thermal comfort investigation in three hot-humid climate theme

© 2015 M. Donny Koerniawan and Weijun Gao. This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons

Attribution (CC-BY) 3.0 license.

American Journal of Environmental Sciences

Investigations

Thermal Comfort Investigation in Three Hot-Humid Climate

Theme Parks in Jakarta

1,2M. Donny Koerniawan and

3Weijun Gao

1Department of Architecture, Institute Technology of Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia 2Department of Architecture, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu, Japan 3Department of Architecture, The University of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu, Japan

Article history

Received: 14-05-2015

Revised: 28-07-2015

Accepted: 03-08-2015

Corresponding Author:

M Donny Koerniawan

Department of Architecture, The

University of Kitakyushu

Kitakyushu, Japan

Email: [email protected]

Abstract: This research presents the results of a study about thermal

comfort measurement and evaluation in the theme parks. Physiological

Equivalent Temperature (PET) is employed as a thermal index in this

research. This research studied how climate impacts thermal comfort in the

three biggest theme parks in Jakarta: Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII),

Kebun Binatang Ragunan (KBR) and Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA).

Part of the large ongoing Urban Microclimate Space Research, this research

that aims to investigate the influence of the microclimate on how urban

public spaces are appreciated and used shown in a tropical humid climate

thermal comfort is difficult to achieve with respect to open spaces. The

results highlighted the need to expand the concept of comfort in the different

concept of theme parks. This analysis shows that the location and the

concept of theme park directly influence the formation of microclimate

affected thermal comfort inside.

Keywords: Thermal Comfort, Theme Parks, PET, Open Spaces

Introduction

Over the last years the interesting research on an

issue concerning making cities easier to live has

considerably grown, some of the most important

issues are climatology and thermal comfort. The

usefulness of open space and green area, as important

elements of the city in giving possibilities for

relaxation, physical workout and people interaction,

has increased since the awareness of city sustainable

development raised. Reported by Landsberg (1981),

that outdoor spaces quality contributes to livable

quality and generate social interaction. This

agreement is similar to the results obtained by several

authors (Eliasson, 2000; Oke, 1984; 2006).

In the tropical humid climate cities, open spaces are

used during the year and they must provide proper levels

of thermal comfort. The condition surrounds buildings,

vegetation, shading, water pond and open field influence

site environmental conditions. The thermal comfort in

open spaces is important for evaluation studies and to

guide urban and architectural projects. An extremely

important aspect is the understanding of the activities

that will take place in a given space so that the planning

promotes the user’s comfort. Mayer et al. (2008)

reported the usage of open public places in cities is more

numerous if they propose thermo physiologically

comfortable microclimate.

O’Hare (2006) stated the parameters that interfere

with thermal comfort in open space are similar to those

of inside spaces, but they are more extended and

variable. Due to that complexity, in terms of variability,

temporality and spatiality, as well as the large

possibilities of different activities of the users, the

understanding of comfort conditions in these spaces has

been the object of many former studies.

Akbari et al. (2001; 2009) reported the microclimatic

analysis of an open space must consider conditions such

as solar incidence and radiation exchanges, local

characteristics of wind, topography, vegetation and the

presence of water. Bruse (2007) has shown that beyond

these factors, the urban design, the morphology of the

buildings, the characteristics of the surfaces and the

behavior of the individuals are also factors that influence

the thermal conditions of these spaces.

Thermal comfort studies are mostly limited to the

temperate regions, the lack of thermal comfort indices

are shown in the tropical climate region. There are some

studies from the tropical climate region could be seen

M. Donny Koerniawan and Weijun Gao / American Journal of Environmental Sciences 2015, 11 (3): 133.144

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from several researchers (Chen and Ng, 2012; Honjo,

2009; Mishra and Ramgopal, 2013). Tropical climate

region cities have some challenging conditions; everyday

life during the year faces abundant sunshine, solar

radiation, high rainfall and high humidity in the tropical

climate region cities. Sunshine is about six hours per

day. Thus, thermal comfort investigation based on

climatology parameters along with human parameters is

required in the tropical hot-humid climate.

