Tips for theTips for thePreparation of a Quality Doctoral ThesisPreparation of a Quality Doctoral Thesis

ByBy

K. MohankumarK. MohankumarDirector, School of Marine Sciences &Director, School of Marine Sciences &

Dean, Faculty of Environmental StudiesDean, Faculty of Environmental StudiesCochin University of Science and TechnologyCochin University of Science and Technology

National Workshop on National Workshop on Ensuring Quality in Scientific ResearchEnsuring Quality in Scientific Research , on January 8, 2015, on January 8, 2015

What is a PhD?What is a PhD? A Ph D is globally recognized postgraduate A Ph D is globally recognized postgraduate

academic degree awarded by Universities academic degree awarded by Universities and Higher Education Institutes to a and Higher Education Institutes to a candidate who has submitted a Thesis or candidate who has submitted a Thesis or Dissertation, based on extensive and Dissertation, based on extensive and original research work in their chosen field.original research work in their chosen field.

A Ph.D. holderA Ph.D. holder should have knowledge, should have knowledge, skills, outlook, attitude and understanding skills, outlook, attitude and understanding to be capable of self-directed scientific work to be capable of self-directed scientific work of a quality satisfactory to others in the field.of a quality satisfactory to others in the field.

What Does a PhD SignifyWhat Does a PhD Signify??Recognition, formulation & resolution of Recognition, formulation & resolution of

a problema problemEvaluation of significance of solutionEvaluation of significance of solutionClear written & oral presentation of Clear written & oral presentation of

resultsresultsSelf-directed (original) significant Self-directed (original) significant

contribution to knowledgecontribution to knowledgeStrong sense of scientific integrity and Strong sense of scientific integrity and

professional standardsprofessional standards

A A thesis is a written record of the work that has thesis is a written record of the work that has been undertaken by a candidate. been undertaken by a candidate.

It constitutes objective evidence of the author’s It constitutes objective evidence of the author’s knowledge and capabilities in the field of interest knowledge and capabilities in the field of interest and is therefore a fair means to gauge them. and is therefore a fair means to gauge them.

Although thesis writing may be viewed as an Although thesis writing may be viewed as an unpleasant obligation on the road to a degree, theunpleasant obligation on the road to a degree, the discipline it induces may have lifelong benefitsdiscipline it induces may have lifelong benefits

Differences between the Differences between the Masters and Doctoral ThesesMasters and Doctoral Theses

A PhD A PhD ThesisThesis shall be a substantial and original shall be a substantial and original contribution to scholarship, through the discovery of contribution to scholarship, through the discovery of knowledge, the formulation of theories or the knowledge, the formulation of theories or the innovative re-interpretation of known data and innovative re-interpretation of known data and established ideasestablished ideas..

A Master’s A Master’s DissertationDissertation is graded on the quality of is graded on the quality of research, the significance of the contributions and research, the significance of the contributions and the style of presentation.the style of presentation.

The thesis is judged based on originality, The thesis is judged based on originality, independence, and mastery.independence, and mastery.

Candidates writing a PhD thesis are required to Candidates writing a PhD thesis are required to present their research in the context of existing present their research in the context of existing knowledgeknowledge. .

Writing strategies and techniquesWriting strategies and techniquesBegin writing as soon as possibleBegin writing as soon as possibleStart anywhere - with questions, ideas, inspirationsStart anywhere - with questions, ideas, inspirationsDevelop an overall plan / structureDevelop an overall plan / structureWrite, don’t edit Write, don’t edit Control reading / working before you writeControl reading / working before you writeKeep reading / thinking / working / writingKeep reading / thinking / working / writingSeek feedback Seek feedback Set writing deadlinesSet writing deadlines

General AdviceGeneral Advice

For most Students, the thesis is the longest For most Students, the thesis is the longest manuscript they are going to write, so its manuscript they are going to write, so its very length is often the most overwhelming very length is often the most overwhelming aspect of the task.aspect of the task.

Yet the task won't overcome you if you Yet the task won't overcome you if you adhere to the following adviceadhere to the following advice. .

ApproachDo not think of the whole task. You don't have to

"write the thesis"; instead, you have a series of tasks to perform, many of which you have probably performed in the past:

Do some research of the literature Summarize and perhaps comment upon the

literature that you have examined. Perform some experiments or do some fieldwork.Write up the results of those experiments or

fieldwork. Draw conclusions from what you have done.

ApproachApproach (contd..)

See how your results and conclusions fit in with the See how your results and conclusions fit in with the literature and work in your field. literature and work in your field.

Prepare into the format of a Research Article and Prepare into the format of a Research Article and submit into a suitable Journal for publicationsubmit into a suitable Journal for publication..

Put all these pieces together into a coherent whole, Put all these pieces together into a coherent whole, following a format of the University or one that you following a format of the University or one that you will find in a Standard journal in your field. will find in a Standard journal in your field.

Edit your document carefully for format, spelling, Edit your document carefully for format, spelling, grammar, and mechanics. grammar, and mechanics.

Seen from this perspective, writing a thesis is Seen from this perspective, writing a thesis is merely performing a series of tasks with which you merely performing a series of tasks with which you are already familiarare already familiar..

When to start writing the When to start writing the thesis?thesis?

