theory of architecture (general)

8/13/2019 Theory of Architecture (General)

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Architectural theoryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Architectural theory is the act of thinking,

discussing, and writing aboutarchitecture.Architecturaltheory is taught in most architecture schools and is

practiced by the world's leading architects.Some forms

that architecture theory takes are thelecture or

dialogue, the treatise or book, and the paper project

orcompetition entry. Architectural theory is often

didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or workfrom within schools. It has existed in some form

since antiquity, and as publishing became more

common, architectural theory gained an increased

richness. Books, magazines, and journals published an

unprecedented amount of works by architects and

critics in the 20th century. As a result, styles andmovements formed and dissolved much more quickly

than the relatively enduring modes in earlier history. It

is to be expected that the use of the internet will further

the discourse on architecture in the 21st century.
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History

Antiquity

There is little information or evidence about major

architectural theory in antiquity, until the 1st centuryBCE, with the work ofVitruvius. This does not mean,however, that such works did not exist. Many worksnever survived antiquity, and the burning oftheAlexandria Library shows us a very good example ofthis.

Vitruvius was a Romanwriter,architect,

andengineer active in the 1st century BCE. He was themost prominent architectural theorist in the RomanEmpire known today, having writtenDe architectura,(known today asThe Ten Books of Architecture), atreatise written ofLatin andGreek on architecture,dedicated to the emperor Augustus. Probably writtenbetween 27 and 23 BCE,[1] it is the only major

contemporary source on classical architecture to havesurvived. Divided into ten sections or "books", it coversalmost every aspect of Roman architecture, from townplanning, materials, decorations, temples, watersupplies, etc. It rigorously defines the classicalorders ofarchitecture. It also proposes the three fundamental lawsthatArchitecturemust obey, in order to be so

considered:firmitas, utilitas, venustas, translated in the17th century bySir Henry Wotton into the Englishsloganfirmness, commodity and delight(meaningstructural adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty).The rediscovery of Vitruvius' work had a profound
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theoretical tradition of the modern ages. From Alberti,good architecture is validated through the Vitruviantriad, which defines its purpose. This triplet conserved

all its validity until the 19th century. A major transitioninto the 17th century and ultimately to the phase ofEnlightenment was secured through the advancedmathematical and optical research of the celebratedarchitect and geometerGirard Desargues, with anemphasis on his studies on perspective and projectivegeometry.

[edit]EnlightenmentThe Age of the Enlightenment witnessed considerabledevelopment in architectural theory on the Europeancontinent. New archeological discoveries (such asthose of Pompeii and Herculaneum) drove new interestin Classical art and architecture. Thus the termNeoclassicism (exemplified by the writings of Prussianart critic Johann Joachim Winkelmann) arose todesignate 18th-century architecture which looked tothese new Classical precedents for inspiration inbuilding design.[5]

Major architectural theorists of the Enlightenmentinclude Julien-David Leroy, Abb Marc-Antoine Laugier,

Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Robert Adam, JamesStuart,Georg Friedrich Hegel[6] and Nicholas Revett.

[edit]19th century

A vibrant strain ofNeoclassicism, inherited fromMarc-Antoine Laugier's seminal Essai, provided the
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foundation for two generations of international activityaround the core themes of classicism,primitivismand a"return to Nature."

Reaction against the dominance ofneo-classicalarchitecturecame to the fore in the 1820s withAugustusPuginproviding a moral and theoretical basis forGothicRevival architecture, and in the 1840sJohnRuskin developed this ethos.

The American sculptorHoratio Greenough published theessayAmerican Architecturein August 1843 in whichhe rejected the imitation of old styles of buildings andoutlined the functional relationship betweenarchitecture and decoration. These theories anticipatedthe development ofFunctionalism inmodern architecture.

Towards the end of the century, there occurred ablossoming of theoretical activity. In England, Ruskin's

ideals underpinned the emergence of theArts and Craftsmovement exemplified by the writings ofWilliam Morris.This in turn formed the basis forArt Nouveauin theUK,exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh,and influenced theVienna Secession.On the Continent,the theories ofViollet-le-Duc andGottfriedSemper provided the springboard for enormous vitality

of thought dedicated to architectural innovation and therenovation of the notion of style. Semper in particulardeveloped an international following,inGermany,England,Switzerland,Austria,Bohemia,France,Italy and theUnited States. The generation born during
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buildings collectively enclose, the whole being morethan the sum of its parts. The Modern Movementrejected these thoughts andLe Corbusierenergetically

dismissed the work. Nevertheless, Sitte's work wasrevisited bypost-modern architects and theorists fromthe 1970s, especially following its republication in 1986by Rizzoli, in an edition edited by Collins and Collins(now published byDover). The book is often citedanachronistically today as a vehicle for the criticism oftheModern Movement.

