneglectfulparent,moralconsiderationshaveceasedtooperate,andsotheindividualbysomemethodorothermustbeforcedtoperformwhateverpartoftheobligationcanbeexactedfromhim.

Butinthethirdclassofcasesparentalresponsibilitymaybeanactiveandwillingforce,yetthemeansavailablemaybesolimitedinextentthatthechildisinthechronicconditionofbeingunderfed.NoonewhocarefullyconsiderstheinformationrecentlysuppliedbytheBoardofEducationastothemethodsoffeedingthechildrenattendingPublicElementarySchoolsinthegreatContinentalcitiesandinAmericacanarriveatanyotherconclusionthanthathereweareinthepresenceofanevilnotlocalbutgeneral,andapparentlyincidentaltotheorganisationofthemodernindustrialState.Forwhetherbyvoluntary

agencies,bymunicipalgrants,orbyStateaid,everygreatContinentalcityhasfounditnecessarytoorganiseandinstitutesomesystemoffeedingschoolchildren.

Theonlyinferencetobedrawnfromsuchaconditionofthingsisthatinalargenumberofcasesthenormalwagesofthelabourerareinsufficienttomaintainhimselfandhisfamilyinanythinglikeadecentstandardofcomfort.Howlargeaproportionofthepopulationofourgreatcitiesisinthisconditionitisdifficultexactlytoestimate,butthereisnodoubtthataveryconsiderablenumberofcases

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ofthechronicunderfeedingofschoolchildrenmaybetracedtotheinsufficiencyofthehomeincometosupportthefamily.Themoralobligationtoprovidethepersonalnecessitiesoffoodandclothingforhischildrenisactive,butthemeansfortherealisationoftheobligationcannotbeprovidedinmanycasestheendeavourfullytomeettheneedsofthechildresultsinthelessenedefficiencyofthebreadwinnerofthefamily.

Therealcausesatworktendingtokeepthewagesoftheunskilledlabourereverhoveringroundameresubsistenceratemustberemoved,ifanythinglikeapermanentcureofthissocialevilistobeeffected.Wemustendeavourontheonehandtolessenthesupplyofunskilledlabour.Bysodoingtherewardofsuchlabourwilltendtobeincreasedmaterially.Ontheotherhand,wemustduringthenextdecadeortwoendeavourbyeverymeansinourpowertoensurethatalargerandlargernumberofthechildrenoftheverypoorshallinthenextgenerationpassintotheranksofskilledlabour.

Butinthemeantimesomethingmustbedone.Thechildrenarethere;theystillsuffer;andtheirwrongscryaloudforredress.Itiscertainlytruethatanyaidgiventothechildwilltendmeanwhiletokeepthewagesatbaresubsistencerates.Itisalsotruethatthedistributionofreliefonlytendstomakethepoorcomfortableintheirpoverty,insteadofhelpingthemtoriseoutofit.Allthisandmuchmoremight

beurgedagainstthedemandtoinstituteandorganisethesystematicpublicfeedingofschoolchildren.Buttheseevilsareevilswhichfalluponthepresentadultpopulation.Educationhas,however,todowiththefuture,withthenextgenerationandnotwiththis.Itsaimistosecurethataslargeanumberaspossibleofthechildrenofthepresentgenerationwillgrowuptobeeconomicallyandethicallyefficientmembersofthecommunity.Tosecurethisendtheproblemofunderfeedingisonlyoneoftheproblemsthatmustbesolved.Ifweadoptsomesystematicplanforsecuringthefullnutritionofthechildrenofthepresent,thismustgohandinhandwithotherremedies.Duringthestageoftransitionweshallhavetotakeintoaccountthatforatimethewagesofthepoorestclassoflabourerwilltendtoremainattheirpresentlowrate;weshallhavetofacethedangerthatbygivingsuch

aidwemayinsomecasesstillfurtherweakenthesenseofmoralobligationoftheparentsofthepresentgeneration.If,ontheotherhand,wedonothing,orifwelooktothepresentvoluntaryagenciestogoondoingwhattheycantoremedytheevil,whatthen?Willtheevilbelessenedinthenextgeneration?Assuredlynot,iftheexperienceofthepresentandofthepastaresafeguidesastowhatwemayexpectinthefuture.

HencewehavenohesitationinurgingthatthefeedingofchildrenattendingthePublicElementarySchoolsshouldbeorganisedonlinessimilartotherecommendationslaiddowninthe_SpecialReportfromtheSpecialCommitteeonEducation_(_ProvisionofMeals_)_Bill_,1906.[22]

Butifwecarryouttheserecommendationsanddonothingelse,thenitmaybethatweshallpartiallyremedytheevilinthenextgeneration,butweshalltoalargeextentperpetuatethepresentconditionofthings.Sidebysidewiththis,wemustinstituteandsetotheragenciesatwork.BytheinstitutionofFreeKindergartenSchoolsinthepoorerdistrictsofourlargetowns,bypostponingthebeginningoftheformaleducationofthechildtoalaterage,byascientificcourseofphysicaleducation,bybettertradeandtechnicalschools,andifneedbebythecompulsoryattendanceofchildrenateveningcontinuationschools,wemustbendoureveryefforttosecurethattheranksofthe

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casual,theunskilled,andtheunemployableshallbelessened,andtheranksoftheskilledandintelligentworkerincreased.

AsthefreeingofelementaryeducationcanbejustifiedonthegroundthattheeducationofthechildisnecessaryforthefutureprotectionoftheState,soonsimilargroundsitmaybeurgedthatthenutritionofthechildisalsonecessary.Withoutthisourmerelyeducationalagenciescanneveradequatelysecurethesocialefficiencyofthecominggeneration.Atthesametime,unlessinthefuturetheneedforfreeeducationandfreefoodbecomeslessandless,andunlessbythemeanssketchedabovewerearupagenerationeconomicallyandmorallyindependent,thentrulywehavenotdiscoveredthemethodbywhichmancanberaisedtoindependenceandrationality.

APPENDIX

_RecommendationsoftheSelectCommitteeonEducation_(_ProvisionofMeals_)_Bill_,1906.

"Theevidence,verbalanddocumentary,placedbeforetheCommitteehasledthemtoarriveatthefollowinggeneralconclusions:--

"1.ThatitisexpedientthattheLocalEducationAuthorityshouldbeempoweredtoorganiseanddirecttheprovisionofamiddaymealforchildrenattendingPublicElementarySchools,andthatstatutorypowersshouldbegiventoLocalAuthoritiestoestablishCommitteestodealwithschoolcanteens.

"2.ThatsuchCommitteesshouldbecomposedofrepresentativesoftheLocalEducationAuthority,representativesoftheVoluntarySubscribers,andwherethoughtdesirablearepresentativeoftheBoardofGuardians,andofthelocalbranchoftheSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoChildren,wheresuchexists.ThattheHeadTeacher,theSchoolAttendanceOfficer,andtheRelievingOfficershouldworkinassociationwithsuchCommittee.

"3.ThatpowershouldbegivenfortheLocalEducationAuthorities,whentheydeemitdesirable,toraiseloansandspendmoneyontheprovisionofsuitableaccommodationandofficials,andforthepreparation,cooking,andservingofmealstothechildrenattendingPublicElementarySchools.

"4.Thatonlyinextremeandexceptionalcases,whereitcanbeshownthatneithertheparents'resourcesnorLocalVoluntaryFundsaresufficienttocoverthecost,andaftertheconsentoftheBoardofEducationastothenecessityforsuchexpenditurehasbeenobtained,aLocalAuthoritymayhaverecoursetotheratesfortheprovisionofthecostoftheactualfood;thelocalratefor

thispurposetoinnocaseexceedÂ½d.intheÂ£.

"5.ThattheLocalEducationAuthorityshould,asfaraspossible,associatewithitself,andencouragethecontinuanceof,voluntaryagenciesinconnectionwiththeworkoffeedingofchildren.

"6.Thatwhateverstepsmaybenecessary,bywayofextensionoftheIndustrialSchoolsandthePreventionofCrueltytoChildrenActsorotherwise,shouldbetakentosecurethatparentsabletodosoandneglectingtomakeproperprovisionforthefeedingof

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theirchildrenshallbeproceededagainstfortherecoveryofthecost;andthattheGuardians,orwhereavailabletheSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoChildren,andnottheLocalEducationAuthority,beempoweredtoprosecuteinanycasescomingunderthelawinrespecttotheneglectofparentstomakeproperprovisionforthefeedingoftheirchildren.

"7.Thatpaymentformeals,priortothemeal,wheneverpossible,shouldbeinsisteduponfromtheparents.

"8.Thatitisundesirablethatmealsshouldbeservedinroomshabituallyusedforteachingpurposes,andthattheRegulationsoftheBoardofEducationshouldcarrythisrecommendationintoeffect.

"9.ThatwhilststrongtestimonyhasbeenplacedbeforetheCommitteetotheeffectthattheteachershavegivenandaregivingadmirableserviceinthewayofsupervisingtheprovisionofmealstothechildren,itistheopinionoftheCommitteethatitoughtnottobemadepartoftheconditionsattachingtotheappointmentofanyteacherthathe(orshe)shallorshallnottakepartindispensingmealsprovidedforthechildren,andthattheBoardofEducationshouldcarrythisrecommendationintoeffect."

FOOTNOTES:

[20]Cf.UnderfedChildreninContinentalandAmericanCities(presentedtoParliament,April1906).

[21]Cf._ReportonEducation_(_ProvisionofMeals_)_Bill_,especiallyRecommendation6,Appendix,p.75.

[22]Cf.Appendix,p.75.

CHAPTERVIII

THEORGANISATIONOFTHEMEANSOFEDUCATION

ThroughoutwehaveassumedthatitisthedutyoftheStatetoseetotheadequateprovision,totheduedistribution,andtotheproperco-ordinationofalltheagenciesofeducation,andwehavetakenupthispositionmainlyonthegroundthatneithertheadequateprovisionnortheproperco-ordinationofthemeansofeducationcanbesafelylefttotheself-interestoftheindividualoranygroupofindividuals.Iflefttobeaccomplishedbypurelyvoluntaryagencies,boththe

provisionandtheco-ordinationwillremainimperfect,andasanationwecannolongerneglectthesystematicorganisationandgradingofthemeansofeducation.

Butamisapprehensionmustfirstberemoved.IndeclaringthatalltheagenciesofformaleducationshouldbeundercontroloftheState,itisnottobeinferredthatthiscontrolshouldbebureaucratic.InmanymindsStatecontrolissynonymouswithgovernmentbyinspectorsandotherofficialsofthecentralauthority.Butbureaucraticcontrolinanationwhosegovernmentisfoundedonarepresentativebasisisa

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diseaseratherthananormalconditionofsuchgovernment.Inacountrywherethesovereignpowerisvestedinanindividualorinalimitednumberofindividuals,bureaucraticcontrolisandmustbeanessentialfeatureofitsgovernment.Ontheotherhand,wherethegovernmentisfoundedupontherepresentativeprinciple,theappearanceofbureaucracyisanindicationofsomeimperfectionintheorganisationoftheStateitself.Theintroductionoftherepresentativeprinciplemayhavebeentooprematureoritsextensiontoorapid,andasaconsequencethegovernmentofthepeoplebythemselvesisineffectivethroughthegeneralwantofanenlightenedself-interestamongstthemajorityofthenation.Insuchaconditionofaffairs,ifprogressistobemade,itcanonlybeaccomplishedeffectivelythroughanenlightenedminorityforcingitswillupontheunenlightenedandignorantmajority,andasaresultwemayhavethecreationofanarmyofofficialinspectorswhosechiefdutybecomestosecurethatthewillofthecentralauthorityisrealised.Insuchaconditionofthingsthetendencyeverisformoreandmorepowertofallintothehandsofthepermanentofficials.

Butthisconditionofthingsmayariseinagovernmentfoundedupontherepresentativeprincipleinanotherway.Theorgansthroughwhichthewillofthepeoplemakesitselfknownmaybeimperfect,sothatasaconsequenceitfailstofindadequateexpression,oritsexpressionisfeltonlyatinfrequentintervals.If,forexample,thecentralauthorityissooverburdenedwithworkthatlittleorinsufficient

attentionisgiventomanymattersofsupremeimportanceforthewelfareofthenation,thenitfollowsthatmoreandmorepowerwillpassintothehandsofitsexecutiveandadvisoryofficers.Thisconditionofthingswillbefurtherintensifiedifthegoverningbodieschargedwiththelocalcontrolofnationalaffairsaretooweakortoounenlightenedtomaketheirvoiceeffective.Now,thetendencytothebureaucraticcontroloftheeducationalaffairsofourowncountrymaybetracedtoallthreecauses.Thewantofanenlightenedself-interestinthematterofeducationamongstalargenumberofthepeople,theineffectivenessofParliamenttodealthoroughlywithpurelyeducationalquestions,andtheweaknessinmanycasesofthelocalgoverningbodieshaveallcontributedtothegradualcreationofthebureaucraticcontrolofeducationinGreatBritain.Butthisformofcontrolisnotentirely

evil,andincertaincasesitmaybeanecessarystageinthedevelopmentofademocracypassingfromunenlightenmenttoenlightenment.Theremediesforthisimperfection,thisdiseaseofrepresentativegovernmentinthematterofeducationalcontrol,are(1)thespreadofamoreenlightenedself-interestastothevalueofeducationasameansofsecuringthesocialefficiencyofthenationandoftheindividual,(2)theeffectivecontrolofeducationbythecentralauthority,and(3)thestrengtheningofthelocalauthoritiesbydevolvinguponthemmoreandmoreimportanteducationalduties.BythismeansthecontrolofeducationbytheStatewillbecomemoreandmorethecontrolofthepeoplebythemselvesandforthemselves,andthechieffunctionofofficialsandinspectorswillthenbetoadvisecentralandlocalauthoritieshowbesttorealisetheeducationalaims

desiredbythecommonwillofthepeople.

LetusnowconsiderthemainprincipleswhichshouldguidetheStateinherorganisationofthemeansofeducation.