One typical and costly mistake that One typical and costly mistake that thesis writers often make is trying to do thesis writers often make is trying to do all the other (more familiar) tasks first all the other (more familiar) tasks first (e.g., performing experiments, conducting (e.g., performing experiments, conducting the literature search) before they write a the literature search) before they write a word. word.

This is not a productive approachThis is not a productive approach. . Start writing now, even if it is only your Start writing now, even if it is only your

random thoughts about what you'd like random thoughts about what you'd like the thesis to prove.the thesis to prove.

Try to write 15 minutes every dayTry to write 15 minutes every day This writing may be the extensive This writing may be the extensive

notes mentioned above, a description notes mentioned above, a description to yourself of the experiment you to yourself of the experiment you performed today, or perhaps thoughts performed today, or perhaps thoughts about the project as a whole. about the project as a whole.

By writing every day you accomplish By writing every day you accomplish at least two things: first, you reduce at least two things: first, you reduce anxiety about WRITING by proving to anxiety about WRITING by proving to yourself that you can do it every day;yourself that you can do it every day;

Second, much of what you write will Second, much of what you write will probably be, either directly or probably be, either directly or indirectly, the source of material for indirectly, the source of material for your thesis. your thesis.

How to proceed?How to proceed? Search through the literature, and keep Search through the literature, and keep

comprehensive notes.comprehensive notes.Write long notes to yourself about Write long notes to yourself about

how you think your research will how you think your research will connect to the literature you've connect to the literature you've read. read.

These notes will do two things: These notes will do two things: first, they may be a valuable source first, they may be a valuable source of information later on in the of information later on in the process; second, they get you process; second, they get you writing.writing.

In short, any task that you are In short, any task that you are performing can be written about.performing can be written about.

How Long Does it Take to Write a Thesis?How Long Does it Take to Write a Thesis? Longer than you think. Even after the Longer than you think. Even after the

research itself is all done -- models built, research itself is all done -- models built, calculations complete -- it is wise to allow calculations complete -- it is wise to allow at least one complete term for writing the at least one complete term for writing the thesis. thesis.

It's not the physical act of typing that takes It's not the physical act of typing that takes so long, it's the fact that writing the thesis so long, it's the fact that writing the thesis requires the complete organization of your requires the complete organization of your arguments and results.arguments and results.

This is also probably the first time that your This is also probably the first time that your supervisor has seen the formal expression supervisor has seen the formal expression of concepts that may have been approved of concepts that may have been approved previously in an informal mannerpreviously in an informal manner..

How the Ideas are conveyed to Words?How the Ideas are conveyed to Words?

Students for whom English is not the Students for whom English is not the mother tongue may have difficulty in mother tongue may have difficulty in getting ideas across, so that numerous getting ideas across, so that numerous revisions are required.revisions are required.

And, truth be known, supervisors are And, truth be known, supervisors are sometimes not quick at reviewing and sometimes not quick at reviewing and returning drafts. returning drafts.

Bottom line: leave yourself enough time. Bottom line: leave yourself enough time. A rush job has painful consequences at A rush job has painful consequences at

the Open Defencethe Open Defence..

Develop Self ConfidenceDevelop Self ConfidenceDon't forget that you have written Don't forget that you have written

several successful documents before several successful documents before (or you wouldn't be at the stage of (or you wouldn't be at the stage of writing a thesiswriting a thesis).).

Regardless of what doubts you might Regardless of what doubts you might have about your particular writing have about your particular writing abilities, obviously the faculty have abilities, obviously the faculty have felt that your writing is satisfactory. felt that your writing is satisfactory.

Look again at earlier documents Look again at earlier documents you've written to remind yourself of you've written to remind yourself of your successes.your successes.

One final noteOne final note In deciding what goes where and what to In deciding what goes where and what to

include, you will have to make many include, you will have to make many judgment calls. There are no cut-and-dried judgment calls. There are no cut-and-dried formulas for making these decisions.formulas for making these decisions.

You have to think carefully about the You have to think carefully about the purpose of your thesis and who will be purpose of your thesis and who will be reading it. reading it.

Ask your thesis Supervisor and/or other Ask your thesis Supervisor and/or other faculty members of the Department for faculty members of the Department for advice on any such issues. advice on any such issues.

How to organise the Thesis WritingHow to organise the Thesis WritingCreate a working timetable (work Create a working timetable (work

backwards from the due date)backwards from the due date)A study areaA study areaDevelop a regular work routineDevelop a regular work routine

Create an outline of thesis chapters Create an outline of thesis chapters (structure)(structure)

Construct a thesis template Construct a thesis template (formatting(formatting) )

CUSAT

Tips for Thesis WritingTips for Thesis WritingWrite your thesis from the inside out. Write your thesis from the inside out. Begin with the chapters on your own Begin with the chapters on your own

experimental /analytical/modelling work. experimental /analytical/modelling work. You will develop confidence in writing You will develop confidence in writing

them because you know your own work them because you know your own work better than anyone else. better than anyone else.

Once you have overcome the initial Once you have overcome the initial inertia, move on to the other chapters.inertia, move on to the other chapters.

Tips for Thesis Writing (Contd..)Tips for Thesis Writing (Contd..)

Estimate the time to write your Estimate the time to write your thesis and then thesis and then multiply it by three multiply it by three to get the correct estimate. to get the correct estimate.

Writing at one stretch is very Writing at one stretch is very difficult.difficult.

Do not underestimate the time Do not underestimate the time required for writing a doctoral thesis.required for writing a doctoral thesis.

