Flight Testing: Measurements & Design

Tianshu Liu

Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering

Western Michigan University

Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA

• Flight testing is the process of gathering information (or data)

which will accurately describe the capabilities of a particular

type of airplane, and which can be used to accurately predict

and optimize the use of all airplanes of that same type

in future missions.

What is Flight Testing?

• Flight testing of research airplanes constitutes the gathering of

data in regions of the flight environment where little past

information has been obtained. This information is then used to

design future airplanes that can operate safely

in this new environment.

• Flight testing is at the end of the aircraft design process and

is a unique part of it.

Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?

This guy, human flapper??

Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?

Otto Lilienthal??

Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?

Wright Brothers??

Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?

They are the true masters!

Further Deduction: Archaeopteryx

W= 2.5 N

Muscle Power < 50% Deduction:

Sustainable Flapping Flight

Take-off from ground???

Further Deduction: Pterosauers

W =126-292 N

Deduction:

Sustainable Flapping Flight Take-off from ground???

Flight Testing in Aeronautical Education

Although playing an important role in the design of aircraft,

flight testing is not included in traditional curriculum of

aeronautical engineering education, and few universities offer

such a course.

Current Status:

Difficulties in Offering the Flight Testing Class:

It is partially due to the high cost for maintaining and operating

a fully instrumented experimental aircraft for flight testing.

Flight Testing at Western Michigan University

AAE 459: “Flight Test Engineering and Design” (Note: it was originally developed by Prof. Arthur Hoadley

during the collaborations with NASA Dryden Flight Center)

Textbook: “Flight Testing of Fixed Wing Aircraft”

by R. D. Kimberlin, AIAA, 2000

Reference: “Introduction to Flight Test Engineering”

by D. T. Ward, Elsevier, 1993

Experimental Aircraft Cessna R182

(Applied Aerodynamics Laboratory)

Registration number: N1817R, Serial number: R18200571

Engine: Lycoming O-540-J3C5D, Serial number: L-20434-40A

Propeller: McCAULEY B2D34C214, Serial number: 785587

Engine: LYC O-540-J3C5D

75% Cruise: 156 kts

Wingspan: 35 ft

Horsepower: 235

Stall: 50 kts

Length: 28.33 ft

Rec’md TBO: 200 hrs

Range: 520 nm

Height: 8.75 ft

Basic Parameters of Cessna R182

Std Fuel: 61 gal

Ser Ceiling: 14,300 ft

Empty Wt: 1782 lbs

Max Fuel: 80 gal

Takeoff: 820 ft

Gross Wt: 3100 lbs

Landing: 600 ft

AR: 7.5

Wing Area: 173.6 ft2

Cockpit of Cessna R182

Airdata Boom

Onboard Instrument

Onboard Instrument

Onboard Instrument

Onboard Power Unit

Flight Testing Data Output

“Houston, we have a problem!” --- Apollo 13

Problem:

The Cessna 182 was grounded in 2004 since its engine

has not been overhauled for eight years.

Cost for engine overhaul: $25,000 (+)

Annual check & insurance: $8,000 (+)

Student’s lab fee: $5,000 (-)

Sad Conclusion:

Flight testing class using the Cessna 182 is not

economically sustainable without support from WMU.

Proposed Alternative:

Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) Flight Testing Platform

Strong Student Reactions:

“I believe that no UAV should be necessary. I spend so much money

to come to Western to get what they call a quality, well rounded

education. One of the most exciting parts about the program was

getting to go up in an aircraft as I would in working in the real world.

What a great preparation for what would be to come, performing real

experiments. If the Cessna does not get up and working again for

the program it appears to me that the program is truly going downhill

like everyone in my class is afraid of.” --- STUDENT #1

“The 459 class and the flight testing program is what helps distinguish

WMU’s Aero program over other universities. I believe that flying

the 182 is a far better learning experience then the UAV.”

--- STUDENT #2

Solution: Cirrus SR20 Provided by College of Aviation

College of Aviation of WMU

The College of Aviation offers the only comprehensive aviation program at a

public university in Michigan, and with over 900 undergraduate students, is

one of the largest (top 3) aviation programs in the nation. Backed by over 60

years of history and our strong industry reputation, the College of Aviation is

fast becoming a powerful force in the future of aviation training.