Inthefirstplace,anduponthisallareagreed,thecontrolofallgradesofeducation,primary,secondary,andtechnical,shouldbeentrustedtoonebodyineachareaordistrict.Fortherecanbenoco-ordinationestablishedbetweentheworkofthevariousschoolagencies,andtherecanbenodifferentiationofthefunctionstobe

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undertakenbythevarioustypesofschool,untiltherehasbeenestablishedunityofcontrol.

InEngland,bytheActof1902,agreatstepwastakentowardstheunificationofalltheagenciesofeducation.Accordingtoitsprovisions,theSchoolBoardsystemwasabolished."EveryCountyCouncilandCountyBoroughCouncil,andtheBoroughCouncilsofeverynon-countyboroughwithapopulationofover10,000,andtheDistrictCouncilofeveryurbandistrictwithapopulationover20,000,becamethelocaleducationauthorityforelementaryeducation,whiletheCountyCouncilandtheCountyBoroughCouncilbecametheauthoritiesforhighereducation,_withthesupplementaryaidoftheCouncilsofallnon-countyboroughsandurbandistricts_."Bythismeanstheunificationofeducationalcontrolhasbeenrealised,andalreadyinmanydistrictsofEnglandmuchhasbeendonetofurtherthemeansofhighereducationandtoco-ordinatethisstagewiththeprecedingprimarystage.

InScotlandthequestionoftheextensionoftheareaofeducationalcontrolandoftheunificationofthevariousagenciesdirectingeducationstillawaitssolution.Severalplanshavebeenputforwardtoeffecttheseends.[23]

Inthefirstplace,ithasbeenproposedtoretainthepresentparishSchoolBoardsforthepurposeofelementaryeducation,andtocombine

twoormoreSchoolBoardsforthepurposesofprovidingsecondaryandtechnicaleducation.Thisplan,however,meetswithlittlefavour.Itwouldbedifficulttocarryintopractice,andifrealisedwouldimperfectlyfulfiltheendofco-ordinatingtheworkofthevariousschoolagencies.Itsonlyrecommendationsareitsapparentsimplicity,andthefactthatitcouldbecarriedoutwiththeleastpossiblechangeintheexistingconditions.

Inthesecondplace,itisproposedtoretaintheSchoolBoardsystem,buttoextendtheareaoverwhichanyparticulareducationalauthorityexertsitscontrol,andtoplaceunderitsdirectionallgradesofeducation.Inthepracticalcarryingoutofthisplanthepresentdistrictareasofcountiesselectedforotherpurposeshavebeen

proposedaseducationalunits.Ontheotherhand,ithasbeendeclaredthatinmanycasestheseareasareunsuitableforeducationalpurposes,andithasbeenproposedthatnewareasshouldbedelimitedforthispurpose.

Thechiefmerit,ifitbeamerit,ofthisplanistheretentionineducationalcontrolofthe_adhoc_principle--_i.e._,oftheprincipleofentrustingonesinglenationalinteresttoabodychargedwiththesoledutyofconservingandfurtheringtheinterest.Theonlyreasonsadvancedarethegreatimportanceoftheeducationalinterestandthefearthatifitisentrustedtobodieschargedwithotherdutiesthisinterestmaytendtobeneglected.Butalthoughbothsentimentandtheinterestsofpoliticalpartiesareinvolvedintheadvocacyofthe_ad

hoc_principle,itmustbekeptinmindthattheSchoolBoardsysteminScotlandisuniversalandthatthedifficultiesofthesystemwhichprevailedinEnglandbeforeitsabolitiondonotexistinScotland.Asaconsequence,ithasbeenmuchmoreeffectiveinScotlandthaninEngland,andhasamuchfirmerholdonthesentimentsofthepeople.

Inthethirdplace,ithasbeenproposedtohandovertheeducationaldutiesofthecountrytotheCountyCouncilsandtotheBurghCouncilsofthemoreimportanttowns,toadopt,inprinciple,asystemofeducationalcontrolsimilartothatestablishedinEnglandbytheActof

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1902.

Manyreasonsmaybeurgedfortheadoptionofthelast-namedplan,andweshallbrieflystatethemoreimportant.

1.An_adhoc_authoritybyitsverynatureisnecessarilyweakerthananauthorityentrustednotmerelywiththecareofasingleinterestbutwiththecareofthepublicinterestsasawhole.Ifthereistobedecentralisationofanypartofthefunctionsofthecentralauthority,thenanyformofdecentralisationwhichconsistsinthehandingoverofparticularintereststodifferentlocalbodies,howeveritmaybefortheadvantageoftheparticularinterestisradicallybadforthegeneralinterestsofthecommunity.Thecallingintoexistenceofanumberoflocalauthoritieseachhavingthecareofoneparticularinterest,eachpursuingitsownaimindependentlyandwithoutconsiderationofthedifferingandoftenconflictingaimsoftheotherbodies,eachhavingthepowerofratingforitsownparticularpurposewithoutanyregardforthegeneralinterestofthetaxpayer,isradicallyanunsoundformofdecentralisation.

2.Theestablishmentofsuchaformofcontrolfails,andmustnecessarilyfail,inthelocalauthoritiessecuringthemaximumoffreedomandtheminimumofinterferencefromtheexecutiveofficersofthecentrallegislativeauthority.Solongastheseparateinterestsof

thecommunityareentrustedtodifferentlocalauthorities,solongmustthereremaintothecentralauthorityandtoitsexecutiveofficersthepowerofregulatingandharmonisingthevariousandoftencontendinginterestssoastosecurethatthegeneralinterestoftheindividualdoesnotsuffer,andthemorekeenlyeachparticularbodyfurtherstheparticularinterestentrustedtoitscarethegreateristhenecessityforthiscentralcontrolandinterference,andthatthecentralcontrolshouldbeeffective.

3.Theseparationoftheso-callededucationalinterestsfromtheotherinterestsofthecommunityisnotforthegoodofeducationitself.Therealeducationalinterestswhichhavetobedeterminedbytheadultportionofthecommunityaretheexactnatureoftheserviceswhicha

nationsuchasoursrequiresofitsfuturemembers.Thisdetermined,themethodoftheirattainmentisbestentrustedtotheeducationalexpert.Thefirst-namedendwillbebetterrealisedbyabodycomposedofmenofdiverseintereststhanbyonewhichismadeupofmenwithoneintensebutoftennarrowinterest.

4.Thelargerthepowersentrustedtoanybodyandthemorefreedompossessedbyitindevisingandworkingoutitsschemes,thebetterchancethereisofattractingthebestmeninthecommunitytoundertakethework.

5.Itisquestionablewhethertheinterestsoftheteacherwouldnotbebetterfurtheredbyalocalauthorityentrustedwiththecareofthe

interestsofthecommunityasawholethanbyabodyhavingchargeofeducationalone.Menentrustedwiththelargerinterestsofthecommunityareusuallymorereadytotakewiderviewsthanthemanwhoisnarroweddowntooneinterest.Asarule,theyknowthevalueofgoodworkdone,andarereadyandwillingtopayforitwherevertheyfindit.

6.Lastly,wemayurgethetestofpracticalexperience.InEngland,andespeciallyinLondon,sincethecontrolofeducationhaspassedintothehandsoftheCountyCouncilsagreatadvancehasbeenmadebothin

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thefurtheringandintheco-ordinationofthemeansofeducation.

WhetherultimatelythecontrolofeducationbevestedinDistrictSchoolBoardsorintheCountyandBurghCouncils,onereformisurgentlyneededinScotland,andthisistheextensionoftheareaofeducationalcontrol,underastronglocalauthority,andwiththeentirecontrolofelementary,secondary,andtechnicaleducation.

Inthesecondplace,whatevertheareaofcontrolchosenitshouldbeofsuchanatureastoadmitwithinitsboundsofschoolsofdifferentgradesandofdifferenttypes,sothatchildrenmaypassnotonlyfromtheElementarySchooltotheSecondary,butmaypasstotheparticulartypeofSecondaryorHigherSchoolwhichisbestfittedtopreparethemfortheirfuturelife'swork.Inmanycases,inScotland,wecannotmakethesamecleardistinctionbetweenthevarioustypesofschoolastheydoinGermany,butmustremaincontentwiththedivisionofaschoolintodepartments;yetinourlargetownsandinourmostpopulouscentresofindustrywemustestablishschoolsofdifferenttypesandwithdifferingparticularendsinview.

Thethirdprincipleoforganisationfollowsfromthesecond.Wemustseethatoureducationalsystemissoorganisedastoprovideanefficientandsufficientsupplyofalltheserviceswhichthecommunityrequiresofitsindividualmembers.Inparticular,ourHigherSchoolsystemmust

bedesignednotmerelyforthesupplyoftheso-calledlearnedprofessions,butmustalsomakedueandadequateprovisionforthetrainingofthosewhoinafter-lifearedestinedforthehigherindustrialandcommercialposts.Inparticular,wemustseethatthereisdueprovisionofTradeandTechnicalSchools,whereourfutureartisansmaybecomeacquaintedwiththetheoreticalprinciplesunderlyingtheirparticularart.

Fourthly,wemustendeavourtomakeourElementarySchoolsystemthebasisandpointofdepartureofallfurtherandhighereducation.ThiswouldnotinvolvethateverychildshouldbeeducatedataPrimaryandState-aidedSchool,butitdoesmeanandwouldinvolvethatthePreparatorydepartmentsofourpresentSecondarySchoolsshouldmodel

theircurriculumonthelineslaiddowninourElementarySchools.

Fifthly,intheorganisationofthemeansofeducation,oursystem,aswehavealreadypointedout,mustbedemocraticinthesensethatthemeansofhighereducationshallbeopentoall,richandpoor,inorderthateachmaybeenabledtofindandthereaftertofithimselfforthatparticularemploymentforwhichbynatureheisbestsuited.Itmustfurtherbearistocraticinthesensethatitisselectiveofthebestability;andfinally,itmustberestrictiveinorderthatthemeansofhighereducationmaybeutilisedtothebestadvantage,andnotmisusedonthosewhoareunfittedtobenefittherefrom.

Unityofcontrol;adequacyofarea;schoolsofvarioustypes,sufficient

innumber,andsuitedtomeettheneedforthesupplyofthevariousservicesrequiredbytheState;acommonbasisinelementaryeducation;meansofhighereducationopentoallwhocanprofitthereby;selectionofthebest;restrictionofthoseunabletobenefitfromhighereducation--thesearetheprincipleswhichmustinthefutureguidetheStateorganisationofthemeansofeducation.

FOOTNOTE:

[23]Forafullerdiscussionofthisquestion,see_ScotchEducation

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Reform_,byDr.DouglasandProfessorJones(Maclehose).

CHAPTERIX

THEAIMOFPHYSICALEDUCATION

"Asoundmindinasoundbodyisashortbutfulldescriptionofahappystateinthisworld.Hethathasthesetwohaslittlemoretowishfor,andhethatwantseitherofthemwillbebutlittlethebetterforanythingelse."[24]InthesewordsLockesetsforthforalltimewhatshouldbeaimedatinthephysicaleducationofthechild,andinthelightofmodernphysiologicalpsychologythepositionmustbeemphasisedanewthatoneoftheessentialconditionsofsoundintellectualandmoralvigourissoundphysicalhealth,andthatbodyandmindarenotthingsapart,butthatthehealthoftheoneeverconditionsandisconditionedbythehealthoftheother.

Moreover,atthepresenttime,itisallthemorenecessarytoinsistupontheneedforthesystematiccareofthephysicalcultureofthechild,sinceinmanycasestheconditionsunderwhichthechildrenof

thepoorliveinourgreattownsaremostprejudicialtothefullandfreedevelopmentoftheorgansofthebody.Thenarrow,overbuiltstreetsinthepoorerpartsofourtowns,theovercrowdingofthepeopleintenements,theunhygienicconditionsunderwhichthevastmajorityofourverypoorliveandsleep,areallactiveforcesinpreventingthefullandfreedevelopmentofthephysicalpowersofthechild.Thusthepurelyeducationalproblemofhowbesttopromotethephysicalhealthanddevelopmentofthechildbythesystematicexercisesoftheschoolisinvolvedinthemuchlargerandmoreimportantsocialproblemofhowtobettertheconditionsunderwhichtheverypoorlive.Theagenciesoftheschoolcandolittlepermanentlytoimprovethephysiqueofthechildrenuntil,concurrentlywiththeschool,societyendeavourstoimprovethesocialconditionsunderwhichthepoorestofthepopulation

ofourgreatcitiesherdtogether.Forasimilarreasonmuchoftheendeavouroftheschooltofoundandestablishinthechild'smindinterestsofsocialworthiscounteractedbytheevilinfluenceofitshomeandsocialenvironment.Ifthephysical,economic,andethicalefficiencyofthechildrenoftheslumsisevertobesecured,ifweareevertoattainapermanentresult,thenconcurrentlywiththecreationofnewandhighersocialinterestsmustgohandinhandchangesinthesocialenvironmentofthechild.Merebettermentofthephysicalconditionsunderwhichourslumpopulationliveisofnoavailunlessatthesametimewehaveacorrespondingchangeintheslummindbytheriseandprevalenceofahigheridealofthephysicalandmaterialconditionsunderwhichtheirlivesoughttobespent.

Forexperiencehasshowninmanycasesthatthemerebettermentofthematerialconditionsunderwhichthepoorlivewithoutanycorrespondingchangeofidealssoonresultsinthere-creationofthemiserableconditionswhichformerlyprevailed.Ontheotherhand,themereinstillingofnewidealsintothemindsoftherisinggenerationwilleffectlittle,ifduringthegreaterpartoftheschoolperiodandaltogetherafterwardsweleavethechildtoovercometheevilinfluencesofhisenvironmentasbesthemay.Theidealsoftheschoolaretooweak,toofeeblyestablished,toprevailagainsttheeverpresentandeverpotentinfluencesoftheenvironmentunlesssidebysidewiththe

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riseofthenewidealsweatthesametimeendeavourtolessen,ifwecannotaltogetherremove,theobstacleswhichpreventtheirrealisationandprevalence.Thisproblemofhowtoraisebyeducationandbymeansoftheothersocialagenciesatworkthechildrenoftheslumstoahigheridealoflifeandconductandtosecuretheirfuturesocialefficiencyisthemosturgentproblemofourdayandgeneration.Mereschoolreformsinphysicalandintellectualeducationwilleffectlittleunlesstheotheraspectsoftheproblemareattackedatthesametime.