Tentative structuring processTentative structuring processHave a thesis (main aim)Have a thesis (main aim)Write down all the things you've Write down all the things you've

discovered since you started your discovered since you started your thesis, insights, ideas, etcthesis, insights, ideas, etc

Organise these into groups of Organise these into groups of associated ideasassociated ideas

Give a heading and sub-headings to Give a heading and sub-headings to each group of ideas each group of ideas

Ideas should be linked and develop Ideas should be linked and develop logicallylogically

Structure of a ThesisStructure of a Thesis1. Title pageTitle page2. Declaration by the Candidate2. Declaration by the Candidate3. Certificate by the Supervising Guide(s)3. Certificate by the Supervising Guide(s)4. Acknowledgements4. Acknowledgements5. Summary/Abstract/Preface5. Summary/Abstract/Preface6.6. Table of ContentsTable of Contents7.7. List of Figures/Tables/PhotographsList of Figures/Tables/Photographs8. Main Text – Chapters of the Thesis8. Main Text – Chapters of the Thesis9. Summary and Conclusions9. Summary and Conclusions10. Future Scope of the Study10. Future Scope of the Study11. Bibliography/References11. Bibliography/References12. Appendices, if any12. Appendices, if any13. List of Publications by the candidate13. List of Publications by the candidate

Title of the ThesisTitle of the ThesisThe Title should be neither too The Title should be neither too

long nor too short.long nor too short. It should be focused and It should be focused and

interesting.interesting.It should include the keywords It should include the keywords

you might use to describe your you might use to describe your work in a scientific paper or work in a scientific paper or thesis-abstracting system.thesis-abstracting system.

Try to use some verbs rather Try to use some verbs rather than a long list of nouns.than a long list of nouns.

Main TextMain Text

The Main Text, should see something like this The Main Text, should see something like this

(a) Chapter 1: (a) Chapter 1: IntroductionIntroduction

(b) Chapter 2: (b) Chapter 2: Review of the LiteratureReview of the Literature

(c) (c) Chapter 3: Chapter 3: Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods

(d) Chapters 4 to n: (d) Chapters 4 to n: Working ChaptersWorking Chapters ((There should be at least 3 working chaptersThere should be at least 3 working chapters))

(e) Chapter (n + 1): (e) Chapter (n + 1): Summary and ConclusionsSummary and Conclusions

Introduction/Aim Introduction/Aim What did you do What did you do and and

why?why?Materials and Methods Materials and Methods How did you do How did you do

it?it?Observations/ResultsObservations/Results What did you What did you

find?find?Discussion Discussion What do your resultsWhat do your results

mean to you and why?mean to you and why?Conclusions Conclusions What new knowledge What new knowledge have you extracted have you extracted from your experiment?from your experiment?

Title of the Thesis in FullTitle of the Thesis in Full Thesis submitted to theThesis submitted to the

Cochin University of Science and TechnologyCochin University of Science and Technology In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree ofIn partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of

Doctor of PhilosophyDoctor of Philosophyinin

Marine BiologyMarine Biology

Under theUnder the

Faculty of Marine SciencesFaculty of Marine Sciences

byby

NAME OF THE CANDIDATENAME OF THE CANDIDATE

Name of the Department/InstitutionName of the Department/Institution

Month & Year of submissionMonth & Year of submission

DECLARATIONDECLARATION

II, (, (Name of the candidateName of the candidate), hereby ), hereby declare that the Doctoral Thesis entitled declare that the Doctoral Thesis entitled “….” is my own work and that, to the best of “….” is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the texthas been made in the text. .

(Signature/Name/Date) (Signature/Name/Date)

CERTIFICATECERTIFICATE This is to certify that the Doctoral thesis entitled This is to certify that the Doctoral thesis entitled

((Title of the ThesisTitle of the Thesis) is a bonafide record of the subject ) is a bonafide record of the subject work done by (work done by (Name of the studentName of the student) in the ) in the ((Department/ InstitutionDepartment/ Institution). He/She carried out the study ). He/She carried out the study reported in the thesis independently under my (our) reported in the thesis independently under my (our) supervision. I also certify that the subject matter of the supervision. I also certify that the subject matter of the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any Degree or Diploma of any University or Institution.Degree or Diploma of any University or Institution.

Certified that (Certified that (Name of the studentName of the student) has ) has successfully completed the Ph.D. Course Work offered successfully completed the Ph.D. Course Work offered by the Department/School of the Cochin University of by the Department/School of the Cochin University of Science and Technology in (Month & Year).Science and Technology in (Month & Year).

Signature/Name/Date of the Supervising Guide(s)Signature/Name/Date of the Supervising Guide(s)

AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments

The Acknowledgements should include sources of The Acknowledgements should include sources of financial support and all those whose help you financial support and all those whose help you have sought and got, and all those whose work you have sought and got, and all those whose work you have directly built upon.have directly built upon.

If any of your work is collaborative, you should If any of your work is collaborative, you should make it quite clear who did which sections.make it quite clear who did which sections.

Funding agencies providing Research Fellowships Funding agencies providing Research Fellowships (CSIR/UGC/ICAR/CUSAT/etc) should be (CSIR/UGC/ICAR/CUSAT/etc) should be acknowledged.acknowledged.

Table of contentsTable of contents

The introduction starts on page 1, the The introduction starts on page 1, the earlier pages should have roman earlier pages should have roman numerals. numerals.

