Topicality Hoya Spartan Scholars 2014The TopicResolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its non-military exploration and/or development of the Earths oceans.

[http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=10256]Thoughts

1. The central Topicality debates about the topic will likely revolve around the meaning of exploration, development, and non-military. There are arguments relating to other words, for sure, but they are mostly clear-cut and should become settled early in the year.

2. This is a broad topic and the Affirmative will likely be allowed substantial latitude in their approach to ocean activity. Many of the best definitions of exploration simply say that it is not development (which is also topical) and there are few strong exclusive definitions of development in the context of oceans.

3. Given the breadth of the mechanism, I encourage Neg-minded teams to attempt to narrow the topic via some inclusive-style requirement. Instead of arguing that sending deep sea probes to the Marianas Trench is not exploration, which may be a hard sell, the Neg could argue that topical plans must explicitly mandate data collection, for example, and prepare arguments against that mechanism. T-Data Collection may not be the strongest argument, in the end, but this change in thinking from T as an explicit/direct limiter to a requirement that establishes predictable ground (and thus functionally limits what Affs are consistently winnable) is something Neg teams should consider on this topic.

4. The strongest T argument related to non-military is the strict interpretation that topical Affs must utilize only civilian assets and that using military equipment/ships in a non-combat role is still military. This is useful against a variety of cases, including Icebreakers and Search and Rescue (both of which will be popular). The evidence in this file is a good start for the argument, but should be substantially improved through further research throughout the summer.

5. Subsets is included as a violation. When equally debated, it is not a strong argument. However, it is a useful argument to practice when learning the technical aspects of debating T, so I included it in this file.

Enjoy!

Casey HarriganDirector of DebateMichigan State Universityharriga8@msu.edu

*** NON-MILITARYNon-Military Assets 1NCMilitary activity is determine by structures---theyre military [exploration/development] in a non-combat roleBrown 12 Sylvia Brown, DPhil from the University of London, Youths in Non-Military Roles in an Armed Opposition Group on the Burmese-Thai Border, Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in theDepartment of Development Studies, School of Oriental andAfrican Studies, University of London, http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/15634/1/Brown_3434.pdf

a) Definition of key termsThe term youth is understood in this study to be a socially constructed emic term which, like all social constructions, is not static, but continually re-defined by society based on the social context of the time. The term non-military is used here to refer to roles which are not located within army or militia structures. Since roles within military structures involve both combat and non-combat roles (army cooks, porters, signallers and engineers, for example), the term non-combat can be used to refer to ancillary roles within a military, which are not the focus of this study. This study is concerned with participants outside the armed wing of an armed opposition group entirely, for instance, within its administrative apparatus or mass organisations.Voting issue---Ground---using military assets artificially expands Aff ground and avoids core DAs like civilian exploration trade-off and politicsExplodes limits---anything can have a potential military purposeWuerzner 8 Carolin Wuerzner, Former Editorial Assistant for the International Review of the Red Cross, Now Working with UNHCR, Mission Impossible? Bringing Charges for the Crime of Attacking Civilians or Civilian Objects Before International Criminal Tribunals, December, http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc-872-wuerzner.pdf

In order to clarify better what constitutes a military objective, there have been attempts to draw up non-exhaustive lists of objects that are generally recognized as military objectives. The ICRC, for instance, made such an attempt in 1956.40 The defence counsel in the Strugar case also gave a list of examples of military objectives, namely buildings and objects that provide administrative and logistical support for military objectives, as well as examples of objects that in certain circumstances may constitute military objectives: transport systems for military supplies and transport centres where lines of communication converge.41 It is, however, impossible to rely on a list in order to define the term military objective. Practically everything can become a legitimate target, as long as two conditions are cumulatively met: the objects contribution to military action must be effective, and the military advantage of its destruction must be definite.42 Both criteria must be fulfilled in the circumstances ruling at the time.43 Furthermore, in this definition of the term military the said advantage and contribution are strictly limited to what is purely military, thus excluding objects of political, economic and psychological importance to the enemy.44Non-Military Assets 2NCNon-military means only civilian activity---even peacetime activity of military forces is excludedBunyan 6 Tony Bunyan, Director and Editor of Statewatch, Essays for an Open Europe, http://www.statewatch.org/secret/essays2.htm

There are a few other aspects to the Solana decision which are worrisome. First, the phrase "non-military crisis management" refers to civilian aspects of crisis management, such as police and judicial co-operation. This would exclude, for example, access to all documents relating to the new EU rapid-reaction paramilitary police force, even with regard to policy-making matters. Second, the Solana decision allows international organisations such as NATO and third countries such as the US to veto a citizens access to documents if the documents have been drawn up by or in conjunction with them. For all the rhetoric of the EU on the need for greater transparency only the Netherlands, Sweden, and Finland voted against adoption of the Council's Solana decision.Must be civilian activity that doesnt belong to or involve the Armed ForcesOxford 14 Oxford Dictionaries, nonmilitary, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/nonmilitary

nonmilitarySyllabification: nonmilitaryPronunciation: /nnmilter /ADJECTIVENot belonging to, characteristic of, or involving the armed forces; civilian:the widespread destruction of nonmilitary targetsNot associated with the militaryVocabulary 14 nonmilitary, http://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/nonmilitary

DEFINITIONS OF:nonmilitary1adj not associated with soldiers or the militaryfatigue duty involves nonmilitary laborSynonyms:unmilitaryunsoldierlynot conforming to military standardsAntonyms:militarycharacteristic of or associated with soldiers or the militarymilitaristicimbued with militarismmartial, soldierlike, soldierly, warriorlike(of persons) befitting a warriormartial, warlikesuggesting war or military lifeDetermining topicality based on ends rather than means is subjective and blurryResnick 1 Dr. Evan Resnick, Ph.D. in Political Science from Columbia University, Assistant Professor of Political Science at Yeshiva University, Defining Engagement, Journal of International Affairs, Spring, 54(2), Ebsco