Jakarta Theme Park

A theme park is a type of protected area designated by

some authorities. Theme Parks in Jakarta are administered

by several different agencies. There are three big theme

parks in Jakarta, i.e.: (a) Taman Mini Indonesia Indah

(TMII); TMII is a recreation park that presents Indonesia

Cultures divided into buildings, which every building

represents Indonesia Cultures from East to West part of

Indonesia; (b) Ragunan Park (Kebun Binatang

Ragunan/KBR) is a zoo, second largest zoo in Indonesia

after Surabaya’s zoo; (c) Taman Impian Jaya Ancol

(TIJA) administered by a private company is a modern

theme park located at north beach of Jakarta. The position

of the three theme parks can be seen in Fig. 1.

The theme park is designed as a part of the city,

which provided for recreational use; see the location of

the theme parks in the city of Jakarta, Fig. 1. The design

of a theme park may determine who is willing to use it.

The most important elements of a theme park are

attractions as they provide the main reason or motivation

for tourists to visit. The aim of purpose-built attractions

are to attract visitors and increase visitor numbers, but

not all of the attraction in the theme park can be accessed

because of the largeness of the theme park and the

climatic condition.

Indonesia’s Climate Condition

Figure 1 shows that Indonesia is an archipelago

country consist of about 17.000 islands. Break-up by the

equator, Indonesia is the distinctly tropical country,

almost entirely tropical in climate, with the coastal plains

averaging 28°C, the inland and mountain areas averaging

26°C and the higher mountain regions, 23°C. The east

monsoon from June to September brings dry weather

while the west monsoon from December to March is

moisture laden bringing rain. The transitional period

between these two is interposed by occasional rain

showers, but even in the midst of the west monsoon

seasons, temperatures range from 21°C to 33°C except at

higher altitudes, which are much cooler. Heaviest rainfalls are recorded in December to

January, humidity (Rh) is between 60 to 100%. The main variable of Indonesia's climate is not temperature or air pressure, but rainfall. Almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area confirm that temperatures on land remain fairly constant.

Java Island is the main island where about 60% inhabitant of Indonesia lived. Java island where located at the southern part of the equator, the temperature throughout the year between 22°C to 29°C with humidity average 75%. The wet season happens from October to the end of April and the heaviest rainfall happens between Decembers to February. The dry seasons occur between May to September.

Fig. 1. Map of Indonesia, the land area of Jakarta City and the position of the three big measured theme parks in Jakarta

(TMII, TIJA and KBR)


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In general, western and northern part of Indonesia

experience the most precipitation than the southern

and eastern part of Indonesia; since the northward and

westward moving monsoon clouds are heavy with

moisture, by the time they reach them more distant

regions.

Jakarta’s Bioclimatic Characterization

Jakarta located at 6° 13' S 106° 50' E on the

northwest coast of Java; see Fig. 1; at the mouth of the

Ciliwung River of Jakarta Bay, which is an inlet of the

Java Sea. The city is a lowland area averaging 7 m above

sea level. Officially, the area of the Jakarta Special

District (Daerah Khusus Ibukota/DKI) is 662 km2 of

land area and 6,977 km2 of the sea area. Rivers flow

from the hilly southern parts of the city northwards

towards the Java Sea. The most important river is the

Ciliwung River, which divides the city into the western

and eastern principalities.

The Köppen climate classification stated: Jakarta,

located in the western-part of Indonesia in South-

Equator, is a hot and humid equatorial/tropical climate

(Af) city. According to the meteorological data in

2013-2014 (Fig. 2), Jakarta's wet season rainfall peak

is January with monthly average rainfall 400

millimeters (16 in) and reaches low-point in 70

millimeters (2.8 in) in its dry season in August. In whole

years, Jakarta has an average wind speed is 3 m sec−1

from

270° (west) with humidity (Rh) range 75-90 and average

daily temperatures range from 25°C to 36°C. Thus

Jakarta becomes hotter and the hottest month in Jakarta

is September-October and the coldest month is in

February-March.