It helps to have the subheadings of It helps to have the subheadings of each chapter, as well as the chapter each chapter, as well as the chapter titles. titles.

Remember that the thesis may be Remember that the thesis may be used as a reference in the library, so it used as a reference in the library, so it helps to be able to find things easily.helps to be able to find things easily.

Abstract/ Preface/Abstract/ Preface/ Synopsis Synopsis An abstract must be self-contained. Usually An abstract must be self-contained. Usually

they do not contain referencesthey do not contain references. .

Summary or Abstract should be of Summary or Abstract should be of approximately 300 words. (It should not approximately 300 words. (It should not exceed 700 words.) exceed 700 words.)

The Abstract or summary should The Abstract or summary should summarize the appropriate headings, aims, summarize the appropriate headings, aims, scope and conclusion of the thesis.scope and conclusion of the thesis.

Abstract/ Preface/Abstract/ Preface/ Synopsis Synopsis (contd..) (contd..)

This part of your Thesis will be the most This part of your Thesis will be the most widely published and most read, because it widely published and most read, because it will be published in Dissertation Abstracts will be published in Dissertation Abstracts International. International.

It is best written towards the end, but not It is best written towards the end, but not at the very last minute because you will at the very last minute because you will probably need several drafts. probably need several drafts.

It should be a distillation of the thesis: a It should be a distillation of the thesis: a concise description of the problem(s) concise description of the problem(s) addressed, your method of solving it/them, addressed, your method of solving it/them, your results and conclusions. your results and conclusions.

Introduction ChapterIntroduction ChapterWhat is the topic and why is it important? State the What is the topic and why is it important? State the

problem(s) as simply as you canproblem(s) as simply as you can. . Try to step back mentally and take a broader view Try to step back mentally and take a broader view

of the problemof the problem. . How does it fit into the broader world of your How does it fit into the broader world of your

discipline? discipline? Especially in the introduction, do not overestimate Especially in the introduction, do not overestimate

the reader's familiarity with your topic. the reader's familiarity with your topic. You are writing for researchers in the general You are writing for researchers in the general

area, but not all of them need be specialists in your area, but not all of them need be specialists in your particular topic.particular topic.

The introduction should be interesting. If you bore The introduction should be interesting. If you bore the reader here, then you are unlikely to revive the reader here, then you are unlikely to revive his/her interest in the materials and methods his/her interest in the materials and methods section. section.

Introduction Chapter Introduction Chapter (Contd..)(Contd..)

ForFor the first paragraph or two, make the the first paragraph or two, make the writing style less dry than the scientific norm.writing style less dry than the scientific norm.

Go to the library and read several thesis Go to the library and read several thesis introductions. Did any make you want to read introductions. Did any make you want to read on? Which ones were boring?on? Which ones were boring?

This section might go through several drafts to This section might go through several drafts to make it read well and logically, while keeping it make it read well and logically, while keeping it short. short.

It is a good idea to ask someone who is not a It is a good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist to read it and to comment. Is it an specialist to read it and to comment. Is it an adequate Introduction? Is it easy to followadequate Introduction? Is it easy to follow? ?

Introduction chapter normally writes towards Introduction chapter normally writes towards the end of the thesis writing. the end of the thesis writing.

Your introduction should tell where the thesis Your introduction should tell where the thesis is going, and this may become clearer during is going, and this may become clearer during the writing. the writing.

The Literature ReviewThe Literature Review Where did the problem come from? Where did the problem come from? What is already known about this problem?What is already known about this problem? What other methods have been tried to solve What other methods have been tried to solve

it? it? How many papers? How relevant do they have How many papers? How relevant do they have

to be before you include them? to be before you include them? On the order of a 150-200 is reasonable, but it On the order of a 150-200 is reasonable, but it

will depend on the fieldwill depend on the field. . Latest References and Classical papers are to Latest References and Classical papers are to

be includedbe included

The Literature Review The Literature Review (contd..)(contd..)

The literature review is vital to justify The literature review is vital to justify your hypothesis, which must be consistent your hypothesis, which must be consistent with what is known.with what is known.

A supporting pointA supporting point: make sure that you do : make sure that you do not omit relevant not omit relevant papers by researchers papers by researchers who are like to be your examiners, or by who are like to be your examiners, or by potential employers to whom you might be potential employers to whom you might be sending the thesis in the next year or two.sending the thesis in the next year or two.

Materials and MethodsMaterials and Methods This varies enormously from thesis to thesis, This varies enormously from thesis to thesis,

and may be absent in theoretical theses. and may be absent in theoretical theses. It should be possible for a competent It should be possible for a competent

researcher to reproduce exactly what you have researcher to reproduce exactly what you have done by following your description.done by following your description.

There is a good chance that this test will be There is a good chance that this test will be applied: sometime after you have left, another applied: sometime after you have left, another researcher will want to do a similar experiment researcher will want to do a similar experiment either with your gear, or on a new set-up in a either with your gear, or on a new set-up in a foreign country. Please write for the benefit of foreign country. Please write for the benefit of that researcher. that researcher.

TheoryTheory When you are reporting theoretical work When you are reporting theoretical work

that is not original, you will usually need that is not original, you will usually need to include sufficient material to allow the to include sufficient material to allow the reader to understand the arguments reader to understand the arguments used and their physical basesused and their physical bases. .

