Theoretical/Philosophical Theoretical/Philosophical Foundation in ELTFoundation in ELT

Muchlas YusakMuchlas YusakWidyaiswaraWidyaiswara

DEPARTEMEN PENDIDIKAN NASIONALDEPARTEMEN PENDIDIKAN NASIONALDIREKTORAT JENDERAL PENINGKATAN MUTU PENDIDIK DAN TENAGA DIREKTORAT JENDERAL PENINGKATAN MUTU PENDIDIK DAN TENAGA

KEPENDIDIKANKEPENDIDIKANLEMBANGA PENJAMIN MUTU PENDIDIKAN (LPMP) JAWA TENGAHLEMBANGA PENJAMIN MUTU PENDIDIKAN (LPMP) JAWA TENGAH

20062006

Performative

Functional

Informational

Epistemic

Levels of Literacy Wells, 1987

PERFORMATIVEPERFORMATIVE

• the code as code – an important part of becoming the code as code – an important part of becoming literateliterate

• simply a matter of acquiring:simply a matter of acquiring: – those skills that allow a written message to be those skills that allow a written message to be

decoded into speech in order to ascertain its decoded into speech in order to ascertain its meaning meaning

– those skills that allow a spoken message to be those skills that allow a spoken message to be encoded in writing, according to the encoded in writing, according to the conventions of letter formation, spelling and conventions of letter formation, spelling and punctuation.punctuation.

• ‘‘breaking the code’ of knowing the relationship breaking the code’ of knowing the relationship between spoken and written symbols.between spoken and written symbols.

FUNCTIONALFUNCTIONAL

• emphasises the uses that are made of literacy in emphasises the uses that are made of literacy in interpersonal communicationinterpersonal communication

• is able to as a member of that particular society is able to as a member of that particular society to cope with the demands of everyday life that to cope with the demands of everyday life that involve written language.involve written language.– reading a popular newspaper, reading a popular newspaper, – writing a job application, writing a job application, – following procedural instructionsfollowing procedural instructions

• the dividing line between literacy and illiteracythe dividing line between literacy and illiteracy

INFORMATIONALINFORMATIONAL

• focuses on the role that literacy plays in the focuses on the role that literacy plays in the communication of knowledge, particularly communication of knowledge, particularly discipline-based knowledgediscipline-based knowledge

• the curricular emphasis on reading and the curricular emphasis on reading and writing – but particularly readingwriting – but particularly reading

• the student’s use for accessing the the student’s use for accessing the accumulated knowledge in order to accumulated knowledge in order to construct a meaning which reciprocate the construct a meaning which reciprocate the intention of the writerintention of the writer

• ‘‘being a text participant’ (able to being a text participant’ (able to ‘comprehend’ the text)‘comprehend’ the text)

EPISTEMICEPISTEMIC

• to have available ways of acting upon and to have available ways of acting upon and transforming knowledge and experience transforming knowledge and experience that are in general unavailable to those that are in general unavailable to those who have never learned to read and writewho have never learned to read and write

• the aesthetic aspect of language as art the aesthetic aspect of language as art (literature, poetry)(literature, poetry)

REGISTER

TEXT

SITUATION

CULTURE

Who is involved?(Tenor)

GENRE(PURPOSE)

The subject matter(Field)

The channel(Mode)

Derewianka, 1995

The Context of CultureThe Context of Culture

The attitudes, values and shared The attitudes, values and shared experiences of any group of people living in experiences of any group of people living in the one culture.the one culture.

Culturally evolved expectations of ways of Culturally evolved expectations of ways of behavingbehaving

Culturally evolved ways of getting things Culturally evolved ways of getting things done or of achieving common goals done or of achieving common goals (genre)(genre)• buying and selling goodsbuying and selling goods• directing someone to the bankdirecting someone to the bank• recounting recent eventsrecounting recent events• arguing a point of viewarguing a point of view

RegisterRegister Field:Field: the social activity taking place.the social activity taking place.