Further,ourschoolsystem,whichrequiresthatthechildshouldrestrainhisinstinctivetendenciestoaction,andforcertainhourseachdayassumeamoreorlesspassiveandcrampedattitude,isalsoprejudicialtothedevelopmentandfreeplayoftheorgansofthebodywhichhaveentrustedtothemthedischargeofcertainfunctionalactivities.

Hencetheevileffectsoftheschoolitselfmustberemovedorremediedbysomemeanshavingastheiraimtheincreasedfunctionalactivityoftherespiratoryandcirculatorysystemsofthebody.Andthereforetheaimofanysystemofphysicalexercisesshouldbenotmerelyincreaseofboneanddevelopmentofmusclebutalsothesustainingandimprovingofthebodilyhealthofthechildby"expandingthelungs,quickeningthecirculation,andshakingtheviscera."This,asweshallseelater,isnottheonlyaimofphysicaleducation.Itmayfurtheraidinmental

growthanddevelopment,andbeinstrumentalintheproductionofcertainmentalandmoralqualitiesofvaluebothtotheindividualandtothecommunity.

Anothercauseoperatingintheschooltopreventthefullandfreedevelopmentofthebodyisthemethodofmuchoftheteachingwhichprevails.Aquiteunnecessarystrainisoftenputuponthenervoussystemofthechild,andasaconsequencealassitudeofbodyresultswhichphysicalexercisenotonlydoesnottendtoremovebutactuallytendstoincrease.Methodsofteachingwhichfailtoarouseanyinherentinterestintheattainmentofanendoffeltvaluetothechildrequirefortheevokingandmaintainingofhisactiveattentiontheoperationofsomepowerfulindirectinterest,andifpersistedin,suchmethodssoon

resultintheoverworkingandexhaustionofsomeoneparticularsystemofnervouscentres,andinthedepletionthroughnon-nutritionofothercentres.Asaconsequence,thechildisunabletotakeanypartinphysicalexercisesorinschoolgameswithprofittohimself.Heiscontenttoloafanddoaslittleashecan.Theevilisfurtherintensifiedifthereisalsopresentunderorimpropernutritionofthechild.

Thusalongwithourschemesforthephysicaleducationofthechildwemustendeavourtoimprovethemethodsofourteachers,tomakethemunderstandthatexperiencesacquiredthroughthearousingofthedirectinterestofthechildareacquiredattheleastphysiologicalcost,andtomakethemrealiseunderwhatconditionsthisdirectinterestcanbe

arousedandmaintained.Nooneindeedwishestomakeeverythingintheschoolpleasanttothechild,ortoreduceself-efforttoaminimum.Buteffortandinterestarenotopposedterms.Theeffortwhichisevokedintherealisationofaninterestorendoffeltvalueistheonlykindofeffortwhichpossessesanyeducationalvalue.Theeffortwhichiscalledforthinthefindingandestablishingofasystemofmeanstowardsanendwhichthechildfailstosee,andwhich,asaconsequence,rousesnodirectinterestinitsattainment,isaneffortwhichshouldforeverbebanishedfromtheschoolroom.Such,_e.g._,istheeffortevokedinthemerecrammingofemptylistsofwordsordatesorfacts.Littlemental

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goodresultsfromsuchaprocess,andthephysiologicalcostisoftengreat.

Letusnowconsidertheconditionsnecessaryforsoundphysicalhealth,andinquirehowfartheschoolagenciescanaidintheprovidingoftheseconditions:theyaremainlyfourinnumber.Inthefirstplace,inordertosecurethefullgrowthanddevelopmentofthebodilypowers,thereisneededasufficiencyoffood.Butmeresufficiencyisnotenough,thefoodmustbevariedinqualityinordertomeetthevariousneedsofthebody,andmustbepreparedinsuchawayastobereadilyassimilatedandrenderedfitforthenutritionofbothbodyandmind.Manifestlythehomeoughttobethechiefagentinprovidingforthisneed.But,aswehaveseeninconsideringtheproblemofthefeedingofschoolchildren,thehomeinmanycasesisunableadequatelytoprovideforit,and,foratimeatleast,somemethodofpublicprovisionofgoodandwholesomefoodforthechildrenofthepoormayberenderednecessary.Butmuchofthephysicalevilresultsfromimpropernutrition;andheretheschoolagenciesmaydoagreatdealinthefuturebyfurtheringtheteachingofdomesticsciencetothegirlsoftheworkingclasses.Suchteaching,however,ifitistobeeffective,mustberealandmusttakeintoaccounttheactualconditionsunderwhichtheirfuturelivesaretobespent.Atthepresenttimemuchoftheteachingisvalueless,throughitsneglectoftheactualincomeandresourcesoftheworkingman'shome.

Thesecondconditionnecessaryforbodilygrowthanddevelopmentisasufficiencyofpureair.Thisisnecessary,sincetheoxygenoftheairisnotonlytheactiveagentinthemaintenanceoflife,butisalsorequisiteforthecombustionofthefoodstuffsconveyedintothebody.Muchhasbeendonewithinrecentyearsinourschoolstoprovidewell-ventilatedclassroomsandtoinstructteachershowtokeeptheairoftheschoolpure.Hereagaintheproblemistoalargeextentasocialone,involvingthebetterhousingofourgreattownpopulation.

Athirdconditionnecessaryforthephysicaldevelopmentofthechildissleepsufficientinquantityandgoodinquality.Theweak,punychildreninarmstobeseeninourcrowdedslumsowetheircondition,in

manycases,tothewantofsoundsleep,tothefactthattheyneverareallowedtorest,asmuchastotheunderandimproperfeedingtowhichtheyaresubjected.Asweshallseeinthenextchapter,muchmightbedonebytheestablishmentofFreeKindergartenSchoolsinourovercrowdeddistrictstoalleviatethelotandtobettertheeducationoftheveryyoungchildrenofthepoor.

Butinadditiontothethreeconditionsalreadynamed,whichmaybeclassedtogetherasthenutritivefactorsinbodilygrowth,thereisafourthconditionessentialforalldevelopment,whetherbodilyormental--viz.,exercise.For"developmentisproducedbyexerciseoffunction,useoffaculty....Ifwewishtodevelopthehand,wemustexercisethehand.Ifwewishtodevelopthebody,wemustexercisethe

body.Ifwewishtodevelopthemind,wemustexercisethemind.Ifwewishtodevelopthewholehumanbeing,wemustexercisethewholehumanbeing."[25]

Butanyformofexercisewillnotdo.Theexercisewhichisgivenmustbegivenattherighttime,mustbeinharmonywiththenatureoftheorganexercised,andmustbeproportionedtothestrengthoftheorgan,iftruedevelopmentistobeattained.

Inordertounderstandthisinsofarasitbearsupontheaimswhichwe

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shouldsetbeforeusinthephysicaleducationofthechild,itisnecessarythatweshouldunderstandwhatmodernphysiologicalpsychologyhastoteachusofthenatureofthenervoussystem.

Ifthereaderwilllookbacktoanearlierchapter,[26]hewillfindthateducationwasdefinedastheprocessbywhichexperiencesareacquiredandorganisedinorderthattheymayrendertheperformanceoffutureactionmoreefficient,oralternativelyitistheprocessbywhichsystemsofmeansareformed,organised,andestablishedfortheattainmentofvariousendsoffeltvalue.Theestablishmentofthesesystemsofmeansisonlypossiblebecauseinthehumaninfantthenervoussystemisrelativelyunformedatbirth,isrelativelyplastic,andsoiscapableofbeingorganisedinsuchandsuchadefinitemanner.Ontheotherhand,inmanyanimalsthenervoussystemofeachisdefinitelyformedatbirth;itissoorganisedthatexperiencedoeslittletoaddtooraidinitsfurtherdevelopment.Now,whilethenervoussystemofthechildatbirthisnotsodefinitelyorganisedasthatofmanyanimals,yetontheotherhanditisnotwhollyplastic,whollyunformed,sothat,asmanypsychologistsandeducationalistsoncebelieved,itcanbemouldedintoanyshapeweplease.

Rather,wehavetoconceiveofthenervoussystemofthehumaninfantasmadeupofaseriesofsystemsatdifferentdegreesofdevelopmentandwithvaryingdegreesoforganisation.[27]Somecentres,as_e.g._those

whichhavetodowiththeregulationofcertainreflexandautomaticactions,startatonceintofullfunctionalactivity;others,as_e.g._ thosewhichhavetodowithpurelyintellectualfunctions,arerelativelyunformedandunorganisedatbirth,andbecomeorganisedastheresultofconsciouseffort,astheresultofaneducationalprocess,astheresultofacquiring,organising,andestablishingexperiencesfortheattainmentofendsofacquiredvalue.

Betweenthesystemsatthelowestlevelandthoseatthehighestwehavecentresofvaryingdegreesoforganisationatbirth.Moreover,thesecentresofthemiddlelevelreachtheirfullmaturityatdifferentrates.Thecentres,_e.g._,whichhavetodowiththeco-ordinationofhandandeyeandwiththeattainmentofcontroloverthelimbsofthe

bodyreachtheirfullfunctionalactivitybefore,_e.g._,thecentreshavingcontrolofthelipsandspeech.Thecentres,again,whichhavetodowiththeco-ordinationofthesensorymaterialderivedthroughtheparticularsensesarestilllongerinreachingtheirfullfunctionalactivity,whilethehigherintellectualcentresmaynotreachtheirhighestpoweruntilwelloninlife.Hence,sinceeducationistheprocessofacquiringexperiencesthatshallmodifyfutureactivity,itcandolittlepositivelytoaidthedevelopmentofthelowestcentres;itcandomoretomodifythedevelopmentofthemiddlecentres;whilethehighestcentresofallareingreatpartorganisedastheresultofdirectindividualexperience.

Asregardsthesystemsofthelowestlevel,whatwehavethentoaimat

istoallowthemfreeroomforgrowth,andtocorrectasfaraspossiblefaultsdueeithertotheimperfectionsofnatureortotheunnaturalconditionsunderwhichthechildlives.Solongasthesesystemsareprovidedwithnutritionandallowedfreedominperformingtheirfunctions,weareunawareoftheirexistence.We,_e.g._,onlybecomeawarethatwepossessacirculatorysystemorarespiratoryoradigestivesystemwhenthefunctionalactivityoftheseorgansisimpeded.Theopinion,therefore,thatphysicalexercisehasforitschiefaimthesustainingandimprovingofthebodilyhealthisnodoubttrueandcorrect,butitisnottheonlyaim.Onthisviewweare

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consideringonlythelowestsystemofcentres,anddevisingmeansbywhichwemaymaintainandimprovetheirfunctionalactivity.Moreover,itisnecessarytoendeavourtosecurethefreedevelopmentofthesecentresandtheirunimpededfunctionalactivity,becauseotherwisethedevelopmentofthehighercentresishindered,andthewholenervoussystemrenderedunstableandinsecure.

Butawisesystemofphysicaleducationmusttakeintoaccountthefactthatacarefullyselectedandorganisedsystemofexercisescandomuchforthedevelopmentofthecentresofthemiddlelevelwhichhavetodowiththeproperco-ordinationofvariousbodilymovements.Theseareonlypartlyorganisedatbirth,andeducation--theacquiringandorganisingofexperiences--isnecessaryfortheirdueorganisationandtheiradaptationassystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdefiniteends.Itisforthisreasonthatthebeginningoftheformaleducationofthechildattooearlyanageisphysiologicallyandpsychologicallyerroneous.Indoingthisweareneglectingthelowercentresatthetimewhenbynaturetheyarereachingtheirfullfunctionalactivity,andexercisingthehigherwhichareatanunripestageofdevelopment.Moreover,lowercentresnotexercisedduringtheperiodwhentheyareattainingtheirfulldevelopmentneverattainthesamefunctionaldevelopmentifexercisedlater.Hencethedifficultyofacquiringamanualdexteritylaterinlife.Again,itisonthistheoryoflowerandhighercentresmaturingatdifferentratesandattainingtheirfull

functionalactivityatdifferenttimesthatwenowbaseoureducationofthementallydefective.Wemustorganisethelowercentres;wemusteducatethementallydefectivechildtogetcontroloverthesealreadypartiallyorganisedcentres,beforewebegintoeducatethehigherandlessorganisedcentres.Moreover,itisonlyinsofaraswecansecurethisendthatwecanstablybuildupandorganisethehighercentresofthenervoussystem.Hencealsosuchqualitiesasalertnessinreceivingordersandpromptnessandaccuracyincarryingthemoutare,atfirst,bestlearnedthroughtheorganisingandtrainingofthecentresofthemiddlelevel.Whatwereallyendeavourtodohereistoorganiseandestablishsystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofdefiniteends,whichthroughtheirsystematicorganisationcanbebroughtintoactionwhenrequiredpromptlyandquickly,andoncearousedworkthemselvesoutwith

aminimumofeffortandwithalowdegreeofattention,sothattheirperformanceinvolvestheleastpossiblephysiologicalcost.

Fromthisthereaderwillunderstandthattheaimofphysicaleducationistheaimofalleducation,viz.,toacquireandorganiseexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient.

Moreover,theearlytrainingofthecentresofthemiddlelevelisimportantfortheaftertechnicaltrainingofourworkmen.Theboyorgirlwhohasneverbeeneducatedinearlylifetoco-ordinateandcarryoutbodilymovementspromptlyandaccuratelyisnotlikelytosucceedinafter-lifeinanyemploymentwhichrequiresthereadyandexactco-ordinationofmanymovementsfortheattainmentofadefiniteend.

Theproperphysicaleducationofthechildisthereforenecessaryforthesecuringoftheaftereconomicefficiencyoftheindividual,anditcanalsobythedevelopmentofcertainmentalandmoralqualitiesbemadeinstrumentalinthedevelopmentoftheethicallyefficientperson.