Sometimes you will be able to present Sometimes you will be able to present the theory but should not reproduce two the theory but should not reproduce two pages of algebra that the reader could pages of algebra that the reader could find in a standard text.find in a standard text.

Do not include theory that you are not Do not include theory that you are not going to relate to the work you have going to relate to the work you have done. done.

Theory (Contd..)Theory (Contd..)When writing this section, concentrate at When writing this section, concentrate at

least as much on the physical arguments least as much on the physical arguments as on the equations. What do the equations as on the equations. What do the equations mean? What are the important cases? . mean? What are the important cases? .

Think too about the order and style of Think too about the order and style of presentation: the order in which you did presentation: the order in which you did the work may not be the clearest the work may not be the clearest presentation. presentation.

Suspense is not necessary in reporting Suspense is not necessary in reporting science: you should tell the reader where science: you should tell the reader where you are going before you start.you are going before you start.

Working Chapters should Working Chapters should containcontain

A brief introductionA brief introductionExperimental procedure/ data and Experimental procedure/ data and

analysis/ methods and materials/ Theoryanalysis/ methods and materials/ TheoryResultsResultsDiscussionDiscussionOutcome/Summary/ConclusionOutcome/Summary/Conclusion

Working ChaptersWorking ChaptersIn some theses, the middle chapters are In some theses, the middle chapters are

the journal articles of which the student the journal articles of which the student was major author. was major author.

A thesis is both allowed and expected to A thesis is both allowed and expected to have more detail than a journal article. have more detail than a journal article.

For journal articles, one usually has to For journal articles, one usually has to reduce the number of figures. In many reduce the number of figures. In many cases, all of the interesting and relevant cases, all of the interesting and relevant data can go in the thesis, and not just data can go in the thesis, and not just those which appeared in the journal. those which appeared in the journal.

Relatively often a researcher requests a Relatively often a researcher requests a thesis in order to obtain more detail thesis in order to obtain more detail about how a study was performedabout how a study was performed..

Working Chapters (contd..)The exact structure in the middle chapters will The exact structure in the middle chapters will

vary among theses. In some theses, it is vary among theses. In some theses, it is necessary to establish some theory, to describe necessary to establish some theory, to describe the experimental techniques, then to report what the experimental techniques, then to report what was done on several different problems or was done on several different problems or different stages of the problem, and then finally different stages of the problem, and then finally to present a model or a new theory based on the to present a model or a new theory based on the new work. new work.

For such a thesis, the chapter headings might be: For such a thesis, the chapter headings might be: Theory, Materials and Methods, {first problem}, Theory, Materials and Methods, {first problem}, {second problem}, {third problem}, {proposed {second problem}, {third problem}, {proposed theory/model} and then the conclusion chapter. theory/model} and then the conclusion chapter.

For other theses, it might be appropriate to For other theses, it might be appropriate to discuss different techniques in different discuss different techniques in different chapters, rather than to have a single Materials chapters, rather than to have a single Materials and Methods chapterand Methods chapter..

Results and discussionResults and discussionThe results and discussion are very often combined in The results and discussion are very often combined in

theses. theses. The division of Results and Discussion material into The division of Results and Discussion material into

chapters is usually best done according to subject matter.chapters is usually best done according to subject matter. Make sure that you have described the conditions which Make sure that you have described the conditions which

obtained for each set of results. What was held constant?obtained for each set of results. What was held constant? What were the other relevant parameters? What were the other relevant parameters? Make sure too that you have used appropriate statistical Make sure too that you have used appropriate statistical

analyses. analyses. Where applicable, show measurement errors and standard Where applicable, show measurement errors and standard

errors on the graphs. errors on the graphs. Use appropriate statistical tests.Use appropriate statistical tests.

Results and discussion Results and discussion (contd..)(contd..)

In most cases, your results need discussionIn most cases, your results need discussion. . What do they mean? What do they mean? How do they fit into the existing body of How do they fit into the existing body of

knowledge? knowledge? Are they consistent with current theories?Are they consistent with current theories? Do they give new insights? Do they give new insights? Do they suggest new theories or mechanisms?Do they suggest new theories or mechanisms? Try to distance yourself from your usual Try to distance yourself from your usual

perspective and look at your work. perspective and look at your work. Do not just ask yourself what it means in terms of Do not just ask yourself what it means in terms of

the mainstream of your own research group, but the mainstream of your own research group, but also how other people in the field might see it. also how other people in the field might see it.

Does it have any implications that do not relate to Does it have any implications that do not relate to the questions that you set out to answer? the questions that you set out to answer?

Illustrations: 3 main typesIllustrations: 3 main types

TablesTablesFigures (anything not a table or Figures (anything not a table or

a plate)a plate)graphsgraphsflow chartsflow chartsOrganisational chartsOrganisational chartsorganisational chartsorganisational chartspictogramspictograms

PlatesPlates

Plotting of GraphsPlotting of Graphs

Graphs should be self explanatoryGraphs should be self explanatoryAvoid too many lines in one graphAvoid too many lines in one graphRepetitive figures should be minimised.Repetitive figures should be minimised.Scaling and labelling of axes should be neat and Scaling and labelling of axes should be neat and

clear.clear.Figure caption is to brief, but contain necessary Figure caption is to brief, but contain necessary

informationinformationUnits is to be properly givenUnits is to be properly given The origin and intercepts are often important.The origin and intercepts are often important. You should show error bars on the data, unless You should show error bars on the data, unless

the errors are very small. the errors are very small.