(football, cooking, stamp collecting, studying (football, cooking, stamp collecting, studying history, economics)history, economics)

Tenor:Tenor: the relationship between participants.the relationship between participants.• PowerPower (equal or unequal status)(equal or unequal status)• ContactContact (how often you have contact with (how often you have contact with

the person to whom you are speaking or the person to whom you are speaking or writing)writing)

• AffectAffect (attitudes and feelings towards topics (attitudes and feelings towards topics and participants)and participants)

Register … continuedRegister … continued

Mode:Mode: the channel of linguistic the channel of linguistic communication.communication.• Distance in space and distance in time Distance in space and distance in time

between speaker/listener between speaker/listener andand reader/writer reader/writer• Distance Distance between text and the eventsbetween text and the events being being

referred to, such as referred to, such as listening to cooking listening to cooking demonstration on TV; relating the TV demonstration on TV; relating the TV demonstration to a friend; reading a recipe.demonstration to a friend; reading a recipe.

Discourse Competence

Linguistic Competen

ce

Socio-cultural

Competence

Actional Competen

ceStrategic Competence Celce-Murcia et al, 1995

Communicative Competence

DISCOURSE COMPETENCEDISCOURSE COMPETENCE

It concerns the It concerns the selection, sequencingselection, sequencing,, and and arrangementarrangement of words, structures and of words, structures and utterances to achieve a unified spoken or utterances to achieve a unified spoken or written text.written text.

The intersection of the lexicogrammar with The intersection of the lexicogrammar with the signals of the communicative intent and the signals of the communicative intent and sociocultural context to express attitudes sociocultural context to express attitudes and messages, and to create texts.and messages, and to create texts.

Sub-areas that contribute to discourse Sub-areas that contribute to discourse competence: competence: cohesion, deixis, coherence, cohesion, deixis, coherence, genre structure,genre structure, and theand the conversational conversational structurestructure inherent to the turn-taking system inherent to the turn-taking system in conversation.in conversation.

Components of Discourse Components of Discourse CompetenceCompetence

COHESIONCOHESION– Reference (anaphora, cataphora)Reference (anaphora, cataphora)– Substitution/ellipsisSubstitution/ellipsis– ConjunctionConjunction– Lexical chains (related to content schemata), Lexical chains (related to content schemata),

parallel structureparallel structure DEIXISDEIXIS

– Personal (pronouns)Personal (pronouns)– Spatial Spatial (here, there; this, that) (here, there; this, that) – Temporal Temporal (now, then; before, after)(now, then; before, after)– Textual Textual (the following chart; the example above)(the following chart; the example above)

Components of Components of Discourse CompetenceDiscourse Competence … … cont.cont.

COHERENCECOHERENCE– Organized expression and interpretation of content and Organized expression and interpretation of content and

purpose (content schemata)purpose (content schemata)– Thematization and staging (theme-rheme development)Thematization and staging (theme-rheme development)– Management of old and new informationManagement of old and new information– Propositional structures and their organizational sequencesPropositional structures and their organizational sequences

temporal, spatial, cause-effect, condition-result, etc.temporal, spatial, cause-effect, condition-result, etc.

– Temporal continuity/shift (sequence of tenses)Temporal continuity/shift (sequence of tenses) GENRE/GENERIC STRUCTUREGENRE/GENERIC STRUCTURE (formal schemata) (formal schemata)

– Narrative, interview, service encounter, research report, Narrative, interview, service encounter, research report, sermon, etc.sermon, etc.

Components of Components of Discourse CompetenceDiscourse Competence … cont.… cont.

CONVERSTAIONAL STRUCTURECONVERSTAIONAL STRUCTURE (inherent to (inherent to the turn-taking system in conversation but may the turn-taking system in conversation but may extend to a variety of oral genres)extend to a variety of oral genres)– How to perform openings & reopeningsHow to perform openings & reopenings– Topic establishment & changeTopic establishment & change– How to hold & relinquish the floorHow to hold & relinquish the floor– How to interruptHow to interrupt– How to collaborate & backchannelHow to collaborate & backchannel– How to do preclosings & closingsHow to do preclosings & closings– Adjacency pairsAdjacency pairs (related to actional competence) (related to actional competence)

First and second pair parts (knowing preferred and First and second pair parts (knowing preferred and dispreferred responses)dispreferred responses)

LINGUISTIC COMPETENCELINGUISTIC COMPETENCE

comprises the basic elements of comprises the basic elements of communication: communication: – sentence patterns and types, sentence patterns and types, – the constituent structure, the constituent structure, – the morphological inflection, the morphological inflection, and and – the lexical resources, the lexical resources, as well asas well as – the phonological the phonological andand orthographic orthographic

systemssystems needed to realize needed to realize communication as speech or writing.communication as speech or writing.