Wemustnowbrieflynotetwoothereducationalagencieswhichmaybeemployedinthesecuringofthephysicalandmentalefficiencyofthechild--playandgames.Psychologically,gamesstandmidwaybetweenplayandwork.Inplaywehaveaninheritedsystemofmeansevokedintoactivityandcarriedouttoanendforthepurepleasurederivedfrom

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theactivityitself.Suchsystemsatfirstareimperfectlyorganised,butthroughtheexperiencederivedthesystemsbecomemoreandbetteradaptedfortheattainmentoftheendswhichtheyareintendedtorealise.Ingames,ontheotherhand,theactivityisundertakenforanendonlypartiallyconnectedwiththemeansbywhichitisattained,whilstinworkthemeansmayhavenointrinsicconnectionwiththeenddesired.Hencetheeffortofadisagreeablenaturewhichworkoftenevokes.

Inanimalsfullyequippedatbirthbymeansofinstinctfortheperformanceofactionstheplay-activityisaltogetherabsent.Theirlivesarewhollybusiness-like.Ontheotherhand,inthehigheranimals,whoseyounghaveaperiodofinfancy,playisnature'sinstrumentofeducation.Bymeansofitthesystemsofthemiddlelevelwhichformthelargerpartofthebrainequipmentofthehigheranimalsaregraduallyorganisedandfittedfortheattainmentoftheendswhichinmaturelifetheyareintendedtorealise.Playistheireducation--isthemeansbywhichnatureworksinorderthatexperiencesmaybeacquiredandorganisedthatshallrenderfutureactionmoreefficient.Withoutthispower,"thehigheranimalscouldnotreachtheirfulldevelopment;thestimulusnecessaryforthegrowthoftheirbodiesandmindswouldbelacking."[28]

Playalsoisnature'sinstrumentintheeducationoftheyoungchild.

Thefirstandmostimportantpartofhiseducationisobtainedbythismeans,and,onthebasisthuslaid,mustallafter-educationbebuilt.Hencetheimportanceinearlylifeofallowingfullfreedomforthemanifestationofthisactivity.Hencealsotheverygreatimportanceofsecuringthatthechildrenofthepoorshouldbeprovidedwiththemeansofrealisingtheplayfulactivitiesoftheirnatureandofbeingstimulatedandencouragedtoplay.HenceoneaimoftheKindergartenSchoolistoutilisetheplay-activityofthechildinthedevelopmentofhisbodyandmind.[29]

Thethirdagencywhichwemayemployindevelopingthephysicalpowersofthechildisthatofgames.Games,however,arenotmerelyusefulasmeansfortheattainmentofthephysicaldevelopmentoftheboyorgirl;

theyalsomaybemadeinstrumentalinthecreationandfosteringofcertainmentalandmoralqualitiesofthegreatestafter-valuetothecommunity.NooneacquaintedwiththeimportantpartwhichgamesperforminthelifeofthePublicSchoolboycandoubttheirgreateducationalvalue.Bymeansofthemtheboyacquiresexperienceswhichinafter-lifetendtomakemoreefficientcertainclassesofactionsessentialforanycorporateorcommunallife.Intheplaying-fieldshelearnswhatitistobeamemberofacorporatebodywhosegoodandnottheattainmentofhisownprivateendsmustbethefirstconsideration.Throughthemediumofthegamesoftheschoolhemaygettoknowthemeaningofself-sacrifice,ofworkingwithhisfellowsforacommonendorpurpose,andofsinkinghisownindividualityforthesakeofhisside.Inadditionhelearnsthehabitsofreadyobediencetosuperiorknowledge

andability;tosubmittodiscipline;andtoundergofatigueforthecommongood.Iffoundworthy,hemaylearnhowtocommandaswellastoobey,tothinkoutmeansfortheattainmentofends,andtoknowandfeelthatthegoodnameoftheschoolrestsuponhisshoulders.Theseandotherqualitiessimilarincharactermaybecreatedandestablishedbymeansofthegamesoftheschool.Andjustastheutilisingoftheplay-instinctisnature'smethodofeducationinthefittingoftheyounganimalandtheyoungchildtoadaptitselfinthefuturetoitsphysicalenvironment,sowemaylaydownthatthegamesoftheschoolmaybelargelyutilisedassociety'smethodoffittingtheindividualto

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hisaftersocialenvironment,andintraininghimtounderstandthetruemeaningandtherealpurportofcorporatelife.

Onaccount,however,ofthevastsizeofmanyofourPublicElementarySchoolsandforotherreasons,suchasthelimitedplaygroundaccommodationinmanycasesandthewantofplaying-fields,organisedgamesplaybutasmallpartinthephysicalandmoraleducationofthechildrenattendingsuchschools.Butevenheremuchmoremightbedonethanisdoneatpresentbytheteachersintheplaygroundtoencouragethesimplerplaygroundgames,and"toreplacethedisorganisedroughandtumbleexerciseswhichcharacterisetheactivitiesofsomanyofourpoorerpopulationbysomeformoforganisedactivity."[30]Theaimlessparadingofourstreetsbythesonsanddaughtersoftheworkingandlowermiddleclassesintheirleisuretime,theroughhorseplayoftheyouthofthelowestclasses,aredueinlargemeasuretothefactthatduringtheschoolperiodtheyhavenotbeenhabituatedtotakepartwiththeirfellowsinanyformoforganisedactivity,haveneverrealisedwhatacorporatelifemeans,andasaconsequencearedevoidofanysocialinterests.

Oneotherquestionmustbebrieflyconsidered,viz.,Howfarshouldweinthephysicaleducationoftheyouthkeepinviewtheendofsecuringthemilitaryefficiencyofthenation?AsAdamSmithpointedout,thedefenceofanysocietyagainsttheviolenceandinvasionofother

independentsocietiesisthefirstdutyofthesovereign."Anindustrious,anduponthataccountawealthynationisofallnationsthemostlikelytobeattacked,andunlesstheStatetakessomemeasuresforthepublicdefence,thenaturalhabitsofthepeoplerenderthemaltogetherincapableofdefendingthemselves."[31]Hefurtherassertsthat"eventhoughthemartialspiritofthepeoplewereofnousetowardsthedefenceofthesociety,yettopreventthatsortofmentalmutilation,deformity,andwretchednesswhichcowardicenecessarilyinvolvesinit,fromspreadingthemselvesthroughthegreatbodyofthepeople,itwouldstilldeservethemostseriousattentionofGovernment."[32]

Onthesethreegrounds,then,thatthedefenceofthecountryisthe

firstdutyofeveryGovernmentandthereforethefirstdutyofeverycitizen,thatanationengagedincommercetendstorenderitselfunfittodefenditselfunlessmeansaredevisedtokeepalivethepatrioticspirit,andthatthekeepingaliveofthepatrioticspiritisusefulforthecultivationofcertainnecessarysocialqualities,wemaymaintainthatthemilitaryefficiencyoftheyouthshouldbeincludedamongsttheaimsofanynationalsystemofphysicaleducation.IftheemphasiswhichislaiduponthesecuringoftheaftermilitaryefficiencyoftheyouthofthenationoccupiestooprominentaplaceintheschemesofphysicaleducationofsomeContinentalcountries,weontheotherhandhavealmostwhollyneglectedthisaspectofthequestion.EveryencouragementthereforeshouldbegiventotheformationofcadetandriflecorpsintheSecondarySchoolsofthecountryandintheEveningContinuation

Schoolsattendedbythesonsoftheworkingclasses.Thetimewhensystematicinstructioninmilitaryexercisesandintheuseofarmsshallformpartofeveryyouth'seducationhasnotyetarrived,butthenecessityforsomesuchsteploomsalreadyonthehorizon.

FOOTNOTES:

[24]Locke's_ThoughtsonEducation_.

[25]Bowen'sFroebel(GreatEducatorSeries),p.48.

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[26]Cf.chap.ii.

[27]Cf.MacDougall's_PhysiologicalPsychology_(Dent);_also_SirJamesCrichtonBrowne'sarticleon"EducationandtheNervousSystem,"inCassell's_BookofHealth_.

[28]_PrinciplesofHeredity_,ibid.p.242.

[29]Cf.nextchapter.

[30]_SuggestionsfortheConsiderationofTeachers_(EnglishBoardofEducation),chapteronPhysicalEducation.

[31]AdamSmith,_WealthofNations_,p.292.

[32]_Ibid._p.329.

CHAPTERX

THEAIMOFTHEINFANTSCHOOL

Itisneedlesstopointoutthatthemethodofeducatingtheinfantmindisthemethodofalleducation--viz.,theregulationoftheprocessbywhichexperiencesareacquiredandorganisedsoastorendertheperformanceoffutureactionmoreefficient.This,asweshallseelater,isthefundamentaltruthatthefoundationoftheKindergartenmethodofFroebel,anditmustguideandcontrolourconductnotonlyduringtheearlierstagesbutthroughoutthewholeprocessofeducation.

Moreover,sincetheearlyacquisitionsofthechildarethebasesuponwhichallfurtherknowledgeandpracticearefounded,wemustrealisehowimportantthesefirstexperiencesareforthewholefuture

developmentofthechild.Further,wehaveseenthatalleducation--allacquiringandorganisingofexperienceinearlylife--mustbemotivedbythefeltdesiretosatisfysomeinstinctiveneedofthechild'snature,andthatitistheseinstinctiveneedswhichdeterminethenatureandscopeofhisearlyactivities.

Later,indeed,acquiredinterestsmaybegraftedupontheinnateandinstinctiveneeds,butatthebeginningandduringhisfirstyearsthechild'swholelifeisdeterminedbytheprimitivedesiresofhumannature.

Now,thefirstinstinctiveneedwhichrequirestheaidofeducationistheneedfeltbythechildtoacquiresomemeasureofcontroloverhis

bodilymovementsandoverthethingsinhisimmediatephysicalenvironment.Hencethefirststageineducationistheregulationoftheprocessbywhichthechildacquiresandorganisesthoseexperienceswhichshallgivehimthiscontrol.Natureherselfindeedprovidesthemeansfortheattainmentofthisend,buteducationcandomuchtoaidintheattainmentandtoshortentheperiodofincompleteattainment.Bymeansoftheassistancegiven,thecontrolexercisedandthedirectionafforded,weenablethechildtoorganisethelowercentresofthenervoussystemwhichhavetodowiththecontrolofthelargerbodilymovements,andthusestablishorganisedsystemsofmeansforthe

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attainmentofcertaindefiniteends.

Thesecondstagesuperveneswhentheneedisfeltbythechildforsomemeasureofcontroloverhissocialenvironment.Fortheyoungchildsoonrealisesthatitisonlyinsofarashecanexertsomeinfluenceoverthepersonsintimatelyconnectedwithhiswelfarethathecanmakehiswantsknownandfindmeansforthesatisfactionofhisdesires.Hencearisestheneedforsomemethodofcommunicationwithhisfellows,andfromthisspringsthedesireforsomesystemofsignsandforalanguagetoenablehimtomakehiswantsknown.Chieflybymeansoftheeducativeprocessofimitatingtheexperiencesofothers,hegraduallyacquiresalanguageandfindshimselfathomeinhissocialworld.

Duringthisperiodthecentrescalledintoactivity,developed,andorganisedaremainlythoseconnectedwiththelipandspeechcentres,andacertainstageoforganisationhavingbeenattained,theopportunityisnowaffordedforthefullerfunctionaldevelopmentofthehighercentresentrustedwiththedutyofreceiving,discriminating,andco-ordinatingthedataofthespecialorgansofsense.

Theperiodduringwhichthechildisgraduallyacquiringcontroloverhisimmediatephysicalandsocialenvironmentsmayroughlybesaidtoextendtotheendofhisthirdyear.

Fromthattimeonwardstheworldsofnatureandofsocietyfortheirownsakebecomeobjectsofcuriositytothechild.Everynewobjectpresentshimwithavarietyoffreshsensations.Hefeels,tastes,andbiteseverythingthatcomeswithinhisreach,andsoacquiresaworldofnewexperiences.Hencefor"thefirstsixyearsofhislifeachildhasquiteenoughtodoinlearningitsplaceintheuniverseandthenatureofitssurroundings,andtocompelitduringanypartofthatperiodtogiveitsattentiontomerewordsandsymbolsistostintitofthebestpartofitseducationforthatwhichisonlyofsecondaryimportance,andtoweakenthefoundationsofitswholementalfabric."[33]

If,then,duringthisperiodthechildisleftwhollytogatherhisexperiencesashemay,henodoubtacquiresbyhisownself-activitya

worldofnewideas,buttheresultofthisunregulatedprocesswillbethattheknowledgegainedwillbelargelyunsystematised,andmuchoftheexperienceacquiredmaybeofanaturewhichmaygiveafalsedirectiontohiswholeafter-development.Hencearisethreeneeds.Inthefirstplace,wemustendeavourtoseethatnewexperiencesarepresentedtothechildinsomesystematicmanner,inorderthattheknowledgemaybesoorganisedthatitmayserveasmeanstotheattainmentofends,andsorenderfutureactivitymoreaccurateandmoreefficient.Inthesecondplace,wemustendeavourtopreventtheacquisitionofexperienceswhichifallowedtobeorganisedwouldgiveanimmoraldirectiontoconduct;andinthethirdplace,wemustendeavourtoestablishearlyinthemindofthechildorganisedsystemsofmeanswhichmayhereafterresultintheprevalenceofactivities

sociallyusefultothecommunity.

Now,thesethreeaimsareorshouldbetheaimsoftheKindergartenSchool,andweshallnowinquireintotheendswhichtheKindergartenSchoolsetsbeforeit,andforthispurposeweshallstatethefundamentalprincipleswhichFroebelhimselflaiddownastheguidingprinciplesofthisstageofeducation.

