To Train? Or to educate?

The relevance of language models to

real life

Clive Upton

School of English, University of Leeds

17 January 2008

'As long as we recognise that there is not one single Standard English, as used by educated people in the south-east of England, but a number of overlapping standards, shifting, disputed and constantly changing, we shall not go far wrong in our retreat to basics, not create a linguistic underclass of 95 per cent of our nation.’

Philip Howard, The Times

'Pupils ... should consider the notion of appropriateness ... and the fact that inappropriate language use can be a source of humour (either intentional or unintentional) or may give the impression that the speaker or writer is pompous or inept or impertinent or rude.’

Cox 6.29

'The positive social significance of vernacular ['homely'] speech resides in the community and culture of its speakers. This will often diverge from superimposed norms. Although overtly 'stigmatized', its actual 'social meaning' may be positive from the point of view of those to whom it is the vernacular, and deeply tied up with their identity.’

William Downes

'The violation of the norm of the standard, as systematic violation, is what makes possible the poetic utilization of language; without this possibility there would be no poetry. The more the norm of the standard is stabilized in a given language, the more varied can be its violation, and therefore the more possibilities for poetry in that language.’

Mukarovsky(1932)

Some major worldwide 'Vernacular Universals':

Me instead of I in coordinate subjects

Never as preverbal past tense negator

Adverbs same form as adjectives

Absence of plural marking after measure verbs

Multiple negation

Double comparatives and superlatives

‘To enchain syllables, and to lash the wind, are equally the undertakings of pride.’

Dr Johnson (1755)

‘To enchain syllables, and to lash the wind, are equally the undertakings of pride.’

Dr Johnson (1755)

The RP TRAP vowel

Conventionally /æ/

Phonetically [a]

The RP SQUARE vowel

Conventionally /εә/

Phonetically [ε:]

The RP PRICE vowel

Conventionaily /aι/

Phonetically [^ι]

(try fan-fun-fine)