Some scholars have excessively narrowed the definition of engagement by defining it according to the ends sought rather than the means employed. For example, Schweller and Wohlforth assert that if any distinction can be drawn between engagement and appeasement, "it is that the goal of engagement is not simply tension-reduction and the avoidance of war but also an attempt to socialize [a] dissatisfied power into acceptance of the established order."(n17) Such ends-based definitions hinder the study of engagement in two ways. First, because the act of policymaking consists of selecting from a variety of alternative means in the pursuit of a given end(s), it stands to reason that policy instruments are more effectively conceptualized in terms of means rather than ends. When defined as different means, policies can be more easily compared with one another across a whole spectrum of discrete ends, in order to gauge more accurately the circumstances under which each policy is relatively more or less effective.(n18)Non-Military Assets A2: Civilian Lead Role / Limited Military InvolvementNon-military is an absolute prohibition on military use---allowing some military activity makes the topic non-aggressive, which unlimitsBenko 85 Dr. Marietta Benko, Professor of Astronomical Space Research at Utrecht University Observatory, et al., Space Law in the United Nations, p. 176

4.3.1.1 The Terms 'Peaceful', 'Non-Military' and 'Non-Aggressive'The vast literature on the subject shows, in space law, two major interpretations of' peaceful': that of non-military and that of non-aggressive53. In international law non-military is defined as the prohibition to use outer space for military activities in times of peace, whereas 'non-aggressiveness' refers to the permission to use at least partial military precautions. The term 'non-aggressiveness' includes the possibility to apply military activities in outer space law-fullyas long as those activities do not aim at direct attack in the sense of the United Nations definition of 'aggression'.The concept of non-aggressiveness is, from the political point of view, therefore a much broader one than the non-military one: it permits among other things almost all present activities in outer space such as those of 'spy' satellites, interceptor satellites, remote sensing satellites of a certain type as well as laser beam experiments and the use of nuclear power in outer space. At this point it begins to be difficult for those among us who are in favour of peace on Earth as well as in the rest of outer space, because many outer space activities, scientific or not, have up to now been executed by military personnel*; so that, if we had to get rid of the 'non-military', this would mean that space research as it stands would become impossible. But it would be difficult, if not impossible, to discontinue space research, the more so since international law, and, to a smaller degree space law, do not forbid the use of outer space for military purposes.The prefix non- means the military must be absentWebsters 14 Merriam-Websters Online Dictionary, non-, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nonmilitary

non- prefix \()nn also nn or nn before -stressed syllable, nn also nn before -stressed or unstressed syllable; the variant with is also to be understood at pronounced entries, though not shown\: notFull Definition of NON-1: not : other than : reverse of : absence of 2: of little or no consequence : unimportant : worthless 3: lacking the usual especially positive characteristics of the thing specified Non-Military Violation IcebreakersIcebreakers are military shipsO'Rourke 10 Ronald O'Rourke, Specialist in Naval Affairs at the Congressional Research Service, Coast Guard Polar Icebreaker Modernization: Background, Issues, and Options, p. 43

The other big difference is that, because the Coast Guard icebreakers are military ships and have multiple missions, they have a much larger crew strength. Their manning is about 134 crew, officers and crew, compared with I8 on the Ocean.Non-Military Violation Coast GuardCoast Guard is militaryPowers 14 Rod Powers, retired Air Force First Sergeant with 22 years of active duty service. 2014 U.S. Military 101 The "Basics" of the United States Militaryhttp://usmilitary.about.com/cs/generalinfo/a/military101.htmOur present military organizational structure is a result of the National Security Act of 1947. This is the same act that created the United States Air Force, and restructured the "War Department" into the "Department of Defense."The Department of Defense is headed by a civilian; the Secretary of Defense, who is appointed by the President of the United States. Under the Secretary of Defense, there are three military departments: The Department of the Army, the Department of the Air Force, and the Department of the Navy. Each of these military departments are also headed up by civilians; the Secretary of the Army, the Secretary of the Air Force, and the Secretary of the Navy. These "service secretaries" are also appointed by the President.There are five military branches: The Army, Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The Army is commanded by a four-star general, known as the Army Chief of Staff. The Army Chief of Staff reports to the Secretary of the Army (for most matters). The top military member in the Air Force is the Air Force Chief of Staff. This four-star general reports (for most matters) to the Secretary of the Air Force. The Navy is commanded by a four-star admiral, called the Chief of Naval Operations. The Marines are commanded by a 4-star general called the Commandant of the Marine Corps. Both the Chief of Naval Operations and the Marine Corps Commandant report (for most matters) to the Secretary of the Navy.That leaves the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard does not fall under the Department of Defense. Until recently, the Coast Guard was under the Department of Transportation. Recent legislation has moved the Coast Guard to the newly created Department of Homeland Defense. However, the Coast Guard is considered a military service, because, during times of war or conflict, the President of the United States can transfer any or all assets of the Coast Guard to the Department of the Navy. In fact, this has been done in almost every single conflict that the United States have ever been involved in. The Coast Guard is commanded by a 4-star admiral, known as the Coast Guard Commandant.Coast guard is military it's a branch of the armed forcesCoast Guard 14 United States Coast Guard Last Modified 3/20/2014 About Us http://www.uscg.mil/top/about/Overview of the United States Coast GuardThe U.S. Coast Guard is one of the five armed forces of the United States and the only military organization within the Department of Homeland Security. Since 1790 the Coast Guard has safeguarded our Nation's maritime interests and environment around the world. The Coast Guard is an adaptable, responsive military force of maritime professionals whose broad legal authorities, capable assets, geographic diversity and expansive partnerships provide a persistent presence along our rivers, in the ports, littoral regions and on the high seas. Coast Guard presence and impact is local, regional, national and international. These attributes make the Coast Guard a unique instrument of maritime safety, security and environmental stewardship.

Non-Military LimitsMilitary operations other than war are limitlessStepanova 2Dr Ekaterina Stepanova heads Peace and Conflict Studies Unit and is a lead researcher at Institute of the World Economy & International Relations Candidate of Historical Sciences, MILITARY OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR (THE U.S. VIEW) Military Thought No. 2, 2002 pp. 127133.