OnitsintellectualsidetheKindergartenasconceivedbyFroebelhasfourdistinctaimsinview.Thefirstaimisbymeansofcomparingand

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contrastingaseriesofobjectspresentedinsomeregularandsystematicmannertoleadthechildtonotethelikenessesanddifferencesbetweenthethings,andsothroughandbymeansofhisownself-activitytobuildupcoherentandconnectedsystemsofideas.Bythismethodtheteacherbuildsupinthemindoftheyoungchildsystemsofideasregardingthecolours,forms,andothersensequalitiesofthemorecommonobjectsofhisenvironment.Thesecondaimisbymeansofsomeformofconcreteconstructiontogiveexpressiontotheknowledgesogained,tomakethisknowledgemoreaccurateanddefinite,andthusbyadialecticalreturntomaketheexperiencesofthechilddefiniteandaccurate,soastorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,andthuspavethewayforfurtherprogress.Thethirdaimistoutilisetheplay-activityofthechildintheacquisitionofnewexperiencesandintheiroutwardconcreteexpression.Thefourthistoengagethechildintheproductionofsomethingsociallyuseful,somethingwhichengageshisgenuinework-activity.Inshort,whatFroebelclearlyrealisedwasthatthemeretakinginofnewexperiencesbythechildmindinanyorderwasnotsufficient.Experiencestobeusefulforefficientactionmustbeassimilated--mustbeorganisedintoasystem--andinorderthatthismaybepossibletheexperiencesmustbepresentedinsuchamanneraswillrenderthemcapableofbeingorganised.Moreover,thismeretakinginofnewexperiencesisnotenough.Theremustbeagivingoutorexpressionoftheknowledgeacquired,foritisonlyinsofaraswecanturntousenewexperiencesthatwecanbesurethattheyarereallyours.Now,

sincetheformsofexpressionnaturaltotheyoungchildarethosewhichevokehispracticalconstructiveefforts,alloutwardexpressioninitsearlierstagesmustassumeaconcreteform.Theaimoftheso-called"Gifts"inFroebel'sschemeistobuildupanorganisedsystemofsense-knowledge;theaimofthe"Occupations"oftheKindergartenistodevelopthepowerofconcreteexpressionofthechild.The"Gifts"andthe"Occupations"arecorrelativemethods,--theoneconcernedwiththetakingin,theotherwiththeoutwardexpressionofthesameexperience,--andthroughouteitheraspectoftheprocessthereason-activityofthechildmustbeevokedbothintheacquisitionandintheexpressionofthenewexperience.Physiologically,thistwofoldprocessimpliesthatduringtheKindergartenperiodthesensoryareasofthebrainarebeingexercisedandorganisedandthattheassociative

activityevokedisconcernedwiththeco-ordinationoftheimpressionsderivedthroughtheseareas.Psychologically,itimpliesthatduringthisperiodwearemainlyconcernedwiththeformationofperceptualsystemsofknowledgecomposedofdataderivedthroughthespecialsensesandthroughtheactivemovementsofthehandsandlimbs.Suchaprocess,moreover,isanecessarypreliminaryforthefullafter-developmentofthehigherassociationcentresofthebrainandfortheformationbythemindofconceptualsystemsofknowledge.

Forifweattemptprematurelytoexercisethehighercentresbeforethelowerhavereachedacertainmeasureofdevelopment,ifweattempttoformconceptualsystemsofknowledge,suchasalllanguageandnumbersystemsare,withoutfirstlayingasoundperceptualbasis,thenwemay

domuchtohinderfuturementalgrowth,ifwedonoteveninflictapositiveinjurytothechild.Fortheeducationofthesensesneglected,"allafter-educationpartakesofadrowsiness,ahaziness,andaninsufficiencywhichitisimpossibletocure."[34]

OnitsmoralandsocialsidetheaimsoftheKindergartenSchoolarenolessimportant.Iflefttofollowthenaiveinstinctiveneedsofhisnatureandtogatherexperienceswhereandhowhemay,thechildislikelytomakeacquisitionswhichlatermayissueinwrongconduct.HenceoneaimoftheKindergartenistopresentexperienceswhichmay

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eventuallyissueinrightconduct,andtopreventtheacquisitionofexperiencesofanimmoralkind.Hencealsoitsinsistenceupontheneedofcarefullyselectingtheenvironmentoftheyoungchild,sothatasfaraspossibleitsearlyexperiences--itsfirstacquisitions--shallbeofahealthynature.Moreover,bymeansoftheorganisedactivitiesoftheschool,andbyutilisingtheplay-instinctofthechild,itseekstoformandestablishcertainhabitsoffuturesocialworthtothecommunityandtotheindividual.For,bymeansofthegamesandoccupationsoftheKindergartenSchool,thechildmayfirstofalllearnwhatitmeanstoco-operatewithhisfellowsforacommonendorpurpose;maylearntosubmittoauthoritywhichhedimlyandimperfectly,itmaybe,perceivestobereasonable;maybetrainedtohabitsofaccuracy,oforder,andofobedience.Aboveall,theKindergartensystemmayrouseandfosterinthemindofthechildthatsenseofacorporatelifeandofacommonsocialspirittheprevalenceofwhichinafter-lifeistheonlysecurefoundationofsociety.

InEnglandtheextremeimportanceoftheeducationoftheinfantmindhasbeen,inrecentyears,clearlyacknowledged.ThenewregulationsoftheBoardofEducationnolongerallowchildrenunderfiveyearsofagetobeincludedas"anintegralpartofathree-Rgrant-earningElementarySchool."Aspecialcurriculumhasbeensetforthfortheireducation.Theyaretohaveopportunitiesprovided"forthefreedevelopmentoftheirbodiesandmindsandfortheformationofhabitsof

obedienceandattention."[35]Whatareknownas"KindergartenOccupationsarenotmerelypleasantpastimesforchildren:ifsoregarded,theyarenotintelligentlyusedbytheteacher.Theirpurposeistostimulateintelligentindividualeffort,tofurnishtrainingofthesensesofsightandtouch,topromoteaccurateco-ordinationofhandmovementswithsenseimpressions,and,notleastimportant,toimplantahabitofobedience."

"Formalteaching,evenbymeansofKindergartenOccupations,isundesirableforchildrenunderfive.Atthisstageitissufficienttogivethechildopportunitytousehissensesfreely.Toattemptformalteachingwillalmostinevitablymean,withsomeofthechildren,eitherrestraintorover-stimulation,withconstantdangertomentalgrowthand

health."[36]

Fromtheseextractsfromthe_SuggestionsfortheConsiderationofTeachers_oftheHeadoftheEnglishBoardofEducation,itwillbeevidentthatthespiritofthe"Kindergarten"nowlargelyentersintothecurriculumoftheinfantclasses.Inthefuturewemayhopetoseeitcarriedfurtherandthatnoformalteachingofthechildwillbeundertakenduringthefirstsixyearsofhislife.Further,wemayhopetoseeinthefuturetheinfantdepartmentsofourschoolsmorethoroughlyorganisedthantheyareatpresentontheKindergartenprinciple,andthecurriculumoftheInfantSchoolsodevisedthatitshallfitintoandpavethewayforthecurriculumoftheElementarySchool.Forattheearlierstagemuchmaybedonebythemethodsofthe

Kindergartentolaythebasisfortheteachingoftheartsofreading,writing,andarithmeticwhichitisthemainbusinessofthePrimarySchooltoleadthechildtoacquire._E.g._,attheearlierstage,bythebreakingupandreconstructingofconcretegroupsofthings,thechildcanbeinitiatedintothemeaningofanumbersystem.Bymeansofpicturesandofconcreteformshecanbemadegraduallyacquaintedwithalphabeticforms,andthisteachinglaysthebasisforthefutureacquisitionoftheabstractsymbolsofprintedandwrittenwords.

ButwhilemuchhasbeendoneinEnglandtorecognisetheimportanceof

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theearlyeducationofthechildfortheaftermoralandsocialgoodbothoftheindividualandofthecommunity,andtoplacetheinstructionoftheinfantclassesinthePublicElementarySchoolsuponarationalbasis,littleattentionhasbeenpaidinScotlandtothissubject.Asarule,childreninthatcountrydonotenterschoolbeforetheageoffive,andthereisnoseparateprovisionmadefortheteachingofchildrenunderthatage;infact,allscholarsundersevenyearsofageareclassifiedtogetherandformtheJuniorDivisionoftheschool.

SuchastateofmattersreflectsbutlittlecreditontheeducationalleadersofScotland,andindicatesanimperfectconceptionoftherealnatureoftheeducativeprocess.Forifeducationistheprocessofacquiringandorganisingexperiencesinordertorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,itissurelytheheightoffollytoallowtheyoungchildtogatherhisearlyexperiencesashemay.Moreover,inthecaseofthechildrenoftheslums,toallowthemduringtheirearlyyearstogatherintotheirbrainwithoutanycorrectingagency"allthesightsandscenesofaslumissheersocialmadness.""Thechildmustberemoved,orpartiallyremoved,fromsuchanatmosphere,sinceithasreachedtheimitativestage,andisnearingtheselectivestageoflife.Forthemomentheimitatesanything;presentlyhewillimitatewhatpleaseshim,whatgiveshimmomentarypleasure.Beforetheunmoralselectivestageisreached,thestagewhichinevitablyprecedesthe

moralandimmoralselectivestage,itisessentialthatchildrenshouldreceivedefiniteanddeliberateguidance,thattheimitativefacultyshouldbecontrolled."[37]InthecaseofthechildrenofthepoorerdistrictsthiscanbedoneonlythroughtheagencyoftheInfantSchool.Muchmaybedonebymakingtheinstructionoftheschoolattractive,tocounteracttheevilinfluencesofthehomeandsocialenvironment,andtoleadthechildtoacquireandorganiseexperienceswhichwillissueinmoralandnotinimmoralconduct.

HencewhatweneedinthepoorerdistrictsofourlargetownsisFreeKindergartenSchoolsfromwhichallformalteachingofthethreeR'sisabolished,whereforseveralhoursineachdaythechildmaybetrainedtousehissensesintheaccuratediscriminationandaccurate

systematisationofsenseknowledge;wherehemayhavehisconstructiveactivitiesevokedbytheexpressioninconcreteformofwhathehasbeenledtoperceivethroughthemediumofthesenses;wherehemaybetrainedtohabitsoforder,ofcleanliness,ofsubmissiontoauthority;andwhereforatime,atleast,hemaybeaccustomedtoliveinapurerandhealthieratmospherethanhecanfindathomeorinthestreet,andwhereforabriefspacehemayhavethatfeelingofhomewhichhecannotfindathome.[38]

TheestablishmentinthepoorerdistrictsofourgreattownsofschoolswhoseeducationfollowsthemethodoftheKindergartenifaccompaniedbysomesystemoffeedingthechildwoulddomuchtosecuretheaftersocialefficiencyoftherisinggeneration,andwouldbyitsreactionon

thehome-lifetendgraduallytoraisetheidealsoftheverypoor.

FOOTNOTES:

[33]_TheNervousSystemandEducation_,bySirJamesCrichtonBrowne, _ibid._p.345.

[34]_TheNervousSystemandEducation_,bySirJamesCrichtonBrowne, _ibid._p.345.

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[35]Cf.onthissubjectthechapteron"SchoolNurseries"in_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,ibid.

[36]_SuggestionsfortheConsiderationofTeachers_,chap.iii.(issuedbytheEnglishBoardofEducation).

[37]Montmorency's_NationalEducationandNationalLife_,ibid.p.143.Thechapteron"SchoolNurseries"shouldbereadbyeveryone,andespeciallybyeveryScotsmaninterestedintheeducationofyoungchildren.

[38]Cf.CharlesLamb'sEssayon_PopularFallacies_.

CHAPTERXI

THEAIMOFTHEPRIMARYSCHOOL

DuringthepastthirtyyearsnopartofoureducationalsystemhasreceivedsomuchattentionastheElementarySchoolsofthecountry.Ifwecomparetheconditionofthingswhichprevailsatthepresenttime

withthatwhichexistedpreviousto1870,therecanbenodoubtthatagreatadvancehasbeenmadebothinthebetterprovisionofthemeansofeducationandintheefficiencyoftheinstructiongiven.Previousto1870alargenumberofthechildrenofthepoorreceivednoeducation.[39]Ofthoseattendingschoolmanyleftwithbutascantyknowledge.Nowpracticallyeverychild[40]receivesatrainingintheprimaryartsofreading,writing,andarithmetic;andwiththegradualextensionoftheperiodduringwhichthechildmustattendschool,ithasbecomepossibletoensurethatalargerandlargernumberofchildrenleavingourElementarySchoolshavereceivedaneducationwhichmaybeofvaluefortheafter-fulfilmentofthesimplerpracticalendsoflife.Again,previousto1870theschoolbuildingswereinmanycasesunfitfortheirpurpose;nowtheElementarySchoolsofthecountryboth

intheirbuildingarrangementsandequipmentareasarulemuchsuperiortothevoluntaryandendowedschoolsprovidingsecondaryeducation.Previousto1870anyonewasthoughtgoodenoughtoundertaketheworkofteaching;sincethattimemoreandmoreattentionhasbeenpaidtothequalificationsoftheteacherandtosecuringthatheshallhaveattainedacertainstandardofeducation,andhavereceivedacertainmeasureoftrainingbeforeengagingupontheworkoftheinstructionoftheyoung.We,_e.g._,nolongerentrusttheinstructionoftheyoungerchildrenintheschooltotheolder,aswasthecustomunderthemonitorialsystemofBellandLancaster,andwiththeabolitionofthepupil-teacherthelastremnantofasystemintroducedatthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,astheonlyremedytomeetthedireeducationalnecessitiesofthetime,willhavebeenremoved.

Butinspiteofthegreatadvanceswhichhavebeenmade,thereisadeep-seatedfeelingnowbeginningtofindexpression,thatsomehoworothertheElementarySchoolhasnotrealisedalltheexpectationsthatwereoncethoughtlikelytoresultfromtheuniversaleducationofthechildrenofthenation,andthatinparticularthePrimarySchoolhasfailedtofosterandtoestablishthemoralandsocialqualitiesnecessaryforthewelfareofaStatewhosegovernmentisfoundedontherepresentativeprinciple.