Also on the topic of artistic notions with regard tourbanism wasLouis Sullivan'sThe Tall Office BuildingArtistically Consideredof 1896.[7] In this essay,Sullivan penned his famous alliterative adage "formever follows function"; a phrase that was to be lateradopted as a central tenet of Modern architecturaltheory. While later architects adopted the abbreviated

phrase "form follows function" as a polemic in serviceof functionalist doctrine, Sullivan wrote of function withregard to biological functions of the natural order.Another influential planning theorist of this timewasEbenezer Howard, who founded thegarden citymovement. This movement aimed to form communitieswith architecture in theArts and Crafts

style atLetchworth andWelwyn Garden City andpopularised the style as domestic architecture.

InVienna, the idea of a radically newmodernarchitecturehad many theorists and proponents. Anearly use of the termmodern architecturein print
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[edit]Contemporary

In contemporary architectural discourse theory hasbecome more concerned with its position within culture

generally, and thought in particular. This is whyuniversity courses on architecture theory may oftenspend just as much time discussing philosophy andcultural studies as buildings, and why advancedpostgraduate research and doctoral dissertations focuson philosophical topics in connection with architecturalhumanities. Some architectural theorists aim at

discussing philosophical themes, or engage in directdialogues with philosophers, as in the case ofPeterEisenman's interest inDerrida's thought, orChristianNorberg-Schulz's interest in the works ofHeidegger. Thishas also been the case with educators in academialikeDalibor Veselyor Alberto-Perez Gomez, and in morerecent years this philosophical orientation has been

reinforced through the research of a new generation ofyounger theorists, such as the philosopher-architectNader El-Bizrior the academic-architect AdamSharr. Similarly, we can refer to contemporaryarchitects who are interested inphenomenology,likeSteven Holl,Peter ZumthorandJuhani Pallasmaa, andwho are referred to as "phenomenologists". The notion

that theory entailed critique also stemmed from post-structuralliterary studies. This, however, pushedarchitecture towards the notion of avant-gardism for itsown sake - in many ways repeating the 19th-centuryartfor art's sakeoutlook. Since 2000 this has materialised
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in architecture through concerns with the rapid rise ofurbanism andglobalization, but also a pragmaticunderstanding that the city can no longer be a

homogeneous totality. Interests in fragmentation andarchitecture as transient objects further affected suchthinking (e.g. the concern for employing hightechnology) but also related to general concerns suchasecology,mass media, and economism.

In the past decade, there has been a resurgence ofproto-Modern "organic design" theories, but in a

supposedly more scientific setting. Several currentsand design methodologies are being developedsimultaneously, some of which reinforce each otherwhereas others work in opposition. One of these trendsisBiomimicry, which is the process of examiningnature, its models, systems, processes, and elementsto emulate or take inspiration from in order to solve

human problems.[10]Architects also design organic-looking buildings in the belief that by copyingnature,Organic architecture reaches a more attractive or(more frequently) more efficient form. Another trend isthe exploration of those computational techniques thatare influenced by algorithms relevant to biologicalprocesses and sometimes referred to asDigital

morphogenesis.Trying to utilizeComputational creativity inarchitecture,Genetic algorithms developed in computerscience are applied to evolve designs on a computer,and some of these are proposed and built as actualstructures. There exists, however, a controversy as to
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whether all such evolved designs throughDesigncomputing are truly appropriate for buildings or areinstruments of self-deception dependent on the

misapplication of biological analogies and metaphors.The new discipline ofbiophiliadeveloped byE. O.Wilson suggests the advantages of forms inspired bybiological structures, but in a more profound way thansimple mimicry. Wilson's original idea is extended byStephen R. Kellert in theBiophilia hypothesis, andapplied to architectural design in the book "Biophilic

Design". Mathematical features of biological forms suchasfractals,scale-invariance, very sophisticated notionsofsymmetry,self-similarity, and complexhierarchy areproposed as essential tools for designing architecturalforms. Trying to understand the complex interactionbetween humans and their environment gainedfromhuman-computer interaction,mobile robotics,

andartificial intelligenceleads to ideas inintelligence-based design.

All these developments, though minuscule and highlylocalised in terms of total architectural output, givesome observers (notablyHarry Francis Mallgraveof theCollege of Architecture at theIllinois Institute ofTechnology) evidence for claiming that we arewitnessing the birth of an entirely new type ofarchitectural theory bearing little resemblance to thedominant school of architectural theory based onlinguistic analysis, philosophy, post-structuralism, orcultural theory. It is too early, however, to say whether
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any of these explorations will have widespread orlasting impact.

theory of architecture (general)

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