The term operations other than war* itself is formulated by the rule of contraries, stressing their specifics as opposed to conventional military operations. The change of terminology was also supposed to symbolize the difference of the new concept, which placed a special thrust on the non-military character of humanitarian, peacekeeping, and other suchlike operations, from the 1970s-1980s theory of low-intensity conflicts where they were regarded as less intensive military operations. The concept of operations other than war is by definition rather blurry: In U.S. society itself, there are plenty of versions of their definition and classification, as reflected in the relevant documents by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Department of Defense, U.S. Army field manuals, and so forth.2 The U.S. military doctrine specifies the following main types of operations other than war:Humanitarian operations in crisis zones that for their part include the following: assistance in natural disasters and other emergencies (say, man-made disasters); assistance to refugees and displaced persons; ensuring the security of humanitarian operations (facilitating access for international humanitarian organization and service officers to disaster areas, and protection of humanitarian personnel, columns of refugees and areas of their temporary accommodation, humanitarian aid convoys and depots as well as seaports and airports used to deliver humanitarian aid); and technical supportsay, in humanitarian mine-clearing (not directly connected with military necessity).Peace support operations: peacekeeping operations, contingent on consent by the belligerents to the presence of peacekeeping forces as well as non-use of force to the extent possible, even in self-defensesay, the UN operation in Cyprus (since 1964) or Cambodia (1991-1992 and 1992-1993); and peace enforcement operations, with none of the aforementioned limitationse.g., NATO operations in Bosnia (since 1995) and Kosovo (since 1999).Counterinsurgency and nation assistance (assistance in creating local (national) security agenciestraining, arming, technical and information support; humanitarian and other non-emergency assistance, etc.).Support for insurgency (guerrilla) movements in other countries (support by the U.S. military-political leadership for the mujahedin in Afghanistan in 1979-1989).Noncombatant evacuation operations in zones of conflict or man-made disaster (e.g., 1991 operations to evacuate U.S. and other citizens from Somalia and Zaire).Sanctions enforcement (e.g., the 1993 operation along the Haitian coast) and no-fly zone enforcementin Iraq (since 1992) and in Bosnia (since 1993).Show of force (patrolling by U.S. Air Force of insurgency bases in the course of a coup attempt in the Philippines in 1989).Non-combat operations also include short-term actions to deliver pinpoint strikes, controlling proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, arms control (inspections), and interagency military contacts.3Although U.S. military doctrine provides for military participation in operations other than war mainly abroad, it allows for the use of armed forces in operations other than war also domestically. This includes support for civilian authoritiesin dealing with strikes, emergencies and natural disasters as well as in search-and-rescue, humanitarian, and other operations; law enforcement agenciesin restoring public order (in the event of mass riots), protection of sensitive installations (e.g., electric power and water intake stations, transport and communication nodes, and so forth) as well as in counterdrug and counterterrorism operations.Whereas some types of operations other than war provide for the use of force (say, peace enforcement), others (humanitarian or traditional peacekeeping operations) do not. Oftentimes both types of operation are conducted simultaneously: Humanitarian operation combined with peace enforcement (as in Bosnia, Kosovo, etc.) is becoming standard practice. Finally, operations other than war can be both multilateral (multinational) and unilaterali.e., conducted by one or several countries. The most common types of operations other than war are peacekeeping and humanitarian operations.Ops other than war and Search and Rescue unlimits non-military to include strikes and raids. Vick 97et al, Alan Vick is a senior political scientist at the RAND Corporation and a professor at the Pardee RAND Graduate School. He has authored RAND reports on ground threats to air bases, enhancing air power's capability against light infantry opponents, air power in urban operations, air operations against elusive targets, alternatives for deploying the Army Stryker Brigade, new concepts for joint airground operations, air power's role in countering insurgencies, and airnaval concepts for maritime interdiction. PREPARING THE US. AIR FORCE FOR MILITARY OPERATIONS OTHER THAN WAR page 1-2. Note: this card was modified to clarify that the acronym MOOTW stands for Military Operations Other than War

(Military Operations Other than War) MOOTW is the Joint Staffs term for a diverse collection of military activities below the level of major regional conflicts. MOOTW includes disaster relief, humanitarian aid, search and rescue, peace operations, arms control, military support to civil authorities, strikes, raids, enforcement of sanctions, counterdrug operations, foreign internal defense, support to insurgencies, evacuation of noncombatants, and hostage rescue. See U.S. Department of Defense. Joint Doctrine for Military Operations Other Than War, Washington, D.C.: The Joint Staff, Joint Publications 3-07,1995.Military Armed ForcesMilitary is the armed forcesAHD 14 American Heritage Dictionary, military, https://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/military

military audio (ml-tr) KEY ADJECTIVE:Of, relating to, or characteristic of members of the armed forces: a military bearing; military attire.Performed or supported by the armed forces: military service.Of or relating to war: military operations.Of or relating to land forces.

Collins 14 Collins English Dictionary, military, http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/military

(mltr Pronunciation for military ; -tr) Definitionsadjectiveof or relating to the armed forces (esp the army), warlike matters, etcof, characteristic of, or about soldiersArmy, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast GuardBusch 9 Philip B. Busch, Office of Chief Counsel, Employment Authorization and Verification of Aliens Enlisting in the Armed Forces [74 FR 7993] [FR 14-09], http://www.uscis.gov/ilink/docView/FR/HTML/FR/0-0-0-1/0-0-0-186558/0-0-0-199368/0-0-0-199448.html

I. Background and PurposeSection 504 of Title 10, U.S. Code, provides citizenship and immigration status eligibility criteria for enlistment in the Armed Forces. The Armed Forces are defined under 10 U.S.C. 101(a)(4) to mean only the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. Under section 504, only citizens and noncitizen nationals of the United States; lawful permanent resident aliens; and certain nationals of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Palau who are admissible as nonimmigrants under the Compacts of Free Association with those nations, are eligible to enlist in the Armed Forces. See 10 U.S.C. 504(b)(1). Section 504(b)(2), however, also authorizes the Secretary of any Armed Force to enlist other aliens if the Secretary determines that such enlistment is vital to the national interest. Id. section 504(b)(2).Non-Military Includes Military Assets for Non-Military PurposesMilitary assets can be used for non-military exploration/developmentGvosdev 10Nikolas K. Gvosdev is a professor of national security studies at the U.S. Naval War College. He is currently a senior editor at The National Interest. internally quoting Derek Reveron, who is a professor of national security affairs at the U.S. Naval War College The Defense Exports The National Interest October 10, 2010 http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/the-defense-exports-4201