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This,itseemstome,islargelyduetothewrongconceptionoftheaimswhichthePrimarySchoolisintendedtorealise--aconceptionwhichprevailedformanyyearsaftertheintroductionofcompulsoryelementaryeducation.Forsometimenow,andespeciallyduringthepastfewyears,acounter-reactionhassetinagainstthenarrownessoftheaimsoftheprecedingperiod,andlikeallreactionsittendstogototheoppositeextreme,andsotobroadentheaimsofthePrimarySchoolastobeindangeroffailingtorealiseefficientlyanyoneoftheendswhichitsetsbeforeit.

Thestateofthingsimmediatelypreceding1870notunnaturallygaverisetotheideathattheacquisitionoftheartsofreading,writing,andarithmeticwastheoneindispensableobjecttobeattainedintheelementaryeducationofthechild.ThisconvictionwasstrengthenedbythesystemofGovernmentgrantsintroducedintobothEnglishandScotchschools,paymentstoschoolmanagersbeinglargelybaseduponthesuccessesobtainedinpassesinthethreeelementarysubjects.

Certainresultsnaturallyfollowed.Inthefirstplace,noprovisionwasmadeforthespecialeducationoftheinfantclasses.Sincetheafter-successofthechildwasmeasuredbyhisattainmentsinthethreeR's,thesoonertheinfantmindwasintroducedtothesesubjectsthebettertheafter-resultmightbeexpectedtobe.Thusthegrant-earningcapacityofthechildbecametheteacher'schiefconsideration.Inthe

secondplace,theenergiesoftheteacherweredirectedtosecureacertainmechanicalaccuracyintheuseofthethreeelementaryartsratherthantheirintelligentapprehension.Asaconsequence,thesesubjectscameintimetobethoughtofassubjectsworthyofattainmentfortheirownsakeandtheiracquisitionasanendinitself.Henceitwasforgottenthattheacquisitionandorganisationofthesesystemsofelementaryknowledgeareonlyvaluablebecausetheyaretheindispensablemeansofallintercourse,ofallcommerce,andofallculture.Hencealsotheiruseasinstrumentsfortheafter-realisationofmanypurposesinlifetendedtobeneglected,oratleasttofallintothebackground.Individualteachers,nodoubt,inmanycasesrealisedthepartialerrorinthisconceptionoftheaimsofthePrimarySchool,butthedemandsofGovernmentinspectorsandofschool

authorities,withtheirrule-of-thumbmethodsoftestingthesuccessoftheteacher'sworkbythepercentageofpassesgained,tendedoftentomaketheteacher,inspiteofhisbetterjudgment,lookuponthechildmainlyasathree-Rgrant-earningsubjectandtoconsiderthechiefaimofprimaryeducationtobethesecuringofacertainmechanicalproficiencyintheuseofthethreeelementaryarts.

Undersuchamethodofexaminationitwascertainlynecessaryfortheteachertopaysomeattentiontotheindividualityofthechild.Ifhiseffortsweretobeatallsuccessfulitwasincumbentuponhimtodiscoverasearlyaspossibletherangeofthechild'spreviousknowledgeinthethreegrant-earningsubjectsandtofindoutinwhichofthethreethepowerofacquisitionofthechildwasnaturallyweakor

naturallystrong.Wherethenumberofchildreninaclasswaslarge,littleindividualattentioncould,ofcourse,bepaidtothechild,andinsuchcasestheacquisitionofthesubjectwasaidedbythemechanicaldrillingofsectionsoftheclassandbyrecoursetoallmannerofdevicesforensuringtheaccurateacquisitionoftheessentialsubjects.

Asaresultofthispartialandone-sidedconceptionlittleattentionwaspaidtotheusetowhichthesesubjectsmaybeputintherealisationofthepracticalendsoflife.Arithmetic,_e.g._,seemedtothechildtobemadeupofanumberofkindsofarithmetic,eachprocess

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havingitsownrulesandmethodsofprocedure;butitneverenteredintohismind,andbutseldomintothatofhisteacher,thatthevariousarithmeticalprocessesareatbottombutdiverseformsoftheonefundamentalprocessofaddingtoorsubtractingfromagroup.Proportionwasonekindofarithmetic,simpleinterestanother,butthattheseprocessessymbolisedrealgroup-formingprocesses,orthattheyhadtodowithanyoftherealitiesoflife,wasapprehended,ifatall,inthemostimperfectandhazymanner.

Inasimilarmanner,theovercomingofthemechanicaldifficultiesoflanguageconstructionoccupiedthemajorportionoftheattentionofthechildduringtheschoolperiod,andthefunctionoflanguageinconveyingaknowledgeofthingsandpersonsandeventsreceivedbutasmallshareofhisattention.Meaningsofwordswereindeedtabulatedandlearntbyheart,andasarulethechildonexamination-daycouldmakeafairshowindeludingtheinspectorthatthepassagereadwasintelligentlyapprehended.Inverymuchthesameway,theovercomingofthemechanicaldifficultiesofwritingandthedrillingofthechildtoformhislettersinauniformstylereceivedthechiefshareoftheschool-timedevotedtothesubject.

Theinterestandattentionofthechildhavingbeenthusmainlyoccupiedintheovercomingofthemechanicaldifficultiesinvolvedinthelearningofthethreegrant-earningsubjects,andlittleattention

havingbeenpaidtotheuseofthesearts,itfollowedthatupontheconclusionoftheschoolperiodthechildlefttheschoolwithoutanyrealinterestshavingbeenestablishedastheresultoftheeducativeprocess.

Moreover,exceptinsofarasbytheirteachingwemayestablishhabitsoforderandofaccuracy,thethreeelementarysubjectsinthemselvespossessnomoralorsocialintent;henceunlesswecanmakethechildrealisetheirvalueasinstrumentsfortheattainmentofendsofsocialworththeyinthemselvesfailtoplayanyimportantpartinthebuildingupofcharacter.

Letmeputthisinanotherway.Wehavedefinededucationastheprocess

ofacquiringandsystematisingexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient,oralternativelyitistheprocessbywhichweorganiseandestablishinthemindsystemsofideasfortheattainmentofends.Butifwemaketheacquisitionoftheseelementaryartsendsinthemselves,thenitfollowsthatthemoreefficientactionweseektorealiseisthemoreefficientmanipulationofanumbersystemoralanguagesystem.If,however,werealisethattheseartsarebutmeanstotherealisationofotherends,thenweshallunderstandthatitisthecharacterofthelatterwhichmainlydeterminestheresultingcharacteroftheeducationgiven.

Partlytothiserroneousconceptionoftherealfunctionoftheelementaryarts,andpartlytoanothercausewhichweshallmention

later,maybeattributedthepoorresultswhichourElementarySchoolsystemhasattainedintheestablishmentofinterestsofmoralandsocialworth.If,moreover,werealisehowlargeaproportionofthechildrenleftandstilldoleaveschoolatanearlyage,beforesuchinterestscanbepermanentlyestablished,andinsomecaseswithanythingbutanadequateknowledgeoftheelementaryartsnecessaryforallfurtherprogress,wemayratherbeastonishedthatsomuchhasbeendonethansolittle.

Butinthereactionagainstthenarrownessandformalismofourearly

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aimsinelementaryeducation,thereisatendency--astrongtendency--atthepresenttimetogototheoppositeextreme,andtomaketheelementaryinstrumentalartsthevehiclesforthefosteringofrealinterestsattooearlyastage.Thismanifestsitselfontheonehandinthedesiretomakeallinstructioninterestingtothechild,andontheothertointroducethechildprematurelytoaknowledgeoftherealconditionsoflife,beforehecanhaveanyintelligentunderstandingoftheseconditions.Fromthebarrennessandformalismoftheearlierperiod,wenowhavethedemandmadethattheschoolshouldthroughouttakeintoaccounttherealandpracticalnecessitiesoflife.

Theformertendency--thetendencytomakeeverythinginterestingtothechildbylesseningorminimisingthemechanicaldifficultiesandbyendeavouringineverywaytoincitethechildtobecomeinterestedinthecontentofthelesson--isbestexemplifiedbythecharacteroftheschoolbookswhichwenowplaceinthehandsofourchildren.Thelattertendency--thetendencytotheprematureuseoftheelementaryarts--isexemplifiedbythecravingtomakeourteachingofarithmeticpracticalandrealfromtheverybeginning.

Intheformercase,insteadofendeavouringtomaketheprocessoflanguageconstructioninterestinginitself,wedivertthechild'sattentionfromtheacquiringandorganisingofthesystemoflanguageformstotheprematureacquirementofthecontentoflanguage.What

resultsisobvious:themaininterestbeinginthecontent,theinterestinthemechanicalconstructionoftheformsuffers,andasaconsequencethechildneverattainsafullmasteryovertheinstrumentalart.

Inthelattercaseweattempttodotwothingsatthesametimeinourteachingofarithmetic.Ineveryconcreteapplicationofarithmetictherearetwointerestsinvolved:inthefirstplace,thereisthenumberinterest--theinterestintheanalysingandrecombiningofagroup,undertakenforthesakeofthereconstructionitself;inthesecondplace,thereisthebusinessorrealinterest,whichthenumberinterestindeedsubserves,butthetwointerestsareinnocaseidentical.Ifweattempttoteachthetwotogether,weasaruleteach

bothbadly.Thepupilwillhavebutahazyideaofthebusinessrelation,andwillruntheriskofimperfectlyorganisingthepurenumbersystem.Henceallkindsofimpossibleproblemsmaybegiventothechildwithoutraisinganysuspicionoferrorinhismind,andsuchcasesfurnishcertainevidencethatthebusinessrelationdoesnotreallyconcernhim,butthathiswholeattentionisengagedwiththepurelyconstructiveaspectofnumber.Anotherexampleofthesameerrorofconfoundingtwoseparatethingsisthe"blindmixturewemakeofarithmeticandmeasuring."Becausearithmeticisinvolvedinallmeasuringweassumethatwhenthechildcanaddtogetherfeetandinches,thereforehehasacompleteknowledgeofthesespatialmagnitudes.Butmanifestly,ifspatialmagnitudeistobetaughtintelligently,itmustatfirstbetaughtindependentlyofthenumber

relation,whichisageneralsysteminstrumentalintherealisationofmanyconcreteinterests.

Fromtheseconsiderations,certaingeneralresultsfollow.Ontheonehand,theearlierconceptionoftheaimofthePrimarySchoolasbeingmainlyconcernedwiththeacquirementandorganisationofthethreeelementaryartsasendsinthemselvesmustbecondemned.Languageandnumbersystemsaremeanstotherealisationofcertainconcreteendsofafter-life,andtheschoolduringthelaterstagesofeducationmustendeavourtoleadthechildtoperceivehowthesesystemsmaybe

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utilisedinthefurtheranceoftheserealconcreteinterests.Ontheotherhand,theattempttocombineprematurelythesetwoaimswillresultintheimperfectattainmentofboth.Duringtheearlierstagesofeducationthemaininterestmustbeintheconstructionforitsownsakeofthelanguagesystemorthenumbersystem,andwhiletherealinterestmaybeintroduceditmustalwaysbekeptsubsidiarytothemaininterest--mustfirstofallbetaughtforitsownsake,andtheinstrumentalartonlyusedforitsfurtheranceinsofarastheacquirementoftheformerisnotobstructed._E.g._,theplacingofgeographyandhistoryReadersinthehandsofthechildwhileheisstillstrugglingwiththedifficultiesoflanguageconstructioncanonlyresultinthehistoryandgeographybeingimperfectlyunderstoodandtheorganisationofthelanguagesystembeingdelayedandhindered.

Oncetheelementaryandsubsidiarysystemshavebeenfairlywellorganisedandestablished,theirfunctionasmeansforthefurtheranceofrealinterestsshouldoccupyalargershareofthechild'sattentionandofthetimeoftheschool.Theserealinterests,however,mustineverycaseandateverystagebetaughtatfirstfortheirownsake,andthereaftertheirrelationtotheinstrumentalartexplainedandapplied.Gradually,astheybecomebetterorganisedandmorefirmlyestablished,theelementaryartsoccupyasmallerandsmallershareofattention,untilfinallytheyfunctionautomatically,andthewholeattentioncanbedirectedtothefurtheranceoftherealintereststowhichthe

elementaryartsaretheindispensablemeans.Hencewenotethreestagesintheelementaryeducationofthechild--thestageprecedingtheformalinstructionintheelementaryarts;thestageinwhichtheformalinstructionshouldpredominateandreceivethegreatershareofthechild'sattention;thestageinwhichtheelementarysystemshavingbeeningreatmeasureorganisedandestablished,theymaybeutilisedasmeanstothefurtheranceoftherealinterests.ThefirststagecorrespondstotheInfantorKindergartenage:herethemainobjectistobuildupinthemindofthechildsystemsofideasaboutthethingsofhisenvironment;toextend,byconversationandbyreadingtothechild,thevocabularyofhisownlanguage;togivehimpracticeinthecombiningandrecombiningof

concretegroupsofthings,andtointroducehimtoaknowledgeofthevariouslanguageformsinaconcreteshape.

Inthesecondstage,andheretheworkofthePrimarySchoolbegins,themainemphasisatthebeginningmustbelaidontheacquirementandestablishmentofthelanguageandnumbersystemsfortheirownsake.Ifrightmethodsarefollowed,thechildcanbeinterestedintheseprocessesofconstructionwithouttheneedofcallingintouseateverypointsomerealinterest.Intheconcludingstagetheuseoftheseinstrumentsasmeanstotherealisationofthesimplerpracticalendsoflifeshouldreceivemoreattention.