The College of Aviation's vision is to establish and maintain state-of-the-art,

world-class professional aviation programs that are among the best in the

world. We are examining the very ways we teach and pioneering revolutionary

new methods of instruction designed to improve a pilot's ability to fly and to

work efficiently with a crew. The College of Aviation produces graduates who

think critically, communicate effectively, and participate meaningfully and

ethically in the dynamic field of aviation.

Cirrus Specifications

• Max Gross Wt: 3,000 lbs

• Empty Weight: 2,070 lbs

• Useful Load: 930 lbs

• Fuel Capacity: 56 gal

• Fixed Tricycle Gear

• Maximum Operating Altitude: 17,500 Feet

• Maximum Range: 882 nm

Performance

• Takeoff Distance: 1,341 ft

• Takeoff Distance (50' object): 2,064 ft

• Landing Ground Roll: 1,014 ft

• Landing Over 50' Object: 2,040 ft

• Climb Rate: 900 ft/min

• Stall Speed (w/flaps): 56 KIAS

• Cruise speed: 156 KTAS – @8,000 feet and 75% power

• 55% Power @(10,000 Ft): 5.4 hr, 768 nm

• Cruise Range (w/reserve): 1,341 ft

Geometry

• Length: 26”

• Height: 8’6”

• Wingspan: 35’7”

• Wing Area: 135 sq ft

• Cabin Length: 130”

• Cabin Width: 49”

• Cabin Height 50”

Engine: Continental IO-360-ES

• Engine HP: 200 BHP @2700 rpm

• Propeller: 76” two blade constant speed

• Fuel Burn: 10.5 gallons per hour

All Glass Cockpit

• The Avidyne FlightMax EX5000C

• FlightMax Entegra Primary Flight Display (PFD)

• Main: GARMIN GNS 430 GPS/nav/comm

• Backup: GARMIN GNC 250XL GPS/comm

Avidyne Engine Data Log; DAU Software ID: 311

########

TIME LAT LON E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 OILT OILP RPM

15:50:42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -67 0 0

15:50:48 0 0 1000 1021 999 1017 1008 1045 205 212 210 209 203 200 137 47 1160

15:50:54 0 0 1006 1035 1007 1026 1015 1053 207 213 210 210 204 200 138 47 1160

15:50:54 0 0 1013 1039 1012 1030 1022 1062 208 215 211 211 205 202 139 47 1160

15:51:00 0 0 1020 1046 1019 1038 1028 1069 209 216 211 212 206 203 140 47 1160

15:51:06 0 0 1026 1051 1023 1041 1032 1074 210 217 212 212 207 204 141 47 1160

15:51:12 0 0 1032 1052 1028 1044 1036 1079 212 218 212 213 208 205 142 47 1160

15:51:18 0 0 1035 1058 1031 1047 1040 1081 213 220 213 214 210 206 143 47 1160

15:51:24 0 0 1032 1054 1021 1034 1027 1058 214 221 213 215 211 207 143 44 940

15:51:30 0 0 990 1013 987 998 991 979 215 222 213 216 211 208 144 41 750

15:51:36 46.839 -92.2009 968 991 971 984 976 935 215 222 213 217 211 208 144 42 760

15:51:42 46.839 -92.2009 954 982 968 979 970 936 216 223 213 217 212 208 145 42 760

15:51:48 46.839 -92.2009 949 979 967 974 968 963 217 224 213 217 212 209 146 41 760

15:51:54 46.839 -92.2009 948 976 964 973 965 969 217 224 213 218 212 209 146 41 760

15:52:00 46.839 -92.2009 949 973 960 968 962 963 218 225 214 219 212 209 146 41 760

15:52:06 46.839 -92.2009 946 973 958 968 965 955 219 226 214 219 213 210 147 41 760

15:52:12 46.839 -92.2009 946 971 957 968 966 961 219 226 214 219 213 210 147 41 760

15:52:18 46.839 -92.2009 944 970 960 965 968 965 220 227 214 220 213 210 147 41 760

15:52:30 46.839 -92.2009 944 968 958 965 970 961 221 227 214 220 214 210 148 41 760

15:52:36 46.839 -92.2009 941 966 958 963 965 936 221 228 215 221 214 210 148 41 780