GraphsGraphsRefer in your text to every diagram, graph Refer in your text to every diagram, graph

and table, especially in the sections where and table, especially in the sections where you present and discuss your results.you present and discuss your results.

The ready availability of graphical software The ready availability of graphical software should not entice you into presenting should not entice you into presenting everything indiscriminately in pictorial form. everything indiscriminately in pictorial form.

Emphasis is rightly gained with sparing and Emphasis is rightly gained with sparing and selective use; and this applies to the use of selective use; and this applies to the use of diagrams, graphs, italics and bold typefacediagrams, graphs, italics and bold typeface..

Best practice : Best practice : graphicsgraphicsattention to white spaceattention to white spaceno more than 2 fontsno more than 2 fontssans serif fonts, sentence casesans serif fonts, sentence caseuse bold or italics for emphasisuse bold or italics for emphasislimit colours to 4 or fewerlimit colours to 4 or fewercheck what it looks like in B&Wcheck what it looks like in B&Wtest it on a friend - what hits you?test it on a friend - what hits you?

TablesTablesBy its very nature, scientific writing By its very nature, scientific writing

includes the judicious use of diagrams, includes the judicious use of diagrams, graphs and tables. graphs and tables.

A table invokes an expectation of A table invokes an expectation of regularity. So present dull, unremarkable regularity. So present dull, unremarkable data (that must nevertheless presented) in data (that must nevertheless presented) in a tablea table..

Make sure that your variables are in Make sure that your variables are in different columns.different columns.

Your rows for any given column should Your rows for any given column should represent different observations of a given represent different observations of a given variablevariable..

Best practiceBest practice: tablestablespresent only significant numberspresent only significant numbersnumber tables sequentiallynumber tables sequentiallyplace close to mention in textplace close to mention in textuse symbolsuse symbolsavoid broadside presentationavoid broadside presentationtitle above - not usually a title above - not usually a

sentencesentencenotes and acknowledgements notes and acknowledgements

belowbelow

Best practice: Best practice: PlatesPlatestop quality imagetop quality imagetop quality printing and copyingtop quality printing and copyingcareful croppingcareful croppingavoid broadside presentationavoid broadside presentationimportant focus salientimportant focus salientcaption (legend) below, and notes caption (legend) below, and notes

below caption, OR both on preceding below caption, OR both on preceding pagepage

CUSAT

Summary and Summary and conclusionsconclusions

A summary of conclusions is usually longer A summary of conclusions is usually longer than the final section of the abstract, and you than the final section of the abstract, and you have the space to be more explicit and more have the space to be more explicit and more careful with qualifications.careful with qualifications.

You might find it helpful to put your You might find it helpful to put your conclusions in point form. conclusions in point form.

Do not show too many conclusions of your Do not show too many conclusions of your thesis, this will dilute your thesis resultsthesis, this will dilute your thesis results..

Show only the most important results (say Show only the most important results (say about 5-8) as the outcome of your thesis, and about 5-8) as the outcome of your thesis, and justify their significance.justify their significance.

Future Scope of the StudyFuture Scope of the Study

It is often the case with scientific It is often the case with scientific investigations that more questions investigations that more questions than answers are produced. than answers are produced.

Does your work suggest any Does your work suggest any interesting further avenues?interesting further avenues?

Are there ways in which your Are there ways in which your work could be improved by future work could be improved by future workers?workers?

What are the practical What are the practical implications of your work? implications of your work?

References Organize the list of references Organize the list of references

alphabetically by author surname.alphabetically by author surname. All references given All references given mustmust be referred to in be referred to in

the main body of the thesis.the main body of the thesis. To quote an unread paper is misleading and To quote an unread paper is misleading and

dangerousdangerous Note the difference from a Bibliography, Note the difference from a Bibliography,

which may include works that are not which may include works that are not directly referenced in the thesis.directly referenced in the thesis.

AppendixAppendixAny material which impedes the smooth development Any material which impedes the smooth development

of your presentation, but which is important to justify of your presentation, but which is important to justify the results of a thesis. the results of a thesis.

Generally it is material that is of too fundamental a Generally it is material that is of too fundamental a level of detail for inclusion in the main body of the level of detail for inclusion in the main body of the thesis, but which should be available for perusal by the thesis, but which should be available for perusal by the examiners to convince them sufficientlyexaminers to convince them sufficiently. .

Examples include experimental details, program Examples include experimental details, program listings, immense tables of data, lengthy mathematical listings, immense tables of data, lengthy mathematical proofs or derivations, etc. proofs or derivations, etc.

Do not copy textbook material in an Appendix just to Do not copy textbook material in an Appendix just to give your thesis length or to impress your examiners.give your thesis length or to impress your examiners.

FormatFormat• The layout is the packaging for your thesis.The layout is the packaging for your thesis. • A pleasing font and adequate margins make A pleasing font and adequate margins make

your thesis visually attractiveyour thesis visually attractive. . • The convention is to choose a font with serifs The convention is to choose a font with serifs

(e.g., Times Roman) for the main text and a (e.g., Times Roman) for the main text and a sans serif font (e.g., Helvetica) for text inside sans serif font (e.g., Helvetica) for text inside diagrams.diagrams.