Onereason,then,forthepoormoralandsocialresultseffectedinthe

pastbyourElementarySchoolsystemhasbeentheundueemphasisplacedupontheacquisitionofthemerelyformalartstotheneglectoftherealintereststowhichtheformerarebutthemeans.Anothercause,however,hasbeenoperativeinproducingthisnegativeresult.IntheElementarySchools,inthepast,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtotheindividualityofthechild,andlittleheedgiventothedifferencesbetweenchildrenasregardstheirdifferentratesofintellectualgrowthandtheirdifferingaptitudesforvariousbranchesofstudy.Underasystemofclassificationwhichcompelledeachindividual,whetherintellectuallywellormoderatelyorpoorlyequipped,toadvanceatan

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CHAPTERXII

THEAIMOFTHESECONDARYSCHOOL

WehaveseenthatonitsintellectualsidethePrimarySchoolhastwomainfunctionstoperformintheeducationofthechild.Inthefirstplace,theschoolmustendeavourtosecurethattheelementaryartsofreading,writing,andarithmeticarewellorganisedandwellestablishedinthemindofthechild.Themoreeffectivelythelanguageandnumbersystemsareorganisedandestablishedthemoreefficientlywilltheyfunctionintheperformanceoffutureaction.Moreover,itisonlywhentheyhavebecomesoorganisedastofunctionautomaticallythattheyreachtheirhighestefficiencyasinstrumentsforthefurtherextensionofknowledgeorofpractice.

Inthesecondplace,thePrimarySchoolmusttrainthepupiltotheuseofthesesystemsasinstrumentsfortherealisationofotherandconcreteendsorinterests._E.g._,thenumbersystemmaybeusedinthefurtheranceofthemeasuringinterest,theweighinginterest,andsoon.Thetwodangerswehavetoavoidareontheonehandthebarrenformalismoftreatingtheacquisitionoftheseartsasendsin

themselves,andontheotherofsupposingthattherealinterestscanbeintelligentlyunderstoodmerelythroughtheinstrumentalityoftheelementaryartsandthattheydonotrequireindependenttreatmentofthemselves.

IfthechildisdestinedtogonofartherthantheElementarySchoolstage,thenatleasttheconcludingyearoftheschoolshouldbemainlydevotedtotraininghimtotheuseoftheprimaryinstrumentalartsintheestablishmentofsystemsofknowledgenecessaryfortherealisationofthesimplerpracticalendsoflife.

If,however,thechildisselectedforacourseofhighereducation,theeducativeprocessbecomesdifferentinnature.Inthefirst-namedcase

wearecontenttogivethechildpracticeintheapplicationofanalreadyestablishedsystemtoconcreteproblems.Inthesecondcaseweendeavour,usingtheelementarysystemsasmeans,toestablishothersystemsofknowledgeasmeanstotheattainmentofstillfurtherends.Wemay,_e.g._,onthebasisofthevernacularlanguagebuildupaforeignlanguagesystemasameanseithertocommercialintercourseortoliteraryculture.Inshort,theaimoftheSecondarySchoolis,usingtheelementarysystemsasthebasalmeans,toorganiseandestablishothersystemsofmeansfortheattainmentofthemorecomplexinterestsofafter-life,practicalandtheoretical.Theobjectofestablishingasystemofknowledgeisnottopassexaminations,--thisistheschoolmaster'serror,--buttorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,tofurtherinafter-lifesomecomplexinterestofapracticalor

theoreticalnature.Tothefew,indeed,theestablishmentandsystematisationofknowledgemaybeanendinitself.Tothemany,thesystematisationandestablishmentisandoughttobeundertakenasameanstothemoreefficientfurtheranceofsomepracticalend.Further,theonlyjustificationfortheseekingofknowledgeforitsownsakeisthattherebyitmaybebetterunderstood,betterestablishedandbettersystematised,andsobecomebetterfittedtomakepracticemoreefficient.

Hencethequestionasregardssecondaryeducationresolvesitselfinto

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thequestionastothenatureofthesystemsofknowledgewhichweshouldendeavourtoestablishsystematicallyinthemindofthechild,andbeforewecananswerthisquestionwemustknowthelengthoftimewhichthechildcanaffordtospendattheHigherSchoolandhispossiblevocationinafter-life.Forifeducationistheprocessbywhichthechildisledtoacquireandorganiseexperiencessoastorenderfutureactionmoreefficient,wemustknowsomethingofthenatureofthisaction,somethingofthenatureofthefuturesocialservicesforwhichhiseducationistotrainhim,andtheschoolperiodmustbeofsufficientlengthtoenabletherequiredsystemstobeestablishedpermanentlyandthoroughly.

Neglectofthesetwoobviousconsiderationshasledinthepastandeveninthepresentleadstotwoerrorsinourorganisationofthemeansofsecondaryeducation.Inthefirstplace,untilquiterecently,wehavebeentoomuchinclinedtotheopinionthatsecondaryeducationwasallofonetype,andevenwherethiserrorhasbeenrecognised,asinGermany,thetendencystillexiststoemphasiseundulytheparticulartypeofeducationwhichhasasitsmainingredientstheancientclassicallanguages.Wespendyearsintheattempttoreconstructandestablishinthemindoftheyouthaknowledgeoftheselanguagesystems,andinalargenumberofcaseswefailtoattainadequatelyeventhisend.Webuilduplaboriouslysystemsofmeanswhichinafter-lifefunction_directly_intheattainmentofnoend,andasa

consequence,inmanycases,thedissolutionofthesystemisasrapidasitsacquisitionwasslow.AtthetimeoftheRenascenceandwhenfirstintroducedintothecurriculumoftheSecondarySchool,theselanguages,andespeciallyLatin,didthenpossessahighfunctionalvalue,sincetheyweretheindispensablemeanstothefurtheranceofknowledgeandtosocialintercourse.To-daytheypossesslittlefunctionalvalue,andtheirclaimforadmissionintotheschoolcurriculumischieflybasedupontheirso-calledtraininganddisciplinaryvalues.

Letusconsiderthisforamoment:inthereconstructionof,say,theLatinlanguage,thepupilisbeingtrainedinthereconstructionandre-establishmentofalanguagesystemwhosemethodsandrulesofconstructionaremuchmorecomplexandintricatethanthoseofany

livinglanguage,andwhoseformsaresodesignedastobringoutexactlyvariedshadesofmeaning.Hence,initsacquisitionthepupilreceivespracticeintheexactdiscriminationofthemeaningofwords,andintheiraccurateplacingandreconstructionwithinthesentence--theunitofexpression--inordertobringouttheexactinterpretationofthethoughtorstatementoffactintendedbythewriter.

Further,wemaytrainthepupilduringtheschoolperiodtoself-applythelanguagesysteminthefurtherinterpretationofrelativelyunknownpassages.Inshort,wecantrainhimintheprocessesoflanguageconstructionandoflanguageapplication.Moreover,inconsideringthisquestion,wemusttakeintoaccountthatduringtheschoolperiodthe

maininterestmustnecessarilybedirectedtotheacquisitionandestablishmentofthesystemitself,thatlittleattentioncanbedirectedtowardsthecontentforitsownsake,andthattheestablishmentofthesystemsothatitshallfunctionautomaticallyintheinterpretationofthecontentisastagewhichisattainedincomparativelyfewcases,andthenonlyaftermanyyearsofstudy.

Ifwethentakeintoaccount,andwemusttakeintoaccount,thefactthatthechiefvalueoftheancientlanguagesasSecondarySchoolsubjectsliesintheiruseastraininganddisciplinary

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instruments--thatinafter-lifetheyfunctiondirectlyintheattainmentofnopracticalend,andonlyindirectlyinsofarasthehabitsacquiredoftheexactweighingofthemeaningofwordsandoftheaccurateplacingofwordsarecarriedoverfortheattainmentofpracticalendsinwhichthesequalitiesofexactinterpretationandexactexpressionoflanguagearethechiefrequisites--weshallunderstandthatwhiletheymaybeofvalueinsecuringtheefficientafter-performanceofcertainsocialservices,theyplaybutasmallpartinthefurtheringofanyservicewhichrequiresanexactknowledgeofthequalitiesofthingsandanaccurateknowledgeofthelawsgoverningtheoperationsofnature.

Inthesecondplace,neglectofthefactthattheaimofeducationistoestablishsystemsofmeansfortheefficientafter-performanceofactionshasledustoneglectthefactthatintheacquisitionandestablishmentofsystemsofknowledgewerequiretolimitthescopeofouraimsandtocarryontheprocessofeducationduringaperiodsufficientlyextendedtoadmitofthestableestablishmentofthesystems.If,_e.g._,weattempttoestablishtoomanysystems,thenasaresultweoftenstablyestablishnone,withthefurtherresultthataftertheschoolperiodhaspassedtheknowledgegainedsoondisappears.If,again,weattemptintoolimitedatimetoestablishanelaborateandcomplexsystemofknowledge,as_e.g._thatoftheLatinlanguage,thenweneverreachthestagewhenitcanbeself-appliedintelligently

inthefurtheranceofanyend.Hence,ifaboyleavestheElementarySchoolandentersuponaHighSchoolcoursewiththeintentionofleavingattheageoffifteenorsixteenandenteringuponsomeemployment,thesystemsofknowledgewhichcanbeestablishedduringtheschoolperiodmustbedifferentfromthoseoftheboywhoseeducationisintendedtobeextendeduntiltwenty-one.If,then,anationalsystemofeducationistomakeadequateprovisionfortheefficientafter-performanceofthevarioussocialserviceswhichthenationrequiresatthehandsofitsadultmembers;if,inshort,itistobeorganictothelifeoftheStateasawhole,thentheremustbenotonetypeofhighereducationbutseveral;foritistoherHigherSchoolsthatanationmustprincipallylookforthepreparationofcitizenswhoinafter-lifewilldischargethemoreimportantservicesofthe

community.Thistruthhasalreadybeenrealisedinothercountries,notablyGermany.Weareonlybeginningtorealiseit,andtotakemeasurestocarryitintopractice.

Moreover,inanationalsystemofeducationweshallneednotonesystemofadvancingmeansbutseveral;notmerelyaneducationalladderthatmaycarrytheboytotheUniversity,butalsoeducationalstepsbywhichtheindividualmaymounttotheTechnicalortheCommercialortheArtCollege.

Henceouraimsinthehighereducationoftheyouth,andasaconsequencethenatureofthesystemsofknowledgewhichweshouldendeavourtoorganiseandtoestablishintheirminds,willvaryin

accordancewiththenatureoftheservicewhichinadultlifetheboyislikelytoperform.Now,theseservicesmaybedividedintofourmainclasses.

Inthefirstplace,everynationrequiresanarmyofefficientindustrialworkers.Partly,insomecases,owingtothedeclineoftheapprenticeshipsystem,partlyowingtothefactthatwhereapprenticesarestillemployednosystematicmeasuresaretakentoinstructtheyouthintheprinciplesunderlyinghisparticularart,itisbecomingincreasinglynecessarythattheschoolshouldsupplyandsupplementthe

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knowledgerequiredfortheefficientafter-performanceoftheindustrialandtechnicalarts.HenceonekindofHigherSchoolurgentlyrequiredistheTradeorTechnicalSchool.InalargenumberofcasesthisneedcouldbesuppliedbyEveningContinuationSchools.Atpresent,however,ourEveningSchoolsaretoopredominantlycommercialandliterary,anddonotmakeadequateprovisionforthetradeandtechnicalneedsofthecommunity.Further,wemustendeavourtosecurethattheboyorgirlenterstheEveningContinuationSchoolassoonafterheleavestheElementarySchoolaspossible.ForinmanycasesatthepresenttimetheboyafterleavingthePrimarySchoolloafsatnightaboutthestreets,andinashorttimethroughdisuseforgetsmuchofwhathelearnedatschool,andofteninadditionacquireshabitswhichtendtounfithimforanyfuturestrenuouseffort.When,therefore,hefeelstheneedformoreknowledgeinordertoadvanceinhistrade,theEveningSchoolhastoofrequentlytobeginbydoingoveragaintheworkoftheElementarySchoolbeforeitcanenterupontheworkofestablishingthehighersystemofknowledge.

Inthesecondplace,anationsuchasoursrequiresatrainedbodyofservantsfortheefficientcarryingonofhercommerce.PreparationforthesimplerformsofservicecouldbefurnishedbythecommercialclassesoftheEveningContinuationSchools.Forpreparationforthehigherservices,werequireatypeofschoolwhichbeginningaftertheElementarySchoolstagehasbeencompleted,carriesontheboy's

educationuntilthefifteenthorsixteenthyear,whosechiefaimshouldbetolayasoundbasisintheacquisitionandorganisationofoneortwomodernlanguagesandintheacquirementoftheartsinstrumentalforthecarryingonofcommercialtransactions.FurthermeansofadvanceinthesestudiesshouldbeprovidedbythedayoreveningCommercialCollege.

Inthethirdplace,everymodernnationrequiresatrainedbodyofscientificworkersfortheaftercarryingonofherindustrialandtechnicalarts.Henceweneedatypeofschoolwhichbymakingthephysicalsciencestheirchiefobjectofstudypreparethewayforthefuturetrainingofthestudentintheapplicationofscientificknowledgetothefurtheranceoftheindustrialandtechnicalarts.

Lastly,werequireatypeofsecondaryeducationwhichshallpreparetheboyfortheefficientdischargeofthedutieswhichtheStaterequiresatthehandsofherphysicians,hertheologians,herjurists.

Thus,sincealleducationistheacquisitionofexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient,thenatureofthesecondaryeducationgivenmustdependonthenatureoftheservicestowhichthesystemsofknowledgearethemeans.Aclassicaleducationmaybeagoodpreparationfortheafter-dischargeofthedutiesofthetheologianorthejurist;itcertainlywillnotdomuchfortheefficientdischargeofthedutiesofthemechanicalengineerandthepracticalchemist.

Butoneerrormustbeavoided.WhilstthevarioustypesofSecondarySchoolmustfashiontheircurriculaaccordingtothenatureoftheservicesforwhichtheyprepare,wemustnotforgetthattheschoolhasotherdutiestoperformthanthemerepreparationforthesocialservicesbywhichamanhereafterearnshisliving.Itmustineverycaseendeavourtoorganiseandestablishthosesystemsofmeansnecessaryfortheafter-dischargeofthecivicdutiesoflifeandinstrumentalfortherightuseofleisure.