15:52:42 46.839 -92.2009 940 966 958 967 965 974 222 229 215 221 214 210 148 42 790

OAT MAP FF USED AMP1 AMP2 AMPB MBUS EBUS

-58 0 0 0 0 0 -99 0 0

-58 13.3 3.2 0 33 0 12 27.8 27

-58 13.3 3.2 0 32 0 11 27.8 27

-58 13.3 3.1 0 32 0 11 27.8 27

-58 13.3 3.1 0 31 0 10 27.8 27

-58 13.3 3.2 0 31 0 10 27.9 27

-58 13.3 3.2 0 30 0 10 27.9 27

-58 13.3 3.2 0 29 0 9 27.9 27

-58 12.6 2.4 0 25 0 5 27.4 26.4

-58 14.1 1.7 0 12 0 -5 26 25.4

-58 13.8 1.7 0 13 0 -4 25.8 25.1

-58 13.7 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.7 25.1

-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.7 25

-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.6 24.9

-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.6 24.9

-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -3 25.6 24.9

-58 13.7 1.7 0 15 0 -3 25.6 24.9

-58 13.7 1.7 0.1 14 0 -3 25.5 24.8

-58 13.8 1.7 0.1 14 0 -3 25.5 24.8

-58 13.6 1.7 0.1 15 0 -3 25.5 24.9

-58 13.4 1.8 0.1 17 0 -1 25.6 24.9

Avidyne Engine Data Log File

Demonstration of the EMAX Analysis Program

• It can be mounted almost anywhere.

Appareo Systems: Portable Flight Data Recorder (Appareo Systems, www.Appareo.com)

• It improves upon GPS technology

by utilizing MEMS gyroscopes,

accelerometers, barometric pressure,

and a solid state compass.

• Resting on the dash or suctions to a

window, it is independent on

anything on aircraft.

The 2½" GAU™ (Geospatial Awareness Unit) is

compact, portable, and easy to take from plane

to plane.

The precision data captured by the GAU:

Roll

Pitch

Yaw

Orientation

G-Forces

Magnetic Heading

Altitude

GPS with WAAS

Synthetic Vision Visualization

Synthetic Vision Visualization:

Cirrus in Flight (1)

Synthetic Vision Visualization:

Cirrus in Flight (2)

GAU 1000 Flight Recorder

Sensors Main Features:

Fixed and removable memory allows for quick memory swapping and memory upgrades

Yaw, pitch and roll gyros capture high rate turns, spins, and abrupt changes in heading

Yaw, pitch and roll accelerometers capture the true g-forces and your angle of attack

Solid state magnetic compass gives the most accurate heading possible

Altimeter supplemented with a barometric pressure sensor

Integrated Rechargeable Battery

GPS with WAAS Updated 4 times per second

Internal Components

WAAS – Wide Area Augmentation System

WAAS enabled GPS receiver gives the best vertical precision available in a portable GPS

Integrated battery and charging system optimizes the life of your battery, so you don’t have to replace batteries as often.

Comparisons between GAU 1000 and GAU 500

Degree of mounting flexibility

Types of Data Recorders

GAU 1000

GAU 500 Used by GA, sport, glider, and student/flight instructor pilots

Used by aerobatics, air races, competition, & instrument flight instruction

The range of sophisticated sensors

Range of motion that can be accurately replayed

Shortcomings of Cirrus+GAU

• Without a boom, true airspeed, AOA and yaw angle

cannot directly measured since the Cirrus is not

an experimental aircraft.

• Calibrated airspeed data are manually recorded

since digital flight data cannot be downloaded from

the current Avidyne system. Future versions allow

extraction of flight data.

Flight Testing Methods

and

Examples

Standard Atmosphere and

Atmospheric Parameters

256.5

SLp/)h(p

Pressure ratio:

Density ratio:

256.4

SL/)h(

Temperature ratio:

)1000/h(0226.01T/)h(T SL

For the height h < 11 km,

For the height h > 11 km,

Standard Atmosphere and

Atmospheric Parameters

c

c1

c hhTR

gexp

Pressure ratio:

Density ratio:

c/

where 225.0c 752.0c K66.216Tc

K/s/m97.286R 22

1

Normalized Atmospheric Parameters as a

Function of Altitude

Standard Atmospheric Properties

)1(1025.44h 19.03

p

Pressure altitude:

Density altitude:

)1(1025.44h 22.03

Definitions of Altitudes

The true altitude is of interest to the pilot for purposes of terrain

clearance. Density or pressure altitude is of much more significance

for performance determination. The true altitude which corresponds to

a given density altitude may vary considerably from day to day.