Derek Reverons concept of exporting security (discussed in detail in a book of the same name just released by Georgetown University Press) could provide a way forward out of this impasse. Although the publics attention is drawn to the ongoing conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, much of what the U.S. military is doing today is strengthening the capacities of partnersstrengthening their abilities to exercise effective control over their territories and coastlines and to be in a position to repel outside threats. The United States has security-assistance programs with 149 other nations. Some of it is active, kinetic support in combating insurgents, terrorist groups or drug cartels, as in Yemen and Colombia. Some of it is developing partnership and training programs to enhance the ability of nations to deploy peacekeeping forces or coast guards. It can encompass the gamut from humanitarian relief operations to creating defensive alliances. The net result of all of these efforts is to develop enduring relations with other states that gives the United States access to a global network of bases and platforms, but also strengthens key partners and reduces both the need for American presence and the negative attention it sometimes generatesand in so doing, can also reduce the burden on the United States to have to act as a global sheriff. Reverons approach avoids the stocking up approach to military procurement, because the emphasis would be on finding ways to deploy and use assets, rather than warehousing systems in case of emergency. For instance, in the maritime realm, the carriers, amphibious vessels and destroyers that were designed to contain the Soviet navy and protect sea lines of communication (and which might be used in a similar role vis--vis China in the future) are now being used to conduct activities ashore to improve human security. The 2010 response to the Haiti earthquake saw an aircraft carrier and sixteen other warships deployed to provide humanitarian relief and rescue services; such nonmilitary missions, in turn, help to reduce the factors which can produce security threats to the United States and reinforce American ties with other states. Reveron quotes a navy official who notes that using war assets for non-military missions such as training and humanitarian relief means We can show up, provide training, provide resources, and then leave very little footprint behind. An exporting security approach guides future procurement decisions towards multiuse platforms that can combine conventional and non-conventional missions.Military Assets arent a bright line theyre often deployed in non-military missions.Perry 8(et al; Dr. Charles M. Perry Vice President & Director of Studies, Institute for Foreign Policy AnalysisThe U.S. Foreign Disaster Response Process: How It Works and How It Could Work BetterCharles M. Perry May http://www.ifpa.org/pdf/DisasterRelief.pdf.)

Traditionally, if it is determined that military assets are indeed necessary to respond to a disaster, OFDA will submit a formal request for military assistance to the State Departments Executive Secretariat, which will in turn forward the request to the Executive Secretariat of DoD. Following an intensive intra-DoD review process, the secretary of defense or deputy secretary may order the deployment of military assets to the disaster zone in support of OFDA efforts, signing what is called a third party waiver to allow U.S. military goods and services to be used in a non-military operation to assist a third party. On the basis of such a waiver, over fifteen thousand U.S. soldiers and sailors were deployed as part of the 2004 tsunami response to work alongside OFDA in the affected regions. More specifically, the U.S. military provided twenty-six ships, eighty-two planes, and fifty-one helicopters to help deliver more than 24.5 million tons of relief supplies and enable USAID and other disaster relief agencies to move much-needed aid to inaccessible areas affected by the tsunami (OFDA 2005, 17). But DoD assistance may be as limited (if nonetheless crucial) as the dispatch of a single C-130 to deliver supplies to a disaster zone, or the diversion of a nearby ship to assist in the evacuation of people at risk or injured. In theory, the criterion for both levels of response is that no commercial alternative exists or is readily available. However, despite the formal process for requesting military assistance, local U.S. ambassadors and country officers in the relevant regional bureau at the State Department have often requested DoD assistance directly, leaving USAID and OFDA out of the loop. Moreover, some officials at State are neither familiar with disaster management issues and procedures nor even aware of USAIDs and OFDAs role as the LFA for foreign HA/DR activities. For instance, in response to flash floods in the Horn of Africa in 2006, State issued a request for DoD assistance. When personnel from DoD spoke with the relevant regional bureau at State, they found that staff at the bureau were unaware of OFDAs role or that USAID was in fact the LFA, and needed to provide the justification for DoD assistance. Still worse, DoD actually had to give bureau officials the contact information for the proper USAID/OFDA representatives (interview 2007a). Examples such as this illustrate the conundrum facing DoD: How does the military (meant primarily as a resource of last resort) respond to requests for assistance when State Department officials may not yet have properly coordinated with USAID/OFDA to fully assess the availability of civilian options, including cheaper, commercial alternatives? In an effort to avoid such situations in the future, USAID, DoD, and States Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (State/PM) are drafting new HA/DR guidelines to clarify how State should respond to and handle overseas disasters, and to improve the State-DoD assistance request process. OFDA, of course, is generally quite willing to request the mobilization of military assets for overseas relief missions, and to give DoD relatively wide latitude to work directly with its counterpart in the affected nation. This is especially true when that nation lies within a region of strategic interest, as was the case during the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Pakistan earthquake, the 2006 Philippine mudslide, and the 2007 Bangladesh cyclone. That said, increased calls for DoD involvement in HA/DR missions have pushed the military to operate less as an instrument of last resort in support of civilian relief agencies and more as a regular contributor, intimately involved in a broad range of humanitarian work. Increasingly, U.S. forces are on the ground, working alongside host nation officials and military personnel to eliminate sources of instability and improve livelihoods through various development and capacity-building projects. In the Horn of Africa, for example, U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) established the Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) in 2002 to promote regional stability and protect coalition interests through disaster relief, humanitarian support, medical and dental assistance, and construction and water development projects. CJTF-HOA also provides military-to-military training in counterterrorism and in border and maritime security. In 2008, the U.S. government will establish a new unified combatant command responsible for Africa known as Africa Command (or AFRICOM) to expand CJTF-HOA civil affairs efforts and similar projects elsewhere on the continent. For their part, U.S. Southern Command (SOUTHCOM) and PACOM already run similar programs in their respective areas of responsibility (or AORs), such as Joint Task Force-Bravo (JTF-Bravo) in Central America and Joint Special Operations Task Force-Philippines (JSOTF-P).(Note: The acronym OFDA stands for the USs Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance. HADR stands for Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief)Navies can and do carry out non-military operations Sakhuja 11Dr Vijay Sakhuja is Director (Research), Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA), New Delhi. He is also Visiting Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), Singapore since 2006. He is a former Indian Navy officer. Dr Sakhuja received his Ph D from the Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi. Asian Maritime Power in the 21st Century: Strategic Transactions China, India and Southeast Asia. p. 199