Components of Linguistic CompetenceComponents of Linguistic Competence SYNTAXSYNTAX

– Constituent/phrase structureConstituent/phrase structure– Word order (cannonical and marked)Word order (cannonical and marked)– Sentence typesSentence types

statements, negatives, questions, imperatives, exclamationsstatements, negatives, questions, imperatives, exclamations– Special constructionsSpecial constructions

existentials existentials (there + BE …)(there + BE …) clefts clefts (It’s X that/who …; What + sub. + verb + BE)(It’s X that/who …; What + sub. + verb + BE) question tags, etc.question tags, etc.

– Modifiers/intensifiersModifiers/intensifiers quantifiers, comparing and equatingquantifiers, comparing and equating

– Coordination (and, or, etc.) and correlation (both X and Y; Coordination (and, or, etc.) and correlation (both X and Y; either X or Y)either X or Y)

– Subordinations (e.g. adverbial clauses, conditionals)Subordinations (e.g. adverbial clauses, conditionals)– EmbeddingEmbedding

noun clauses, relative clauses (e.g. restrictive and non-noun clauses, relative clauses (e.g. restrictive and non-restrictive)restrictive)

reported speechreported speech

Components of Components of Linguistic CompetenceLinguistic Competence … cont.… cont.

MORPHOLOGYMORPHOLOGY– Parts of speechParts of speech– Inflections (e.g. agreement and concord)Inflections (e.g. agreement and concord)– Derivational processes (productive ones)Derivational processes (productive ones)

compounding, affixation, conversion/incorporationcompounding, affixation, conversion/incorporation LEXICONLEXICON

– WordsWords content words (Ns, Vs, ADJs)content words (Ns, Vs, ADJs) function words (pronouns, prepositions, verbal auxiliaries, function words (pronouns, prepositions, verbal auxiliaries,

etc)etc)– RoutinesRoutines

word-like fixed phrases word-like fixed phrases (e.g. of course, all of a sudden)(e.g. of course, all of a sudden) formulaic and semi-formulaic chunks formulaic and semi-formulaic chunks (e.g. how do you do?)(e.g. how do you do?)

– CollocationsCollocations V-Obj V-Obj (e.g. spend money),(e.g. spend money), Adv.Adj Adv.Adj (e.g. mutually (e.g. mutually

intelligible),intelligible), Adj.N Adj.N (e.g. tall building)(e.g. tall building)– Idioms Idioms (e.g. kick the bucket)(e.g. kick the bucket)

Components of Components of Linguistic CompetenceLinguistic Competence … cont.… cont.

PHONOLOGYPHONOLOGY (for pronunciation) (for pronunciation)– SegmentalsSegmentals

vowels, consonants, syllable types, sandhi variation vowels, consonants, syllable types, sandhi variation (changes and reductions between adjacent sounds (changes and reductions between adjacent sounds in the stream of speech)in the stream of speech)

– SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmentalsprominence, stress, intonation, rhythmprominence, stress, intonation, rhythm

ORTHOGRAPHYORTHOGRAPHY (for spelling) (for spelling)– Letters (if writing system is alphabetic)Letters (if writing system is alphabetic)– Phoneme-grapheme correspondencesPhoneme-grapheme correspondences– Rules of spellingRules of spelling– Conventions for mechanics and punctuationConventions for mechanics and punctuation

ACTIONAL COMPETENCEACTIONAL COMPETENCE

competence in conveying and competence in conveying and understanding communicative intent, understanding communicative intent, that is, matching actional intent with that is, matching actional intent with linguistic form based on the linguistic form based on the knowledge of an inventory of verbal knowledge of an inventory of verbal schemata that carry illocutionary force schemata that carry illocutionary force (speech acts and speech act sets).(speech acts and speech act sets).