PracticallyweneedthreetypesofHigherSchool--oneinwhichmodern

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languagesformthebasalsubjectsofthecurriculum;oneinwhichthephysicalsciencesarethemainsystemsorganisedandestablished;oneinwhichtheclassicallanguagesformthemainstapleofeducation.

CHAPTERXIII

THEAIMOFTHEUNIVERSITY

"Allpublicinstitutionsoflearningarecalledintoexistencebysocialneeds,andfirstofallbytechnicalpracticalnecessities.TheoreticalinterestsmayleadtothefoundingofprivateassociationssuchastheGreekphilosophers'schools;publicschoolsowetheirorigintothesocialneedforprofessionaltraining.ThusduringtheMiddleAgesthefirstschoolswerecalledintobeingbytheneedofprofessionaltrainingforecclesiastics,thefirstlearnedprofession,andacallingwhoseimportanceseemedtodemandsuchtraining.EssentiallythesamenecessitycalledintobeingtheUniversitiesoftheParisiantype,withtheirartisticandtheologicalfaculties.Thetwoothertypesofprofessionalschools,thelawschoolandthemedicalschool,whichwerefirstdevelopedinItaly,thenunitedwiththeformer.TheUniversities

thereforeoriginatedasaunionof'technical'schoolsforecclesiastics,jurists,andphysicians,towhichdivisionthefacultyofArtswasrelatedasageneralpreparatoryschool,untilduringthenineteenthcenturyitalsoassumedsomethingofthecharacterofaprofessionalinstitutionforthetrainingofteachersfortheSecondarySchool."[41]

ThustheearlyaimoftheUniversitywas,asitstillcontinuestobe,toprovidethetrainingfortheafter-supplyofthoseserviceswhichtheStaterequiresatthehandsofhertheologians,herjurists,andherphysicians.InGermany,andtosomeextenteveninourowncountry,theArtsfacultyoftheUniversityisceasingtoperformthefunctionofaGeneralPreparatorySchooltotheprofessionalschools,andisbecoming

anindependentschool,havingforitsaimthepreparationofteachersfortheIntermediateandSecondarySchoolsofthecountry.InScotland,indeed,itservesatthepresenttimeasaPreparatorySchoolmainlytothetheologicalfaculty.AstheSecondarySchoolsofthecountrybecomemoreefficient,betterdifferentiated,andbetterorganised,theneedofaPreparatorySchoolwithinourUniversitieswillgraduallybecomeless,andtheUniversitywillbeabletodevotemoreofherenergiestothetrainingofstudentspreparingforsomeoneorotheroftheabove-namedprofessions.WiththischangethephilosophicalstudiesoftheArtsfacultywillbecomeincreasinglyimportant,andthemethodofteachingthelinguisticandscientificstudiesreceivealargershareofattentionthantheydoatpresent.

ButtheotherandperhapsthemoreimportantfunctionoftheUniversityistocarryonandtoextendtheworkofscientificandliteraryresearchforitsownsake.ThisisthedominantnoteoftheGermanandAmericanUniversitiesofto-day.Theemphasisislaidnotsomuchupontheirfunctionasschoolsforthesupplyofcertainprofessionalservices,butuponthemasgreatnationallaboratoriesfortheextensionofknowledgeandthebettermentofpractice.InGreatBritain,andespeciallyinScotland,thisconceptionofthefunctionoftheUniversityhasnotreceivedthesameprominenceas,_e.g._,inGermany,wheretheintimateunionofscientificinvestigationandprofessional

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instructiongivestheGermanUniversitiestheirpeculiarcharacter.Indeed,inthelattercountrythetendencyatthepresenttimeisrathertoover-emphasisethefunctionoftheUniversitiesinfurtheringscientificandliteraryresearchtotheneglectoftheotherandnolessimportantaim.Twodangersmustbeavoided.Inthefirstplace,wheneverthechiefemphasisislaidupontheUniversitiesasmainlyschoolsforprofessionaltraining,theteachingtendstobecomenarrowanddogmatic.Theteacherceasingtobeaninvestigator,graduallylosestouchwiththespiritoftheage,andasaconsequencehefailsadequatelytoperformthedutyofefficientlytraininghisstudentsfortheirafterlife-work.Inthesecondplace,whentheemphasisislaidstronglyuponthefunctionoftheUniversityasaninstitutionforthecarryingonofscientificandliteraryresearchthereisthedangerofagainlapsingintotheoldfallacythatknowledgeforknowledge'sakeisanendinitself,thattheobjectofeducationistoacquireandorganisesystemsofmeanswhichfunctionintheattainmentofnopracticalend,andthattheacquisitionofknowledgeisvaluableforthecultureoftheindividualmindapartfromanysocialpurposewhichtheknowledgesubserves.

TheUniversitymustthereforeeverkeepinviewthetwoaims,ofadvancingknowledgenotforitsownsakebutinorderthatfutureactionmayberenderedmoreefficient,andofadequatelytrainingforprofessionalservices.

ButtotheolderprofessionsforwhichtheUniversitypreparestherehavebeenaddedduringthepastcenturyothervocationsorprofessionswhichneedanddemandaneducationnolessimportantandnolessthoroughthantheeducationforthewellestablishedrecognisedprofessions.Theneedforthehighertrainingofthefutureleadersofindustryandthefuturecaptainsofcommercehasbeenprovidedbytheorganisationandestablishmentoftechnologicalschoolsandcolleges.Theestablishmentandorganisationofthe"TechnicalUniversity"hasbeenmorethoroughinGermanythaninthiscountry.Therewefindestablishednewerinstitutions,ofwhichtheCharlottenburgCollegeisthebestknownandmostimportant,forthehighereducationofthoseintendedinafter-lifetoperformthemoreimportantindustrialservices

ofthecommunity.TheseinstitutionsbothintheirorganisationandinstructionareconstantlyapproximatingintypetotheolderUniversities.

TherecentlyestablishedUniversitiesintheNorthofEnglandattempt,withwhatsuccessitistooearlyyettodeclare,tocombinebothaimsoftrainingfortheolderandnewerprofessions.InScotlandthelatterworkislargelyundertakenbytheTechnicalColleges,andintheseinstitutionstheincreasingneedisfortheextensionanddevelopmentoftheDay-schoolcourse.

Oneotherquestionofsomeimportanceremainsforbriefconsideration.Inourowncountry,butmoreespeciallyinGermany,thereisatendency

atthepresenttimetoeffectacompleteseparationbetweentheworkoftheUniversityandtheworkoftheTechnicalCollege.

Thisseparationhasarisenpartlythroughtheoperationofexternalhistoricalconditions,butithasalsoarisenpartlythroughthetendencyincertainacademiccirclestolookdownupontechnicalknowledgeandabilityassomethinginferior.TheexclusivenessandthetorporoftheolderUniversitiesinmanycaseshasbeenafurthercausetendingtothecreationoftheTechnicalCollegeseparatedfromtheUniversity.

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Suchaseparation,however,isgoodneitherfortheUniversitynorfortheTechnicalCollege.Theformerincarryingouttheaimofscientificresearchandoftheextensionofknowledgerequireseverthevivifyingtouchofactualconcreteexperience,andthisitcanonlyobtainbykeepinginclosecontactwiththosewhosechieffunctionistheapplicationofscientificknowledgetopractice.Thelatterincarryingoutitsmorepracticalaimsrequires,ifitistobesavedfromthenarrownessofmerespecialisationandfromdegeneratingintoempiricalmethods,theconstantco-operationofthosewhoseoutlookisnotnarroweddowntotheimmediatepracticalend,buttakesinthesubjectasawhole,andwhosechieffunctionisthebettersystematisationofknowledge.

Hence,whiletheaimoftheUniversityisdifferentfromthatoftheTechnicalCollege,theyaresointimatelycorrelatedthatneithercanreachitsfullestdevelopmentwithouttheaidandco-operationoftheother.TheTechnicalCollegesshouldbetheprofessionalschoolsattachedtothescientificsideoftheUniversities.Moreover,thisdivisionandseparationiseconomicallywasteful,sincethegeneraltraininginsciencewhichmustprecedethepracticaltraininghastobecarriedonbothintheUniversityandintheTechnicalCollege.

InScotlandthisseparationhasnotadvancedtosuchastageasisthe

caseinGermany.InanyfurtherreorganisationofuniversityandhighereducationitisearnestlytobehopedthattheDayTechnicalCollegewillfinditsrightfulplaceasanintegralpartoftheUniversity,andthatthelattermayrealisethatherfunctionistofurtherandextendtheboundsofknowledgeinorderthatpracticeineverysphereoflifemayberenderedmoreefficient.

FOOTNOTE:

[41]Cf.Prof.Paulsen,_TheGermanUniversities_,p.111(Eng.Trans.).

CHAPTERXIV

CONCLUSION--THEPRESENTPROBLEMSINEDUCATION

Thefirstnecessityofthepresentforteachersandforallconcernedwiththeupbringingofchildrenistorealisethetruemeaningofeducation--thatitistheprocessbywhichweleadthechildtoacquireandorganiseexperiencesthatwillrenderfutureactionmoreefficient;thatbyoureducationalagenciesweseektoestablishsystemsofknowledgethatshallhereafterfunctionintheefficientperformanceofservicesofsocialvalue;andthattheonlymethodwhichreallyeducates

andcaneducateisthemethodwhichevokestheconstructiveactivityofreasonintheestablishmentofthevarioussystemsofmeans.Educationdoesnotaimatculturenoratknowledgeforitsownsake,butatfittingtheindividualforsocialservice.Ourschoolsystemtendsevertoforgetthistruth.Itisinconstantdangeroflosingsightofthisultimateaimofeducationbykeepingitsattentiontoonarrowlyfixedonsomenearerandproximateaim.Ittendsoftentolaytoomuchstressonmereexaminationsandexaminationresults.Itforgetsthattheonlytruetestofknowledgegainedliesinthepupil'sabilitytouseitintelligentlyinthefurtheranceofsomepurpose--andofsomesocial

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purpose,andthattheultimatetestofasystemofeducationisthekindofsocialindividualitturnsout.Ifoureducationalsystemturnsoutboysandgirlswhoinafter-lifebecomeefficientworkers,efficientcitizens,andmenandwomenwhohavelearnedhowtousetheirleisurerightly,thenithasfulfilleditsfunction.If,ontheotherhand,itfailsinalargenumberofcasestoattainthesethreeendsoranyoneofthem,howeveritmaysatisfytheothertestsapplied,ithasnotperformeditsfunction,isnotasystemwhichis"organic"tothewelfareoftheState.

Thesecondnecessityistorealisethetrueplaceoftheschoolastheformalagentintheeducationofthechild.Mankindbyalongandlaboriousprocesshasdiscoveredandestablishedmanysystemsofknowledge.Hehascreatedlanguageandinventedartsfortherealisationofthemanypurposesoflife.Itisthebusinessoftheschooltoimpartthisknowledgetothechild--toputhiminpossessionatleastofsomepartofthisheritagewhichhascomedowntohim,andtodosoinsuchamannerthatwhileacquiringtheexperienceheshallalsobetrainedinthemethodoffindingandestablishingsystemsofmeansforhimselfandbyhimself.If,however,welaytheemphasisonthemereimpartingofthegarneredexperiencesoftheages,thedangertobefearedislestourteachingdegenerateintomeredogmatismormerecram.If,ontheotherhand,welaytoomuchemphasisontheabilitytoself-findandself-establishsystems,weareindangeroflosingsightofthesocial

purposeofallknowledge--offorgettingthattheonlyjustificationforestablishingasystemofknowledgeisthatitmayefficientlyfunctionintheattainmentofsomepurposeoflife.

OfthemoreimportantofthepracticalproblemsofourowndayandgenerationthefirstandmostimportantistorealisethatoureducationalsystemasitexistsatpresentisnotfittedtoproduceandmaintainanefficientandsufficientsupplyofallthesocialserviceswhichthemodernStaterequiresofitsadultmembers,andthatwemustconsiderthisquestionofeducationasawholeandinallitsparts,andquiteclearofmerepartyinterests.Aboveall,wemustgetoverthefatalhabitofreformingonepartofthesystemandleavingtheotherpartsalone.ThewholeproblemofeducationfromthePrimarySchoolto

theUniversityrequiresconsiderationandorganisation.WereformnowourUniversities,thenafteraperiodourSecondarySchoolsystem,andsoweproceed,advancinghere,retrogradingthere,butofeducationasanorganicallyconnectedwholewehavenothought.

Butapartfromthewantoforganisationasawholeoureducationalsysteminitspartsisatpresentdefective.Werequiretoreconsiderthequestionofhowbesttoeducatethechildrenoftheverypoor.Atpresentwefailinalargenumberofcasestotrainupthechildrenofthisclasstobesociallyefficient.Economicallyandmorallywefailtoreachanyhighstandard.Nodoubtthehomeandsocialenvironmentisallagainsttheschoolinfluence;butbyamorerationalsystemofearlyeducation,bytakingmorecareofthephysicaldevelopmentofthechild,

and,ifneedbe,foratime,makingpublicprovisionforthefeedingofthechildrenoftheverypoor,wemightdomuchtoremovethisdefect.Aboveall,wemustendeavourtostemtheyearlyflowofboysandgirlsattheconclusionofthePrimarySchoolperiodintomerecasualandunskilledemployments,andmustendeavourbysomemeansorothertocontinuetheeducationofthechildforsomeyearsfurther.

Again,werequiretomakebetterprovisionforthetechnicaltrainingofourworkmen.ByasystemofEveningContinuationSchoolshavingastheiraimtheinstructionoftheyouthintheartsunderlyingorsubsidiaryto

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hisparticularcalling,wemightdomuchtoamendthisdefect.Moreover,theEveningContinuationSchoolsmightplayamuchmoreimportantpartthantheynowdointhesecuringofthefuturemoralandcivicefficiencyoftheindividualandofthenation.

Lastly,andthisneedisclearlyfeltbyallacquaintedwiththesubject,werequirethedevelopmentandextensionofourTechnicalColleges,inorderthatwemayadequatelytrainthosewhosedutyinafter-lifewillbetheapplicationofadvancedscientificknowledgeinthefurtheranceoftheartsandindustriesoflife.

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