Since the 1990s, India has been nurturing an ascendant operation maritime profile. It has established bilateral engagements with the United States, Russia, France, the United Kingdom, Israel, Japan and several countries in the Southeast Asian region. Codenamed Malabar, the Indo-U.S. naval exercises were conceptualized in 1992 to mark the beginning of a new relationship between India and the United States," and fourteen such naval exercises have taken place in the past. In the beginning these exercises were rudimentary and these have progressively improved in content and complexity with participation by several complex platforms such as aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and long-range maritime patrol aircraft." The exercises paved the way for greater understanding between the naval forces and helped to develop a broad framework for operating together in support of non-military operations such as anti-piracy, safety of sea lanes, and antidrug and gunrunning patrols. The 1998 Indian nuclear tests abruptly ended cooperation between the two navies, but bilateral exercises were resumed and the cooperation got a boost with the Indian Navy dispatching a naval helicopter to USS Hewitt to carry out the medical evacuation of a U.S. navy sailor.Non-Military Includes Military Assets for Non-Military Purposes A2: Non-Combat DistinctionNon-combat use is non-militaryHuntington 93 Samuel P. Huntington, University Professor at Harvard University, Non-Combat Roles for the U.S. Military in the Post-Cold War Era, Ed. Graham, p. 5

These would clearly seem to be non-traditional roles. But are they really? The more I have thought about this issue, the more I have become convinced that with one possible exception the subject of this conference does not exist There are almost no conceivable roles for the American military in this new phase of national security that the American military have not performed in some earlier phase. The true distinction, I believe, is not between traditional and non-traditional roles but between military and non-military roles, or more precisely, between the combat missions of the military and the non-combat uses of military force. The purpose of military forces is combat, that is to deter and to defeat the enemies of the United States; that is their central mission, their raison detre, the only justification for expending resources on their creation and maintenance. The forces created for that mission, however, can and throughout our history have been employed in non-combat non-military uses.Non-Military Includes Search-and-RescueSearch-and-rescue are officially non-military opsTilley 13John A. Tilley, Associate Professor, Department of History, East Carolina University. Before joining the faculty at East Carolina University, Tilley was an assistant curator at the Mariners' Museum in Newport News, Virginia. His publications include The British Navy and the American Revolution (1987). His articles have appeared in The Nautical Research Journal and Model Shipwright. Tilley teaches courses in military history. History of the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Published at RATLINES: UNITED STATES COAST GUARD AUXILIARY UNOFFICIAL NEWSLETTER May 7, 2013 - http://www.ratlines.com/uscg_aux_history.htm

The third cornerstone is "Operations." The Auxiliary assists the Coast Guard in several of its non-military functions, including search-and-rescue (SAR), safety, regatta, and harbor patrols, and checking aids to navigation (ATON). Search-and-rescue is non-military. Prefer ev that assumes maritime activities and the region at hand. WESTERN PACIFIC NAVAL SYMPOSIUM 12(Internally quoting US Naval Admiral Gary Roughead The Western Pacific Naval Symposium (WPNS) is a forum for naval professionals, which aims to increase naval cooperation in the Western Pacific by providing a venue for discussions on professional issues, generating a flow of information and opinion, leading to common understanding and potential agreements. There are currently 20 full members, including the United States, Australia, and Malaysia. 13th WESTERN PACIFIC NAVAL SYMPOSIUM, KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA, 25 26 SEPTEMBER 2012 http://img.mod.gov.cn/reports/201310/bzdd/site21/20131128/4437e6581cab1400f28606.pdf.)

The Chair also reiterated the response made by Admiral Roughead (US Navy) at the 12th Symposium to the concept of Harmonious Ocean pledged by Rear Admiral Xu Weibing (PLA Navy) that this forum should continue in openness and engage in practical cooperation that will make the activities of the WPNS more expansive in its outlook and more inclusive in sharing its common views of the strategic maritime security position, with a particular emphasis on its vision for the future. The Chair reflected that when Malaysia hosted the 4th Symposium in 1994, some of the topics discussed include the non-military security issues such as approach in managing maritime security, search and rescue and prevention of sea pollution. However, he said that the challenge today was the management of naval issues as they are becoming more complex, complicated, multifaceted and intertwined. He added that these have to be dealt with in a holistic manner and could be attended in a collaborative effort among the regional states as envisaged through the theme of the Symposium, Enhancing Interoperability and Professional Cooperation."Search-and-rescue is non-military. Prefer ev that assumes maritime activities and the region of the MH370 search.Kaneda 4Hideaki Kaneda, a former Vice Admiral of Japan's Defense Forces, is Director of the Okazaki Institute. CSIS Conference and Publications. Maritime Security in East Asia Regional Assessment of Northeast Asia: Pursuing a Maritime Security Coalition in the Asia-Pacific Region. A paper prepared for the Center for Strategic and International Studies American-Pacific Sealanes Security Institute conference on Maritime Security in Asia. January 18-20, 2004, http://www.slocgroup.org/pubs/SLOC14.pdf.