• All figure captions should be in the same font All figure captions should be in the same font as the main text, preferably at one size smalleras the main text, preferably at one size smaller.

Format (contd..)Format (contd..)• The regulations governing size of paper, size of The regulations governing size of paper, size of

margins, etc., vary with University.margins, etc., vary with University.Theses should be double or one and a half space Theses should be double or one and a half space

typed on A4 paper with a left hand margin of 4 cm.typed on A4 paper with a left hand margin of 4 cm. There should be a 2 cm margin on all other edgesThere should be a 2 cm margin on all other edges.. An extra left margin should be allowed for binding An extra left margin should be allowed for binding

the thesis.the thesis. Typing on both sides is not encouraged.Typing on both sides is not encouraged. Each page of thesis should not start or end with a Each page of thesis should not start or end with a

single line of the text.single line of the text.

TIME REQUIRED FOR THESIS WRITINGTIME REQUIRED FOR THESIS WRITING

As a general guideline, allow one to three months As a general guideline, allow one to three months for writing up an Master’s thesis and at least six for writing up an Master’s thesis and at least six months for a PhD thesis. months for a PhD thesis.

As another rule of thumb, triple your initial As another rule of thumb, triple your initial estimate to arrive at a more realistic time frame.estimate to arrive at a more realistic time frame.

The task of writing up will not loom large at the The task of writing up will not loom large at the end of your project if you have written your thesis end of your project if you have written your thesis in installments. in installments.

Check the spelling of all words in your thesis, Check the spelling of all words in your thesis, including those in your bibliographyincluding those in your bibliography,,

Points on writing the PhD Points on writing the PhD thesisthesisThe other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be The other bits and pieces like the Appendices may be

written as you go along.written as you go along.Think, plan write, revise.Think, plan write, revise. Think clearly and write carefully. Think clearly and write carefully. Clarity, precision and brevity are the three Clarity, precision and brevity are the three

watchwords. watchwords. Leave no gaps in the chain of logic or ideas you Leave no gaps in the chain of logic or ideas you

express.express.Avoid excessively lengthy sentences .Avoid excessively lengthy sentences . Develop your own writing style by careful reading and Develop your own writing style by careful reading and

even more careful writing. even more careful writing. Polish what you have written by repeated readingPolish what you have written by repeated readingAsk your Research Supervisor to critique your thesis Ask your Research Supervisor to critique your thesis

draft and amend it accordingly.draft and amend it accordingly.

Best practice Best practice : texttextuse serif font and sentence caseuse serif font and sentence case9-12 point size depending on font9-12 point size depending on font50% of page should be white space50% of page should be white spacecheck visual appeal — page layoutcheck visual appeal — page layoutjustified (or ragged right)justified (or ragged right)L and R margins — beware bindingL and R margins — beware bindingpaper weight and colourpaper weight and colourdon’t overdo any featuredon’t overdo any feature

CUSAT

Academic writing styleAcademic writing styleClear - short clearly structured sentencesClear - short clearly structured sentencesAppropriate and specific vocabularyAppropriate and specific vocabularyNo repetition, but ideas linkedNo repetition, but ideas linkedObserves academic discourse - rules for each Observes academic discourse - rules for each

academic disciplineacademic disciplineIs formal - no contractions, slang, Is formal - no contractions, slang,

colloquialisms etccolloquialisms etcImpersonal -usually third personImpersonal -usually third person

Language StyleLanguage StyleIn scientific writing, one should avoid the first In scientific writing, one should avoid the first

person singular pronoun ‘I’.person singular pronoun ‘I’. Scientific writing must be in the passive voice.Scientific writing must be in the passive voice.The first person plural pronoun, ‘we’ is used The first person plural pronoun, ‘we’ is used

when stating facts, assumptions orwhen stating facts, assumptions or

previously derived results; in (mathematical) previously derived results; in (mathematical) proofs; and especially in textbooks.proofs; and especially in textbooks.

The use of ‘we’ conveys the impression of a The use of ‘we’ conveys the impression of a dialogue between writer and readerdialogue between writer and reader

Language Style (contd..)Language Style (contd..)

Tense:Tense: Write in the present tense. For example, say Write in the present tense. For example, say

``The system writes a page to the disk and then ``The system writes a page to the disk and then uses the frame...'' instead of ``The system will use uses the frame...'' instead of ``The system will use the frame after it wrote the page to disk...''the frame after it wrote the page to disk...''

Grammar And Logic:Grammar And Logic: Short, simple phrases and words are often better Short, simple phrases and words are often better

than long onesthan long ones..

Language Style (contd..)The text must be clear.The text must be clear. Good grammar and thoughtful writing Good grammar and thoughtful writing

will make the thesis easier to readwill make the thesis easier to read. . Scientific writing has to be a little Scientific writing has to be a little

formal---more formal than this text. formal---more formal than this text. Native English speakers should Native English speakers should

remember that scientific English is an remember that scientific English is an international language.international language.

Slang and informal writing will be Slang and informal writing will be harder for a non-native speaker to harder for a non-native speaker to understand. understand.