Fig. 2. Seasonal pattern of temperature, air velocity and relative humidity in Jakarta, 2013-2014 (Source: Wunderground.com, 2014)


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Case Study

Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA)

Taman Impian Jaya Ancol (TIJA), known as Ancol

Dreamland, is an integral part of the Ancol Bay City,

a resort destination located along Jakarta's waterfront

(6°07'29.35"S, 106°50'35.45"E), see Fig. 1. Ancol

Dreamland opened in 1966 and it is currently the

largest integrated tourism area in South East Asia.

TIJA with 552 Ha is boasting an international

championship golf course, beach theme park, hotels

and other recreational facilities. The concept of TIJA

theme parks is modern theme parks with modern

amusement facilities, see Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Map of TIJA, TMII and KBR and the location (points) of measurement


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Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII)

Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII) is an area of

approximately 250 square kilometers, located in East

Jakarta, Indonesia (6°18'6.8"S, 106°53'47.2"E), see Fig.

1. TMII is a culture-based recreational theme park. It is

a representation of Indonesian culture captured in

separate pavilions, with the collections of Indonesian

architecture, clothing, dances and traditions. All are

portrayed clearly all aspects of daily life in 26

provinces of Indonesia (1997). In the middle of the

park, there is a lake with a miniature of the Indonesian

archipelago and cable cars above, see Fig. 3. A part of

the park there is a museum, Keong Emas Imax cinema,

with theatre named My Homeland Theatre (Theater

Tanah Airku) and other recreational facilities which

make TMII one of the most popular for local tourist

destinations in Jakarta. Culture, diversity in unity, is the

theme brought to the visitors by TMII.

Ragunan Zoo (Kebun Binatang Ragunan/KBR)

Ragunan Park is a zoo located in the Ragunan area,

South Jakarta, (6°18'42.45"S, 106°49'00.40"E), see

Fig. 1. The zoo area of 140 hectares was established

in 1864, also known Ragunan Zoological Park,

Ragunan Zoo consist of Zoo and Park area. There are

many attractions in KBR e.g.; the Schmutzer Primate

Centre is a special enclosed house with various

primates, including gorillas, chimpanzees and

orangutans. The 13-hectares (32-acres) part of the KBR

area are in the children's playground area include a

Children's Zoo, playground and animal rides, along

with the Sunday events of elephant ride, pony cart and

boat rides on Ragunan Lake and the orangutans

watching deck on their daily tour of the zoo grounds in

a pony cart. Restaurant facilities and picnic shelters are

available for visitors' convenience as well as stands for

purchasing souvenirs of the zoo, see Fig. 3.

Research Objective and Methodology

The Most Widely Used Thermal Indices at Present

Time

Mayer and Hoppe (1987) stated PET

(Physiological Equivalent Temperature) was used to

calculate the thermal comfort index. PET is widely

known using °C in its unit. Therefore, PET has the

advantage compared to other thermal comfort index

(Höppe, 1999; Matzarakis et al., 1999). Base on the

human energy balance of the human body PET is a

very good match to the human biometeorological

evaluation of the thermal component in any different

climates. Therefore, it is suitable to thermal

physiologically and reproducible.

The thermal comfort model prompts eight-point

scale, from very cold to very hot, combining

individual parameters (metabolism and clothing

resistance) and environmental parameters (air

temperature, air humidity, air temperature and radiant

temperature). This research used the PET index stated

by Lin and Matzarakis (2008), which suitable for

tropical region like Indonesia, see Table 1.

PET index was suitable used for those theme parks

where the level of comfort can be obtained from the

features of the urban environment that already present in

those theme parks. Matzarakis et al. (1999) stated PET

has been well-defined as a thermal index that serves the

thermal component in different climates.

Table 1. Comparison of PET Index between moderate region and (sub) tropical region

PETa moderate PETb (Sub) Grade of

region (°C) Tropical region (°C) Thermal perception physiological stress

Very Cold Extreme Cold Stress

4 14

Cold Strong Cold Stress

8 18

Cool Moderate Cold Stress

13 22

Slightly Cool Slight Cold Stress

18 26

Comfortable No Thermal Stress

23 30

Slightly Warm Slight Heat Stress

29 34

Warm Moderate Heat Stress

35 38

Hot Strong Heat Stress

41 42 Very Hot Extreme Heat Stress

Source: aMatzarakis and Mayer (1996), bLin and Matzarakis (2008)


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Rayman Model

Rayman model, developed by Matzarakis et al.