However, aircraft performance is always the same at the same

density altitude.

Level Flight Performance

VS

KW2VSC

2

1P

23

0Dr

The power required for level flight:

1)eAR(K where

The equivalent airspeed:

VVe

To absorb the air density effect, the density ratio is

included in the equivalent airspeed.

“Oswald efficiency”

Power Required as a Function of Velocity

2/1

ST

e

)W/W(

VVIW

VIW and PIW

The standard airspeed:

The generalized power:

2/3

ST

r

)W/W(

PPIW

TW SW

the weights in the testing condition and the standard weight,

respectively.

The standard weight is typically the maximum take-off (T-O)

weight at the sea level.

where & are

Relation between VIW and PIW

)VIW(S

KW2)VIW(SC

2

1PIW

SL

2

S3

SL0D

With the generalized variables,

the power-speed relation is

The clear advantage is that the PIW-VIW relation does not

explicitly depend on the air density and testing weight. Thus, data

of the power and speed obtained at different altitudes and weights

collapses into a single curve.

A linear relation is

b)VIW(a)VIW)(PIW( 4

2

SL

S2

SL0D

ST )VIW(S

KW2)VIW(SC

W2

1

W

D

Similarly, with the generalized variables,

the lift-drag ratio is

S

WKW2)VIW(SC

W2

W)VIW(T

SL

TS4

SL0D

S

T2

Relation between Drag/Thrust and VIW

A convenient form for linear regression:

to determine the parasite drag coefficient and the Oswald

efficiency factor.

Determination of Engine Power in Flight

(From Teledyne)

Determination of Engine Power in Flight

(From Teledyne)

Determination of Engine Power in Flight

(From Teledyne)

Sample Projects: VIW-PIW Method

A typical project on the Cessna R182 is to

determine the parasite drag coefficient

and Oswald efficiency factor. The

quantities acquired during flight were the

dynamical pressure, thrust from the load

cell, angle of attack, pitch angle, and

ground speed. The actual data sampling

began once the aircraft had reached level

flight at 8000 ft. The pilot adjusted the

throttle to achieve calibrated airspeed of

130 kts, and then decreased the speed by

10 kts until the lowest speed 50 kts was

reached. The total time for the experiment

was about 60 minutes.

Thrust vs. VIW (Cessna 182R)

123.0C 0D

21.0e

Problem:

inaccurate

measurements of

the thrust by

using an

unproven load

cell

PIW vs. VIW (Cirrus SR-20)

023.0C 0D

62.0e

Lift and Drag Coefficients in Level Flight (Cessna 182R)

Application of Power-Velocity Relation to Bird Flight

(From Tobalske et al. Nature,

421/23, Jan. 2003, p. 363)

Airspeed Calibration

Pitot-static system

11p

q

)1(

p2V

)1/(

c

SL

Equivalent airspeed

Calibrated airspeed

11p

q

)1(

p2V

)1/(

SL

c

SL

SLcal

Airspeed Calibration

One of the major error sources in pitot-static systems is the

position error along with the instrument error and pressure lag

error. The position error is related to (1) the position of the

static source in the pressure field of the aircraft and (2) the

shape of the total pressure head or the flow direction relative

to it.

Errors:

To correct these errors, a pitot-static system has to

be calibrated.

Needs:

In-Flight Calibration Methods: speed course method,

tower flyby method,

pace method, radar method,

GPS method.

GPS-Based Airspeed Calibration

Relationship between the GPS velocity vectors, wind

velocity vector and true airspeed

22

wy

2

wx )TAS()Vy()Vx(

Three Unknowns: True Airspeed (TAS)

Wind Velocity

)V,V( wywxw V

Flight path from GPS Data

Track 1:

Groud speed: 150 kts

Track 2:

Groud speed: 157 kts

Track 3:

Groud speed: 98 kts

Tracks 1, 2, 3:

Pressure altitude: 3713 ft

Calibrated airspeed vs. indicated airspeed (Cessna 182R)

Airspeed calibration was done in a

special case where the Cessna

R182 flew directly in headwind

and downwind legs. In this case,

the true airspeed equals to the

averaged ground speeds given by

GPS for the two legs at

approximately 7000 ft. A

proportional relation is found at

higher speeds. A deviation from

the linearity is observed at lower

speeds due to the effect of higher

angles of attack on the position

error. The airdata boom provided

the true airspeed and direction.