What to avoidWhat to avoidClusters of nouns.Clusters of nouns.Adjectival clauses (who, whom, whose, Adjectival clauses (who, whom, whose,

which, that, where, when, why)which, that, where, when, why)Subordinate clauses at the beginningSubordinate clauses at the beginningNouns instead of the verbs from which Nouns instead of the verbs from which

they are derivedthey are derivedUse of filler verbsUse of filler verbsUse of imprecise wordsUse of imprecise wordsUse of compound prepositionsUse of compound prepositionsMultiple negativesMultiple negativesUnfamiliar abbreviations and symbolsUnfamiliar abbreviations and symbolsAvoid Self-Assessment (both praise and Avoid Self-Assessment (both praise and

criticism):criticism):

PunctuationPunctuation Good Good PunctuationPunctuation makes reading easy. There are makes reading easy. There are

four major pause symbols, arranged below in four major pause symbols, arranged below in ascending order of “degree of pause”:ascending order of “degree of pause”:

1.1. Comma.Comma. Use the comma to indicate a short pause or Use the comma to indicate a short pause or to separate items in a list. A pair of commas may to separate items in a list. A pair of commas may delimit the beginning and end of a subordinate clause delimit the beginning and end of a subordinate clause or phrase. or phrase.

2. Semi-colon2. Semi-colon. The semi-colon signifies a longer pause . The semi-colon signifies a longer pause than the comma. It separates segments of a sentence than the comma. It separates segments of a sentence that are “further apart” in position, or meaning, but that are “further apart” in position, or meaning, but which are nevertheless related. If the ideas were which are nevertheless related. If the ideas were “closer together”, a comma would have been used.“closer together”, a comma would have been used.

Punctuation (contd..)(contd..)3.3. Colon.Colon. The colon is used before one or more The colon is used before one or more

examples of a concept, and whenever items are to be examples of a concept, and whenever items are to be listed in a visually separate fashion.listed in a visually separate fashion.

4.4. Full stop or periodFull stop or period. The full stop ends a sentence. If . The full stop ends a sentence. If

the sentence embodies a question or an exclamation, the sentence embodies a question or an exclamation, then, of course, it is ended with a question mark or then, of course, it is ended with a question mark or exclamation mark, respectively. exclamation mark, respectively.

The full stop is also used to terminate abbreviations The full stop is also used to terminate abbreviations like etc., (for like etc., (for et ceteraet cetera), e.g., for (), e.g., for (exempli gratiaexempli gratia), et ), et al., (for al., (for et aliaet alia) etc., but not with abbreviations for SI ) etc., but not with abbreviations for SI units.units.

Examiners ask the following questions Examiners ask the following questions when reading a thesiswhen reading a thesis

Has the student read all the references?Has the student read all the references?What questions does this thesis raise?What questions does this thesis raise?What richness does it contain that can spawn other What richness does it contain that can spawn other

work?work?What is the quality of flow of ideas?What is the quality of flow of ideas?

Keep in mind that examiners read a thesis in Keep in mind that examiners read a thesis in instalments and display a natural benevolence, instalments and display a natural benevolence, i.e., i.e., they do not set out to read a thesis with the they do not set out to read a thesis with the aim of failing the student.aim of failing the student.

Read the whole thesis to pick up repetition.Read the whole thesis to pick up repetition.

Read your thesis for ideas and read it again for Read your thesis for ideas and read it again for editingediting

Be clear and conciseBe clear and conciseUse short words and accurate termsUse short words and accurate termsUse technical language only where Use technical language only where

necessary eg “precipitation” is for necessary eg “precipitation” is for Meteorology essays, otherwise write Meteorology essays, otherwise write “rain”.“rain”.

Use short and straightforward Use short and straightforward sentencessentences

Ensure pronouns and conjunctions are Ensure pronouns and conjunctions are consistentconsistent

If it can be cut out, cut it outIf it can be cut out, cut it outCUSAT

Checklist: good scientific writingChecklist: good scientific writingObjective: evidence drivenObjective: evidence drivenAccurate : style, referencing, data, Accurate : style, referencing, data,

Concise: not wordy, balanced, Concise: not wordy, balanced,

within word limitwithin word limitClear: point evidentClear: point evidentConsistent: expression, spelling, Consistent: expression, spelling,

grammargrammarConvincing: argument and Convincing: argument and

languagelanguageReader friendlyReader friendly

Editing with technologyEditing with technologyRe-read carefully where you have Re-read carefully where you have

been cutting and pastingbeen cutting and pastingPrint it out to read it, then Print it out to read it, then

annotate the hard copyannotate the hard copyUse spelling checkers carefullyUse spelling checkers carefullyBe aware of what grammarBe aware of what grammar

checkers require of youcheckers require of youMake use of the Make use of the RevisionsRevisions function function

Using grammar checkersUsing grammar checkers

Grammar checkers look at every sentence for:Grammar checkers look at every sentence for:verbsverbssentence length and complexitysentence length and complexityverb subject agreementverb subject agreementpassive vs active verbspassive vs active verbsuse of idiomatic phrases, eg, use of idiomatic phrases, eg, kick the bucket, kick the bucket,

part and parcelpart and parcelsentence lengthsentence length

Do’s and Don’ts in Do’s and Don’ts in ScienceScience

• • Do keep records as you go along and Do keep records as you go along and date themdate them..

• • Do systematic workDo systematic work..• • Don’t claim precision where it is not Don’t claim precision where it is not justified.justified.

• • Don’t present a conjecture as a fact.Don’t present a conjecture as a fact.• • Don’t plagiarize.Don’t plagiarize.• • Don’t falsify records or cook up dataDon’t falsify records or cook up data.