(2007), was used as tools to calculate PET. This model

enables estimate the mean radiant temperature, one of

the most difficult parameters to calculate. Gulyas et al.

(2006); and Lin et al. (2006) reported that Rayman can

predict the thermal environment. It has been used to

calculate in several of outdoor thermal comfort with

complex shading patterns. Lin et al. (2010) reported,

PET can be estimated using Ta (temperature), RH

(Relative Humidity), v (wind velocity), Tmrt (Mean

Radian Temperature), human clothing and activity in the

model. Moreover, several parameters can be added to

calculate following analyses, i.e., the Tmrt (the most

important factor during hot condition when calculating

PET) can be also estimated by global radiation (Gr),

cloud cover (Cd), fisheye photographs, albedo, the

Bowen ratio of ground surface and the Link turbidity to

include the shading effect while calculating short- and

long-wave radiation fluxes. Besides variables above, the

Sky View Factor (SVF) is another factor that affected the

value of PET (Hwang et al., 2011).

Gómez et al. (2004) reported the value of clothing

and activity were assumed to be constant to set up the

index. This model did not mean that the model has a

limitation, if they vary equally outdoors and in the

standard of the indoor situation, the PET does not

significantly affected.

Outdoor Thermal Comfort Indices in Hot-Humid

Climate

There are two basic approaches Morgan and Baskett

(1974) when we study thermal comfort: (1) Rational

approach, using the human energy balance approach to

the thermal comfort theory, (2) Empirical approach, in

this approach meteorological variables is the key role to

approach the thermal comfort. The variable of human

activity, thermal physiology, clothes and human personal

data (such as sex, weight, height, age) do not a concern.

Researchers show rational indices are widely used.

(Matzarakis et al., 2007) studied the urban thermal

comfort by calculating the mean radiant temperature and

thermal indices in simple and complex environment.

They calculated thermal comfort using Rayman model

based on data of air temperature, humidity and wind

velocity. Lin et al. (2012; 2013) studied thermal comfort

in open spaces based on psychological factors in the

perception of individual comfort.

Outdoor thermal comfort researches in hot-humid

tropical country are still incipient. Lin and Matzarakis

(2008) tried to find and identified hot-humid tropical

region index scale by using research in outdoor thermal

comfort in Taiwan. Their studies focused on modifying

the thermal comfort indices from moderate climates of

tropical and subtropical climate. The tolerance of higher

neutral temperature of Taiwans resident related to PET

values between 26 and 30°C compared to

western/middle Europe scale between 19 and 23°C. The

comparison scale indices can be seen in Table 1.

Continue by Makeremi et al. (2012), they researched

outdoor thermal comfort in Malaysia by comparing the

shaded and non shaded area in the university in

Malaysia. They used comfort index of tropical climate

from Lin and Matzarakis (2008). Makeremi et al. (2012)

showed the result that PET values in selected shaded

outdoor spaces were higher than the comfort range

defined for tropical climate (PET <30°C). The normal

condition that can be accepted, in a range of comfortable

(PET <34°C) occurred during the early hours of

measurement (9-10 am) and late afternoon (4-5 pm).

Shading that obtained by the vegetation and surrounding

the buildings is the area that had the longer thermal

comfort acceptable period.

Research Objectives

The following condition of this research had to be

taken into account: The locations of the research;

human-biometeorology; the factors of specific condition

in the theme parks that affecting and distorting some

meteorological component; the characteristic of each

index regarding to their model and component.

The methodology of this research was to precisely

measure the meteorology’s variables, which became

input data for the Rayman model, once the suitable

locations had been chosen for this research and the

different situation described for each of the objectives.

This research objective is: Establishing the comfort level

of theme parks in different location and situation in hot-

humid climate theme parks.