Climb Performance

The thrust horsepower in excess (FHP):

Vdt

dV

g

W

dt

dHW)DT(VFHPinexcess

The rate of climb (ROC) :

)dH/dV)(g/V(1

V]W/)DT[(

dt

dHROC

(From NASA Dryden)

(From NASA Dryden)

Takeoff and Landing

The aircraft acceleration in the ground roll :

RT)dt/dV)(g/W(

The total resistance:

)SqCW(SqeAR

CC)LW(DR L

2

L0D

The takeoff ground roll :

TimeLiftoff

0gTO dt)t(VS

Takeoff and Landing

(From NASA Dryden)

Landing Ground Roll and Air Distance

The takeoff ground roll:

The takeoff air distance:

The total distance over a 50-ft obstacle:

aLgLtotal SSS

2

V

)RT(g

WS

2

TD

mean

gL

g2

VV50

)RT(

WS

2

TD

2

50

mean

aL

Touch-down speed

Photogrammetric Method

(From NASA Dryden)

Example: Takeoff and Landing A takeoff and landing test of the Cessna R182 was conducted to measure

the takeoff/landing distance, takeoff/landing velocity, and time of

takeoff/landing. The liftoff time was about 27 seconds; the estimated

takeoff distance was about 850 ft that is consistent with 820 ft indicated in

the Cessna R182 handbook. At the takeoff time, the indicated airspeed was

135 ft/s. The altimeter on the aircraft was not sensitive enough to provide

altitude data with high resolution in takeoff.

Altitude and Angles in Takeoff and Landing of

the Cessna R182

Stick-Fixed Neutral Point

Stick-fixed static longitudinal stability is usually characterized

by the slope of the pitching moment curve as a function of the lift

coefficient for the entire aircraft, i.e.,

d

d1V

a

a

dC

dC

dC

dC

C

X

dC

dCtH

w

t

nacL

m

fusL

ma

L

.g.cm

C/X a the wing term that is a measure of the location of the wing

aerodynamics center (a.c.) in relation to the center of gravity

ta wa the lift curve slopes of the horizontal tail and wing

)C/l)(S/S(V twtH the tail volume coefficient

q/qtt the tail efficiency factor

d/d the change in downwash with angle of attack change

Definition of Stick-Fixed Neutral Point

When the slope is negative, the aircraft is statically stable,

0dC/dC L.g.cm

If the c.g. is moved such that the wing term is sufficiently

larger in the positive direction, a special point can be

reached such that

0dC/dC L.g.cm

0N

The c.g. in this case where the slope is zero is called the

stick-fixed neutral point

0

.g.c

L

.g.cmN

C

X

dC

dC

It is found that the stick-fixed static longitudinal

stability is related to the elevator position stability

through the elevator position equation

Determining Stick-Fixed Neutral Point

em

XL

m

L

e CdC

dC

dC

d

This indicates that the neutral

point corresponds to the point at .

Therefore, this provides a simpler

method to find the neutral point in

flight testing, i.e.,

0dC/d Le

Example: Determining Neutral Point

The neutral point of the Cessna R182 was measured using the method

described above. A water tank was placed in the equipment bay and the

water volume (or weight) was adjusted to change the c.g. location. The

water was sprayed out from the wingtip during flight after all the data were

taken for that weight or c.g. location. Since the weights of the pilot and test

engineer, aircraft empty weight and water tank weight are known, the c.g.

can be calculated. For the first test run, the aircraft had a full tank of water,

and its c.g. position was 43.27 inches. For the second run in which the water

was at the half full mark, the c.g. location was 42.22 inches. For the third

run in which the water tank was empty, the c.g. location was 41.35 inches.

The elevator deflection angle was calibrated before flight testing, showing a

linear relation between the angle and output counts.