At the beginning of the 21st Century, seven specific instability factors affect security in the Asia-Pacific region.The first factor is the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and ballistic missiles from Northeast Asia to other regions. The second factor is international terrorism, which has become especially apparent after the 9.11 terrorist attacks. Terrorism is gathering strength through alliances in and out of the Asia-Pacific region, and increasingly targeting countries with weaker governments.The third factor is the rapid build-up of Chinese military power, mainly naval and air power, which could potentially tip the balance of regional military power. The fourth factor is the military confrontational structure that originated in the cold war and still remains on the Korean Peninsula and in the Taiwan Strait. These bring instability, uncertainty and lack of clarity to the regional situation.The fifth factor is the historical issue of territorial, religious and ethnic disputes and confrontations. In particular, disputes over the possession of islands are likely to significantly affect the stability of the whole region while obstructing maritime security. The sixth factor is the confrontational structures surrounding oceanic interests, which are closely related to the disputes over island possession. The seventh factor is the increase in internationalized and organized criminal activities such as piracy, drug trafficking and slave trading, and illegal activities such as over-fishing, unsanctioned ocean resource surveying and environmental destruction in Asia-Pacific waters.2. Pursuing a Regional Maritime Security Coalition(1) Maritime Safety and Security as a Common Key Phrase for Regional Security Surveying the above instability factors, maritime safety and security stands out as a common key phrase highlighting the vital issues for regional security.Maritime safety and security can be divided into three categories. The first is emergency maritime security, which indicates purely maritime military issues of war, including the defense of territory and SLOC protection. The second is peacetime maritime safety, which indicates non-military maritime issues such as international terrorism, piracy, drug trafficking, search and rescue, humanitarian and navigational operations. The third is various maritime activities that can include fishing, preserving maritime resources and environmental issues.

*** OCEANSOceans General DefinitionsOceans are large bodies of salt water that cover the EarthNALMS 14 North American Lake Management Society, WATER WORDS GLOSSARY, http://www.nalms.org/home/publications/water-words-glossary/O.cmsx

OCEANGenerally, the whole body of salt water which covers nearly three fourths of the surface of the globe. The average depth of the ocean is estimated to be about 13,000 feet (3,960 meters); the greatest reported depth is 34,218 feet (10,430 meters), north of Mindanao in the Western Pacific Ocean. The ocean bottom is a generally level or gently undulating plain, covered with a fine red or gray clay, or, in certain regions, with ooze of organic origin. The water, whose composition is fairly constant, contains on the average 3 percent of dissolved salts; of this solid portion, common salt forms about 78 percent, magnesium salts 15-16 percent, calcium salts 4 percent, with smaller amounts of various other substances. The density of ocean water is about 1.026 (relative to distilled water, or pure H2O). The oceans are divided into the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans.

Oxford 14 Oxford Dictionaries 2014 http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/oceanDefinition of ocean in English: ocean Syllabification: ocean Pronunciation: /SHn/noun 1A very large expanse of sea, in particular, each of the main areas into which the sea is divided geographically: the Atlantic Ocean More example sentencesSynonyms 1.1 (usually the ocean) North American The sea: [as modifier]: the ocean floor More example sentences 1.2 (an ocean of/oceans of) informal A very large expanse or quantity: she had oceans of energy More example sentencesSynonyms

Random House 14 Dictionary.com Unabridged; Based on the Random House Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2014. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/oceanocean [oh-shuhn] Show IPA noun1. the vast body of salt water that covers almost three fourths of the earth's surface.2. any of the geographical divisions of this body, commonly given as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic oceans.3. a vast expanse or quantity: an ocean of grass. Collins 9 Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition 2009 World English Dictionary http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/oceanocean (n) n1. a very large stretch of sea, esp one of the five oceans of the world, the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic2. the body of salt water covering approximately 70 per cent of the earth's surface3. a huge quantity or expanse: an ocean of replies4. literary the sea Merriam-Webster 14 Merriam-Webster 2014, Incorporated http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/oceanOcean noun, often attributive \-shn\: the salt water that covers much of the Earth's surface: one of the five large areas of salt water that cover much of the Earth's surface: a very large number or amount of somethingOceans Excludes Southern/ArcticSouthern Ocean is not an OceanNational Geographic 14(From the piece, Antarctic Ocean, Austral Ocean, Southern Ocean Revised April 2014 http://stylemanual.ngs.org/home/A/antarctic-ocean

Antarctic Ocean, Austral Ocean, Southern Ocean National Geographic Society does not recognize these place-names, but they are sometimes used in the Southern Hemisphere and by scientists to designate those parts of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans surrounding Antarctica. Though the waters surrounding Antarctica are sometimes called the Antarctic Ocean or Southern Ocean, they are only the southernmost parts of the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans. The following explanation appears on plate 111 of the National Geographic Atlas of the World, ninth edition: The Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans merge into icy waters around Antarctica. Some define this as an oceancalling it the Antarctic Ocean, Austral Ocean, or Southern Ocean. While most accept four oceans, including the Arctic, there is no international agreement on the name and extent of a fifth ocean.

Oceans Includes Southern/ArcticSouthern/Arctic Ocean is officially recognized by the U.S.NOAA 14 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ocean Facts, 1-23, http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/howmanyoceans.html

While there is only one global ocean, the vast body of water that covers 71 percent of the Earth is geographically divided into distinct named regions. The boundaries between these regions have evolved over time for a variety of historical, cultural, geographical, and scientific reasons.Historically, there are four named oceans: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic. However, most countriesincluding the United Statesnow recognize the Southern (Antarctic) as the fifth ocean. The Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian are known as the three major oceans.The Southern Ocean is the 'newest' named ocean. It is recognized by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names as the body of water extending from the coast of Antarctica to the line of latitude at 60 degrees South. The boundaries of this ocean were proposed to the International Hydrographic Organization in 2000. However, not all countries agree on the proposed boundaries, so this has yet to be ratified by members of the IHO. The U.S. is a member of the IHO, represented by the NOS Office of Coast Survey.No bright line even National Geographic is torn on the question.Holland 11ELIZABETHE HOLLAND Reporter for the St Louis Post Dispatch. She is internally quoting members of the American Meteorological Society and Ann Kelly, who teaches graduate level courses on oceanography for high school teachers. Southern Ocean debate buoys teachers' role in classroom St Louis Post Dispatch January 05, 2011 http://www.stltoday.com/news/science/southern-ocean-debate-buoys-teachers-role-in-classroom/article_3f5fd0e4-e164-50b1-8af3-b847ed1f7407.html