Field Measurement

A sunny day without rain is an essential day to

measure in an outdoor environment. The meteorological

variables (temperature, humidity and wind velocity) are

measured based on the climate condition in Jakarta, see

Fig. 2. The range of the hottest month in the dry season

and the coldest month in the rainy season were the best

choice to carry out the meteorological parameters

measurement. According to the permission and

suggestion from the three Theme Parks Management,

they chose March and September that were able to carry

out the field measurement in the parks. Those month are

chosen not only the permission, but also the best month

of local visitors; most of them are people from Jakarta

who want to enjoy and relax; attends to the theme parks.

Thus, in this research, March and September were

chosen to be the best condition. March is the month that

still in the range of coldest month in Jakarta; the coldest

month range in Jakarta is January-February-March (Fig.


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2). September is the month that still in the range of the

hottest month in Jakarta; the hottest month range in

Jakarta is September-October-November (Fig. 2).

Data was collected on two consecutive years (2013-

2014). The measurements were made on 21 March and

19 September, during 10 h, between 7.00 AM to 17.00,

regarding theme parks were opened. The Locations of

measurement are shown in Fig. 2.

The following equipment: LM 8000, the surface

temperature measuring device and EM 528A are used

during field measurements. All sensors installed in 1.5 m

above the ground and under factory calibrated. All Data

results were made every 10 min.

Sky View Factor

Shading influences the thermal environment and

human thermal comfort in the outdoor environment,

thus, affecting the usage of outdoor spaces. Lin et al.

(2012) made study using the average-Sky View Factor

(SVFa) than the traditional sky view factor from

fisheye photographs (SVFsp) in the park. The result

showed that the lower SVFa, the higher the parks

utilization. They stated that the importance of the

shading design in the parks located in the tropical or

subtropical climates. Paramita and Fukuda (2014)

stated that SVF and Tmrt have significant correlation.

Thus, urban form is related to the heat intensity

exposure in hot-humid climate region.

Lin et al. (2010) had the research results that the area

with high SVF, unshaded area, have a greater frequency

of uncomfortable during the summer compared to the

shaded area. Kántor and Unger (2011) stated in their

study that people tend to move to shaded areas when the

thermal condition is warm or hot. Regarding shading

levels and area, this study quantified the shade area using

the SVF values evaluated from fisheye photographs.

In this research SVF was measured using images

taken with one set of photographic equipment: A

conventional camera (Nikon D80) with a fisheye

hemispheric lens (Tokina 10 mm f4). The image from

the camera was transferred to the Sky View Factor

Calculator. Brown et al. (2001) stated that Sky View

Factor Calculator is able to calculate the Sky View

Factor (SVF) value on hemispherical photographs using

a Graphical User Interface (GUI).

Lindberg and Holmer (2006) reported in Manual

Book of Sky View Factor Calculator version 1.1, the

method of calculation in Sky View Factor Calculator

based on two methods, first is the annulus method as

presented in Johnson and Watson (1984) and the second

is pixel-based method developed by Holmer et al.

(2001). Based on two methods the results of SVF value

were similar in this measurement, see Fig. 5.

The six point measurement was conducted in each

park and divided into 3 groups with respect to their

different shaded area conditions based on Sky View

Factor (SVF) value. The first group is the dense greenery

(DG, SVF<40%), the second group is Light greenery

(LG, 40%<SVF<70%) and the third group is sparse

dense greenery (SG, 70%<SVF<100%), see Fig. 5.

Results and Discussion

The Effect of Macroclimate

Figure 6 shows, during the days of measurement in

March and September, Jakarta’s thermal comfort was

affected by macroclimate condition which shown

uncomfortable. The data of Jakarta’s macroclimate were

accepted from two big weather stations from 2012-2014,

Soekarno-Hatta International Airport weather station and

Halim Perdana Kusuma Airpot.

Average PET values in Jakarta were above 30°C

starts from 11 AM and reached 45°C at 3 PM, although

in the morning at 07.00 was still in a comfortable

condition, 22°C PET, these conditions change quickly

became uncomfortable in the afternoon, see Fig. 6.

Every district in Jakarta is affected by Macroclimate

condition of Jakarta. Macroclimate on 19 September and

21 March, shows that the average temperature was at

28°C varied from 24°C to 32°C. The morning

temperature started at 24°C where the temperature is the

influence of the previous day with 95% humidity and

wind speed 0 m sec−1

.