Elevator deflection angle vs. CL

Slope vs. aircraft’s c.g.

Neutral Point of the Cessna 182R

Extrapolation gives

the neutral point 69.91 inches.

Phugoid

The phugoid mode is a long-period airspeed and altitude

oscillation (about 30 sec) at a near constant angle attack,

which is characterized by an alternatively climbing and diving

of the aircraft with airspeeds higher than trim at the bottom

and lower than trim at the top of oscillation. For the phugoid

dynamics, the characteristic equation is

0)u/L(gSDS 0uu

2

m/)/D(Du the change in drag with change in angle of attack

divided by aircraft mass

m/)/L(Lu the change in lift with change in angle of attack

divided by aircraft mass

0u the initial horizontal velocity or trim airspeed

Example: Phugoid Motion of the Cessna 182R

The oscillation of AOA was relatively small. The averaged amplitude ratio 1nn X/X was 1.4, and

thus the estimated damping ratio was 0.11. In this case, the lift-to-drag ratio was about 6.4. The phugoid

frequency was about 1/30 Hz and the natural frequency was about the same.

Flight testing serves as a unique and valuable addition to

aeronautical engineering education, which closely interfaces

between theory and practice in the final design stage of

aircraft. While many aerodynamic aspects of aircraft could

be investigated via wind tunnel testing, validation of the

overall aircraft behavior absolutely requires full-scale flight

testing. This demands aeronautical engineers, flight test

engineers in particular, who understand the underlying

theories and are able to undertake the necessary

measurements in flight. Students could consolidate the

theoretical knowledge of aerodynamics and flight dynamics

and control through the design and experimentation in real

flights.

Conclusions

Future Development

The future flight testing education will increasingly

rely on more sophisticated, portable instrument,

providing opportunities to conduct tests on a variety

of non-experimental aircraft in an affordable way.

UAV-based flight testing platform is promising, which

is also aligned with the active UAV research.

References: Liu, T. & Schulte, M. “Flight Testing Education

at Western Michigan University”, AIAA Paper, to be presented,

Reno 2007 [1] Kimberlin, R. D., “Flight Testing of Fixed-Wing Aircraft,” AIAA, Reston, VA, 2003

[2] Ward, D. T., “Introduction to Flight Test Engineering,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1993

[3] Landan, P. A., Ruble, M. and Vanderhyde, M. J., “Thrust Cell Redesign,” Senior Design Report,

Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April 10, 2001

[4] Arraut, J. and Cooper, N., “Determining Parasite Drag Coefficient and Oswald Efficiency Factor,” AAE

459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan

University, April 16, 2001

[5] Booms, M., Borgyos, A. and Hulway, B., “PIW-VIW Method for Level Flight Test,” AAE 459 Project

Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April 11,

2005

[6] Stangeland, M. and Macelt, M. J., “Lift Coefficient and Normalized Lift Coefficient vs. AOA for Flight

Test Aircraft,” AAE 459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering,

Western Michigan University, April 16, 1999

[7] Gary, D., “Using GPS to Accurately Establish True Airspeed,” National Test Pilot School, June 1998

(www.ntps.com)

[8] Warner, C., Hall, M., and Shorkey, J., “Airspeed Calibration and Relative Wind,” AAE 459 Project

Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April 15,

1998

[9] Nicol, E., Schmitz, J., and Schulte, M., “Climb Performance,” AAE 459 Project Report, Department of

Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April, 2005

[10] Anderson, J. D., “Aircraft Performance and Design,” McGraw-Hill, Boston, 1999

[11] Holuszko, M., Hovland, C., and Lowary, D., “Determine Takeoff and Landing Characteristics of a

Cessna Model R182,” AAE 459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering,

Western Michigan University, April 19, 1999

[12] Staelens, A. and Watthanasintham, M., “Determination of Neutral Point and Dynamic Stability,” AAE

459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan

University, April 19, 1999

[13] Garman, K. E. and Andrisani, D. A., “A Portable Data Acquisition Systems for Flight Testing Light

Aircraft,” AIAA Paper 2003-5618, Austin, TX, Aug. 2003

Acknowledgements

Thank the College of Aviation of Western Michigan

University and its administrative and technical staff

for their continued support to the class AAE 459.

Without their help, this unique class would be grounded.