Components of Actional CompetenceComponents of Actional Competence(for oral language)(for oral language)

KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE FUNCTIONSKNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS INTERPERSONAL EXCHANGEINTERPERSONAL EXCHANGE

– Greeting and leave takingGreeting and leave taking– Making introductions, identifying oneselfMaking introductions, identifying oneself– Extending, accepting and declining invitations and offersExtending, accepting and declining invitations and offers– Making and breaking agreementsMaking and breaking agreements– Complementing and congratulatingComplementing and congratulating– Reacting to interlocutor’s speechReacting to interlocutor’s speech

Showing attention, interest, surprise, sympathy, happiness, Showing attention, interest, surprise, sympathy, happiness, disbelief, disappointmentdisbelief, disappointment

INFORMATIONINFORMATION– Asking for and giving informationAsking for and giving information– Reporting (describing and narrating)Reporting (describing and narrating)– RememberingRemembering– Explaining and discussingExplaining and discussing

Components ofComponents of Actional Competence Actional Competence … … cont.cont.

OPINIONSOPINIONS– Expressing and finding out about opinions and attitudesExpressing and finding out about opinions and attitudes– Agreeing and disagreeingAgreeing and disagreeing– Approving and disapprovingApproving and disapproving– Showing satisfaction and dissatisfactionShowing satisfaction and dissatisfaction

FEELINGSFEELINGS– Expressing and finding out about feelingsExpressing and finding out about feelings

love, happiness, sadness, pleasure, anxiety, anger, love, happiness, sadness, pleasure, anxiety, anger, embarrassment, pain, relief, fearembarrassment, pain, relief, fear

annoyance, surprise, etc.annoyance, surprise, etc. SUASIONSUASION

– Suggesting, requesting and instructingSuggesting, requesting and instructing– Giving orders, advising and warningGiving orders, advising and warning– Persuading, encouraging and discouragingPersuading, encouraging and discouraging– Asking for, granting and withholding permissionAsking for, granting and withholding permission

Components ofComponents of Actional Competence Actional Competence … … cont.cont.

PROBLEMSPROBLEMS– Complaining and criticizingComplaining and criticizing– Blaming and accusingBlaming and accusing– Admitting and denyingAdmitting and denying– RegrettingRegretting– Apologizing and forgivingApologizing and forgiving

FUTURE SCENARIOSFUTURE SCENARIOS– Expressing and finding out about wishes, hopes, and Expressing and finding out about wishes, hopes, and

desiresdesires– Expressing and eliciting plans, goals, and intentionsExpressing and eliciting plans, goals, and intentions– PromisingPromising– Predicting and speculatingPredicting and speculating– Discussing possibilities and capabilities of doing Discussing possibilities and capabilities of doing

somethingsomething

KNOWLEDGE OF SPEECH ACT SETSKNOWLEDGE OF SPEECH ACT SETS

((Note: Note: for written language – for written language – rhetorical competencerhetorical competence))

SOCIOCULTURAL COMPETENCESOCIOCULTURAL COMPETENCE

the speaker’s knowledge of how to the speaker’s knowledge of how to express messages appropriately express messages appropriately within the overall social & cultural within the overall social & cultural context of communication, in context of communication, in accordance with the pragmatic factors accordance with the pragmatic factors related to variation in language use.related to variation in language use.

Components of Components of Sociocultural CompetenceSociocultural Competence

SOCIAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORSSOCIAL CONTEXTUAL FACTORS– Participant variablesParticipant variables

age, gender, office and status, social distance, relations age, gender, office and status, social distance, relations (power and affective)(power and affective)

– Situational variablesSituational variables time, place, social situationtime, place, social situation

STYLISTIC APPROPRIATENESS FACTORSSTYLISTIC APPROPRIATENESS FACTORS– Politeness conventions and strategiesPoliteness conventions and strategies– Stylistic variationStylistic variation

degrees of formalitydegrees of formality field-specific registersfield-specific registers

Components ofComponents of Sociocultural Competence Sociocultural Competence … cont.… cont.