"It's the newest ocean," said Ann Kelly, a teacher at Bishop DuBourg High School who, as a member of the American Meteorological Society, oversees a graduate-level course on oceanography for teachers. Kelly said most of the teachers who take the courses come into class having never heard of the Southern Ocean. "Most people are like, 'Oh, I didn't know they called it that,'" she said. What the International Hydrographic Organization defines as the Southern Ocean completely surrounds Antarctica and extends upward to 60 degrees south latitude in an area where the cold waters of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica meet the warmer waters of the north. While debate continues over whether the Earth has four or five oceans, promoters of the latter say the Southern Ocean is the fourth-largest of the five (smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian, but larger than the Arctic). "Oceanographers and meteorologists do consider it important and do consider it an ocean," Kelly said. But other experts don't even agree that it officially exists. It's a dispute that shows not only how teachers can be thrust into academic disagreements, but how those scientific debates can take time to trickle down to classrooms. Not official Among the detractors of a formal designation is the National Geographic Society, which doesn't officially recognize the Southern Ocean. But the respected body hasn't exactly closed the books on the concept either. Cindy Aitken, a spokeswoman for the organization, said the newest edition of the National Geographic Atlas of the World says: "The Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans merge into icy water around Antarctica. Some define this as an ocean, calling it the Antarctic Ocean, Austral Ocean or Southern Ocean. While most accept four oceans, including the Arctic, there is no international agreement on the name or extent of a fifth ocean. "In general, National Geographic recognizes the Southern Ocean as a scientific term and not a oceanographic feature.

Oceans Includes Seabed/ResourcesOcean includes water, seabed and resourcesMansfield 4 Becky Mansfield Department of Geography, Ohio State University, GeoforumVolume 35, Issue 3, May 2004, Pages 313326 Neoliberalism in the oceans: rationalization, property rights, and the commons question Science Direct http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016718503001155

In this paper, I address these questions by analyzing the development of neoliberalism in the oceans, and in particular in ocean fisheries. Examining the ways that past policy orientations toward fisheries have influenced the development of neoliberal approaches to ocean governance, I contend that neoliberalism in the oceans centers specifically around concerns about property and the use of privatization to create markets for governing access to and use of ocean resources. Within the Euro-American tradition that has shaped international law of the sea, the oceans (including the water column, seabed, and living and mineral resources) were long treated as common propertythe common heritage of mankind (Pardo, 1967)open to all comers with the means to create and exploit oceanic opportunities. Although historically there has also been continual tension between this openness of access and desire for territorialization (especially of coastal waters), treating the oceans as a commons is consistent with the idea that oceans are spaces of movement and transportation, which have facilitated mercantilism, exploration, colonial expansion, and cold war military maneuvering (Steinberg, 2001).1 Oceans have also long been sites for resource extraction, yet it has not been until recent decades that new economic desires and environmental contradictions have contributed to a pronounced move away from open access and freedom of the seas. New technologies for resource extraction combined with regional overexploitation have contributed to conflicts over resources, to which representatives from academia, politics, and business have responded by calling for enclosing the oceans within carefully delimited regimes of property rights, be those regimes of state, individual, or collective control.Ocean exploration includes the sea floorMcNutt 13 Marcia McNutt, Ocean Exploration 2020 Executive Chair and Editor-In-Chief of Science, Ocean Exploration 2020: A National Forum, http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/oceanexploration2020/oe2020_report.pdf

Participants noted that ocean exploration includes everything from the sub-sea floor to the ocean surface. In all of these geographic areas, participants agreed that a greater emphasis should be placed on exploring the water column than often has been the case in the past.Exploration includes the seabed and subsoilSimmonds 3 Mark Simmonds, Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, Oceans of Noise, http://www.mmc.gov/sound/internationalwrkshp/pdf/simmondsetal.pdf

The Barcelona Convention is supplemented by a Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf and the Seabed and its Subsoil (the Barcelona Protocol).76 The protocol defines exploration activities to include, inter alia, seismological activities and surveys of the seabed and its subsoil.77 Though several provisions apply generally to pollution (which in turn includes energy78) or to activities (which in turn includes exploration activities), the section in the protocol that addresses particular types of pollutants in turn79 does so under the heading wastes and harmful or noxious substances and materials; not surprisingly in view of this declared scope, there is no mention in this section of pollution by forms of energy. Overall then, it is clear that in the detail, the Barcelona Protocol focuses on substances and materials rather than on energy.

Oceans Excludes Other Water BodiesOceans are only the 5 major bodies of water---lakes and land-bounded seas like the Mediterranean are excludedRosenberg 14 Matt Rosenberg, Master's in Geography from California State University, Former Adjunct University Faculty Member in Geography, City Planning and GIS Intern for Local Government, Newspaper Columnist, and Disaster Manager for the American Red Cross, Names for Water Bodies, About.com Geography, http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/waterbodies.htm

Water bodies are described by a plethora of different names in English - rivers, streams, ponds, bays, gulfs, and seas to name a few Many of these terms' definitions overlap and thus become confusing when one attempts to pigeon-hole a type of water body. Read on to find out the similarities (and differences) between terms used to describe water bodies.We'll begin with the different forms of flowing water. The smallest water channels are often called brooks but creeks are often larger than brooks but may either be permanent or intermittent. Creeks are also sometimes known as streams but the word stream is quite a generic term for any body of flowing water. Streams can be intermittent or permanent and can be on the surface of the earth, underground, or even within an ocean (such as the Gulf Stream).A river is a large stream that flows over land. It is often a perennial water body and usually flows in a specific channel, with a considerable volume of water. The world's shortest river, the D River, in Oregon, is only 120 feet long and connects Devil's Lake directly to the Pacific Ocean.A pond is a small lake, most often in a natural depression. Like a stream, the word lake is quite a generic term - it refers to any accumulation of water surrounded by land - although it is often of a considerable size. A very large lake that contains salt water, is known as a sea (except the Sea of Galilee, which is actually a freshwater lake).A sea can also be attached to, or even part of, an ocean. For example, the Caspian Sea is a large saline lake surrounded by land, the Mediterranean Sea is attached to the Atlantic Ocean, and the Sargasso Sea is a portion of the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by water.Oceans are the ultimate bodies of water and refers to the five oceans - Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, Indian, and Southern. The equator divides the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Oceans into the North and South Atlantic Ocean and the North and South Pacific Ocean.Oceans are distinct from seas, gulfs, and baysNASA 10 Water Bodies: Where Are They?, Educators Guide Module 2, http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/Mission_Geography/k-4/Module_2/I-2-3.pdf