Fig. 4. The color of comfortable scale based on Lin and

Matzarakis (2008) scale


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The pattern of PET value between Jakarta and the

theme parks are similar. The macroclimate condition

of Jakarta moreover affect the microclimate condition

in the theme parks as seen in Fig. 5. The three big

theme parks did not achieve the expected thermal

comfort during the measurement, average comfort

condition only occurs 2 h in the morning at 7 AM to 9

AM, after 9 AM the areas grew up to be hotter, start

from 29°C and reached the peak uncomfortable

condition at 2 PM, 45°C.

As we had foreseen in Fig. 7, the PET values in

September are higher than in March. The reason of

this is that in September the temperature increased

and the rainfall season started in Jakarta, humidity

increased respectively. PET values in the three big

parks illustrates that thermal comfort tends to increase

along with the hot temperatures, high humidity and

low wind velocity in Jakarta. In March, the condition

is more comfortable and the condition just little bit

more comfort than in September.

From the Fig. 7 shows PET inside the parks still

lower than the PET condition in Jakarta, Fig. 4 was taken

from the Soekarna-Hatta Airport Weather Station and

Halim Perdana Kusuma Airport Weather Station during

the 2 years from 2012-2014. In whole years thermal

comfort condition is not much different in Jakarta.

Fig. 5. Sky view factor values based on Sky View Factor Calculator by Lindberg and Holmer (2006)

Fig. 6. Average Ta, Tmrt and PET of Jakarta calculated by Rayman software based on weather data 2012-2014 show the results at

the day of field measurement (March 20-25th and September 20-25th)


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Fig. 7. PET values, average Tmrt and Ta of measurement result of three big theme parks (TIJA, TMII, KBR) at March 21st and

September 19th from 7 AM to 5 PM

Correlation SVF and Thermal Comfort

The field measurement indicated that the average

air temperature between 7 AM and 5 PM was above

the required comfort level of air temperatures,

whereas the neutral air temperature needs to be

maintained at 28.2°C to reach the thermal comfort

(Humphreys and Nicol, 2001).

Average Relative Humidity was about 90% at 7 AM,

65% at 2 PM and went up to 80% in 5 PM. At 7 AM

averages Rh almost same, Rh difference between SG and

DG are about 20% at 3 PM. The results emphasized the

highest relative humidity in DG area. The air velocity

fluctuated from 1 to 6 m sec−1

. DG area air velocity can

reach 6 m sec−1

at 4 PM, in the DG average air velocity

from 7 AM to 3 PM is stable about 3 m sec−1

, in SG; air

velocity at 7 AM is lowest 0.5 m s−1

.

The PET values of Less Greenery (LG) are higher

than Dense Greenery (DG). The reason of this is that in

LG there is greater capacity of heat accumulation, in the

surface and the ambient, because of the openness area. In

this case LG areas have a benefit of the wind velocity at

least can refresh the area from the heat. Otherwise DG

areas are closer to the wind, thus the wind velocity is

slower, but giving rise to a lower radiation value.

According to overall measurement in the selected

areas, the acceptable range of thermal comfort less than

34°C) occurred at 7-10 AM (early morning) and 3-5 pm

(late afternoon). However, in the shaded area

(SVF<34%), thermal comfort is acceptable one hour

longer from 7-11 am. The study also found that thermal

comfort at 11 am-4 pm was the situation at the lowest

level of thermal comfort due to the high amount of

exposure of solar radiation.

Dense Greenery (DG) mean the SVF<40% shows the

radiation exposure in that area, under the vegetation, is

very small compared to the LG and SG. Although there

was a considerable difference in thermal comfort

condition, the thermal comfort index (PET) values show

Tmrt (solar radiation) is the key role that affected the

thermal comfort in the parks than Ta (air temperature).

The result shows that the temperature alone is not much

appropriate for evaluation of thermal comfort in an

outdoor environment. These results match the findings of

previous studies (Makaremi et al., 2012; Mayer et al.,

2008; Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2007).