CULTURAL FACTORSCULTURAL FACTORS– Sociocultural background knowledge of the target Sociocultural background knowledge of the target

language communitylanguage community Living conditions (way of living, living standards); social Living conditions (way of living, living standards); social

and institutional structure; social conventions and and institutional structure; social conventions and rituals; major values, beliefs, and norms; taboo topics; rituals; major values, beliefs, and norms; taboo topics; historical background; cultural aspects including historical background; cultural aspects including literature and arts literature and arts

– Awareness of major dialect or regional differencesAwareness of major dialect or regional differences– Cross-cultural awarenessCross-cultural awareness

differences; similarities; strategies for cross-cultural differences; similarities; strategies for cross-cultural communicationcommunication

Components ofComponents of Sociocultural Competence Sociocultural Competence … cont.… cont.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIVE FACTORSNON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIVE FACTORS– Kinesic factors (body language)Kinesic factors (body language)

discourse controlling behaviors (non-verbal turn-taking discourse controlling behaviors (non-verbal turn-taking signals)signals)

backchannel behaviorsbackchannel behaviors Affective markers (facial expressions), gestures, eye Affective markers (facial expressions), gestures, eye

contactcontact

– Proxemic factors (use of space)Proxemic factors (use of space)– Haptic factors (touching)Haptic factors (touching)– Paralinguistic factorsParalinguistic factors

acoustical sounds, nonvocal noisesacoustical sounds, nonvocal noises

– SilenceSilence

STRATEGIC COMPETENCESTRATEGIC COMPETENCE It is knowledge of communication strategies and how to use It is knowledge of communication strategies and how to use

them.them. Communication strategies are:Communication strategies are:

a)a) are verbal plans used by speakers to overcome problems in are verbal plans used by speakers to overcome problems in the planning and execution stages of reaching a the planning and execution stages of reaching a communicative goal; e.g. communicative goal; e.g. avoiding trouble spots or avoiding trouble spots or compensating for not knowing a vocabulary item. compensating for not knowing a vocabulary item.

(Psycholinguistic perspective)(Psycholinguistic perspective)b)b) involve appeals for help as well as other cooperative involve appeals for help as well as other cooperative

problem-solving behaviors which occur after some problem problem-solving behaviors which occur after some problem has surfaced during the course of communication, that is, has surfaced during the course of communication, that is, various types of negotiation of meaning and repair various types of negotiation of meaning and repair mechanisms. mechanisms.

(Interactional perspective)(Interactional perspective)c)c) are means of keeping the communication channel open in are means of keeping the communication channel open in

the face of communication difficulties, and playing for time the face of communication difficulties, and playing for time to think and to make (alternative) speech plans. to think and to make (alternative) speech plans. (communication continuity/maintenance perspective)(communication continuity/maintenance perspective)

Components of Strategic CompetenceComponents of Strategic Competence AVOIDANCE or REDUCTION STRATEGIESAVOIDANCE or REDUCTION STRATEGIES

– Message replacementMessage replacement– Topic avoidanceTopic avoidance– Message abandonmentMessage abandonment

ACHIEVEMENT or COMPENSATORY STRATEGIESACHIEVEMENT or COMPENSATORY STRATEGIES– Circumlocution (e.g., Circumlocution (e.g., the thing you open bottles with for the thing you open bottles with for

corkscrewcorkscrew))– Approximation (e.g., Approximation (e.g., fishfish for for carpcarp))– All-purpose words (e.g., All-purpose words (e.g., thingy, thingamajicthingy, thingamajic))– Non-linguistic means Non-linguistic means (mime, pointing, gestures, drawing (mime, pointing, gestures, drawing

pictures)pictures)– Restructuring (e.g., Restructuring (e.g., The bus was very … there were a lot of The bus was very … there were a lot of

people on itpeople on it))– Word-coinage (e.g., Word-coinage (e.g., vegetarianistvegetarianist))– Literal translation from L1Literal translation from L1– Foreignizing Foreignizing (e.g., L1 word with L2 pronunciation)(e.g., L1 word with L2 pronunciation)– Code switching to L1 or L3Code switching to L1 or L3– Retrieval (e.g. Retrieval (e.g. bro … bron … bronzebro … bron … bronze))

Components ofComponents of Strategic Competence Strategic Competence … cont.… cont.

STALLING or TIME GAINING STRATEGIESSTALLING or TIME GAINING STRATEGIES– Fillers, hesitation devices and gambitsFillers, hesitation devices and gambits (e.g., (e.g., well, actually well, actually

…, where was I …?…, where was I …?))– Self and other-repetitionSelf and other-repetition

SELF-MONITORING STRATEGIESSELF-MONITORING STRATEGIES– Self-initiated repairSelf-initiated repair (e.g., (e.g., I mean …I mean …))– Self-rephrasing (over-elaborationSelf-rephrasing (over-elaboration) ) (e.g., (e.g., This is for students This is for students

… pupils … when you’re at school …… pupils … when you’re at school …)) INTERACTIONAL STRATEGIESINTERACTIONAL STRATEGIES

– Appeals for helpAppeals for help directdirect (e.g., (e.g., What do you call … ?What do you call … ?)) indirectindirect (e.g., (e.g., I don’t know the word in English …I don’t know the word in English … or puzzled or puzzled

expressions)expressions)– Meaning negotiation strategiesMeaning negotiation strategies

Indicators of non/mis-understandingIndicators of non/mis-understanding requestsrequests

• repetition requestsrepetition requests (e.g., (e.g., Pardon? Pardon? oror Could you say that Could you say that again please?again please?))

• clarification requestsclarification requests (e.g., (e.g., What do you mean by …?What do you mean by …?))• confirmation requestsconfirmation requests (e.g., (e.g., Did you say …?Did you say …?))

Components ofComponents of Strategic Competence Strategic Competence … cont.… cont.

Expressions of non-understandingExpressions of non-understanding• Verbal Verbal (e.g., (e.g., Sorry, I’m not sure I understand …Sorry, I’m not sure I understand …))• Non-verbal Non-verbal (e.g., raised eyebrows, blank look)(e.g., raised eyebrows, blank look)

Interpretative summaryInterpretative summary (e.g., (e.g., You mean …?/So You mean …?/So what you’re saying is …?)what you’re saying is …?)

– ResponsesResponsesrepetition, rephrasing, expansion, reduction, repetition, rephrasing, expansion, reduction,

confirmation, rejection, repairconfirmation, rejection, repair– Comprehension checksComprehension checks

whether the interlocutor can follow you whether the interlocutor can follow you (e.g., (e.g., Am I Am I making sense?making sense?))

whether what you said was correct or grammatical whether what you said was correct or grammatical (e.g., (e.g., Can I/you say that?Can I/you say that?))

whether the interlocutor is listening whether the interlocutor is listening (e.g., on the (e.g., on the phone: phone: Are you still there?Are you still there?))

whether the interlocutor can hear youwhether the interlocutor can hear you

Spoken and Written Spoken and Written LanguageLanguage

Spoken and Written ContinuumSpoken and Written Continuum

Language accompanying action

Spoken languageWritten language

Most spoken Most written

Language as reflection

Most SpokenMost Spoken

• The term The term ‘most spoken’‘most spoken’ refers to refers to language interactions where language language interactions where language most closely accompanies action, and most closely accompanies action, and where there is the least physical distance where there is the least physical distance between participants.between participants.

• Examples of Examples of ‘most spoken’‘most spoken’ texts include texts include the language that accompanies the language that accompanies tennis tennis matches, basketball games, shared matches, basketball games, shared games, construction of buildings, etc.games, construction of buildings, etc.

Most WrittenMost Written

• The term The term ‘most written’‘most written’ refers to language refers to language texts where distance from action is greatest texts where distance from action is greatest and where distance between participants is and where distance between participants is maximal.maximal.

• Examples of Examples of ‘most written’‘most written’ texts include texts include abstract reflections on causes and effects of abstract reflections on causes and effects of distant events, such as distant events, such as history or economics, history or economics, theoretical arguments and where an author theoretical arguments and where an author writes for an unknown future audience.writes for an unknown future audience.