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Wind velocity is affected in the area where the

SVF<40%, DG. Vegetation hinders the wind velocity

that goes to the area. Wind velocity in the DG is slower

than in the area in LG and SG. Nevertheless, wind

velocity is not much affected the thermal comfort

values (PET). The measurement shows that the

variation of thermal comfort index (PET) was mostly

affected by Tmrt rather than Ta, or wind velocity. It

should be noted, although, wind velocity can decrease

the values of PET, but Tmrt is the key role when

calculating thermal indices in hot-humid climates.

This study also illustrates that to protect the area

from the exposure of solar radiation plant the

vegetation and the use of tree have to be taken into

account in an outdoor environment. Shaded area

decreases the PET values by reducing the solar

radiation. Accordingly, the areas protected by the shade

under the vegetation and surrounding buildings tend to

be more comfortable than the other due to their lower

exposure to direct solar radiation. Thus, the shaded

areas are important in the outdoor environment to

increase the thermal comfort and lengthen the

acceptance of the thermal condition during the day.

The wide range of microclimatic conditions in TIJA,

TMII and KBR strengthens the point that a purely

physiological approach is inadequate to characterize

thermal comfort conditions outdoors, whereas the issue

of adaptation becomes increasingly important.

Conclusion

This study focuses on the meteorological

measurement of three theme parks in Jakarta and

discussed the thermal comfort condition in the

outdoor environment in the context of hot-humid

climates. The measurement investigates the outdoor

thermal comfort in term of environmental condition

and human comfort level.

The comparison of all areas shows that the best

thermal comfort conditions occur in Dense Greenery

(DG, SVF<40%). This research has proven that

comfort is mainly affected by exposure of solar

radiation. Shaded areas in parks during measurements

provided comfort slightly better than areas that are not

shaded. Vegetation provides shadowing can be

considered not only as an element of design, but also

provides thermal comfort during the day.

By researching these case studies, it has been

concluded that PET index mostly suitable to measure the

thermal comfort, because it can clearly depict the

variation of meteorological and human-

biometeorological parameters in different image of

thermal comfort in hot-humid tropical parks. The PET

values in this study showed that the acceptance thermal

comfort, PET<34°C, occurred in the early morning (7-10

am/3 h) and late afternoon (3-5 PM/2 h). Meanwhile, a

longer thermal comfort-acceptance period (4-5 h)

occurred in the shaded areas under the vegetation and

surrounding buildings, due to their lower solar radiation.

The research is valuable regarding to the information

of human thermal comfort in an outdoor environment of

hot-humid climates. In conclusion, this result is very

important for architects, urban planners and landscape

designers, who concerned to find better design,

especially to theme parks for more livable and generally

for open space in the cities.

Acknowledgement

To all the peoples which took part in the field work

and helped in the organization of the collected data.

Thanks to Professor Weijun Gao from the Faculty of

Environmental Engineering, University of Kitakyushu

for the discussions that preceded this field work.

Finally, we would like to also thank the Faculty of

Environmental Engineering, University of

Kitakyushu, Japan; School of Architecture, Planning

and Policy Development, Institute Technology of

Bandung, Indonesia; and DIKTI (Directorate General

of Higher Education) Indonesia for financially

supporting this research work.

Author’s Contributions

M. Donny Koerniawan, as the first author,

designed and conducted the research, including data

collectors recruitment, data planning development,

data collection and data analysis. M. Donny

Koerniawan prepared the draft of the manuscript with

intellectual input from Prof. Dr. Weijun Gao, as a

supervisor of the first author at The University of

Kitakyusu, Japan. The data analyzing input were

supported from Prof. Dr. Weijun Gao. The Directorate

General of Higher Education of Indonesia provided

funding of this research during the doctoral program

at The University of Kitakyushu, Japan. All the

authors approved the final manuscript.

Ethics

As a researcher and now, a doctoral candidate in the

University of Kitakyushu, Japan, I am aware in a

position of responsibility and trust. Therefore, when I

conducted this research, I applied the highest ethical

standard, maintained the highest integrity at all times

regarding data gathering and reported the true

information through analysis. I avoid plagiarism and

fully acknowledge the works of others to which I

referred in my paper.


DOI: 10.3844/ajessp.2015.133.144

143

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