Developing the Investigation3. Refer to the list above and circle the following water bodies. Tell the students that the project that they will be doing will focus on these: oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, lakes, and rivers. Give the definitions to the class, either verbally or on a slip of paper and ask them what water body is being defined. Use the following definitions.ocean: a vast body of salt water that separates or surrounds continentssea: a smaller division of the ocean, partially enclosed by land (or sometimes a very large lake)gulf: arm of the ocean that reaches into landbay: a body of water that is partly enclosed by land, smaller than a gulflake: a body of fresh water, surrounded by landriver: water that flows downhill in a natural channelOceans Excludes SeasSeas arent topicalAsk 14 What Is the Difference between Sea and Ocean?, http://www.ask.com/question/what-is-the-difference-between-sea-and-ocean

What Is the Difference between Sea and Ocean?Oceans and seas are two different types of bodies of water. The difference between an ocean and the sea is that seas are typically located where the land and the ocean meet, are partially enclose by land and are relatively smaller than oceans while oceans are very deep masses of water that separate continents and are expansive. Oceans do not have plant life on the ocean beds as compared to seas which have a wide variety of plant life. The world's largest sea is very small in comparison to the smallest ocean.Oceans and seas are distinct---they unlimitEdmondson 7 R. Edmondson, What Is The Difference Between An Ocean And A Sea?, Tell Me Why Facts, 3-2, http://www.tellmewhyfacts.com/2007/03/what-is-difference-between-ocean-and.html

Ocean and sea are two words that are used frequently and interchangeably (in writing and conversation) to mean the same thing: a continuous mass of seawater on the earth's surface. However, strictly speaking, there is a difference between the two.An ocean is a large expanse of salt water that covers three-quarters of the earth's surface. It is bounded by the continents, or the equator, and other imaginary lines. The Earth's seven main oceans are; the Arctic, North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, Indian and Antarctic Oceans. These seven main oceans comprise the "world ocean". Sea on the other hand, is a body of salt water that is surrounded by land on all or most sides, or that is part of one of the oceans. For example, the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea are large saline lakes that are surrounded by land-they lack a natural outlet; Sargasso Sea is a portion of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea is attached to the Atlantic Ocean. Major seas include the Mediterranean, Baltic, Bering, Black, Caribbean, Coral, North, Red, and Yellow. The largest seas are the South China Sea, the Caribbean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea.Thus, an ocean is interconnected mass of saltwater (covering 71% of the surface of the earth) where boundaries are established by continental land masses, or the equator and ridges in the ocean floor. A sea, on the other hand, is usually smaller than an ocean (a division of an ocean) and is a body of salt water that is; surrounded on all or most sides (partially enclosed) by land and/or part of one of the oceans.Our interpretation is most predictable---theirs is outdatedAHD 2 American Heritage Science Dictionary, ocean, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/ocean

Our Living Language: The word ocean refers to one of the Earth's four distinct, large areas of salt water, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic Oceans. The word can also mean the entire network of water that covers almost three quarters of our planet. It comes from the Greek Okeanos, a river believed to circle the globe. The word sea can also mean the vast ocean covering most of the world. But it more commonly refers to large landlocked or almost landlocked salty waters smaller than the great oceans, such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Bering Sea. Sailors have long referred to all the world's waters as the seven seas. Although the origin of this phrase is not known for certain, many people believe it referred to the Red Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Black Sea, the Adriatic Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Indian Ocean, which were the waters of primary interest to Europeans before Columbus.Seas are different because theyre delineated by land massesBarrans 12 Richard E. Barrans Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Director of the PG Research Foundation, Sea vs Oceans, Newton Ask A Scientist Department of Energy Office of Science, June, http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/env99/env131.htm

Sea vs OceansName: CarlStatus: OtherAge: 30sLocation: N/ACountry: N/ADate: N/A Question:What, if any, is the difference between the seas and the ocean? I know that some seas are enclosed by land masses (i.e. Black Sea) and others aren't (i.e.Tasman Sea). Also what is the distinction between gulfs and bays? I've checked encyclopedias and other various sources but have yet to find a satisfactory answer. Perhaps you could recommend a book. Thank you for any info you can provide. Carl Replies:It's not a rigid definition. Seas are delineated by land masses, whether or not they are largely enclosed. They should also communicate with the ocean. The Meditteranean and Black seas qualify here, because saltwater actually flows IN to both those bodies of water. The Caspian Sea is, strictly speaking, not really a sea but instead the world's largest lake. Why aren't the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of California, Hudson Bay, and the Bay of Bengal not called seas? No real reason. It's just a matter of names. If different people had named them, they might have been called seas. Mediterranean is not an oceanReadSuperbs 11 Whats the Distinction Between A Ocean and A Sea, October, http://readsuperbs.blogspot.com/2011/10/whats-distinction-between-ocean-and-sea.html

Although the terms "ocean" as well as "sea" in many cases are utilized interchangeably, a lot is usually considered to be smaller than an ocean. 1 definition of "ocean" is actually: a great entire body of interconnecting salt water which covers 71 % from the Planet's surface. There are 4 major oceans-Arctic, Ocean, and Indian native, as well as Pacific. However, a few resources do not range from the Arctic Sea, calling it a marginal sea. The term "sea" is usually allotted to saltwater areas on the margins associated with oceans, like the Mediterranean and beyond located beside the Atlantic Ocean.Oceans Includes SeasOceans include seasMerkels 96 Merkels Jr., United States Patent Method of Increasing Seafood Production in the Ocean, 7-16, patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/US5535701.pdf

Ocean fertilization according to the present invention would greatly increase the productivity of seafood from the oceans. (The term oceans also includes seas, bays and other large bodies of water). For example, ocean fertilization along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States could increase the productivity off these coasts up the level that occurs naturally off the coast of Peru. This could increase the productivity of seafood along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States by a factor of 30 or more, and thereby provide thousands of new jobs and revitalize a fishing industry that is in decline in some areas of the United States, while at the same time generating a high quality protein food for both domestic consumption and export. Ocean fertilization could also increase the fish catch off the coasts of other countries with the same benefits.Some seas are topicalInfoplease 13 Oceans or Seas?, October, http://www.infoplease.com/askeds/oceans-seas.html

The Question:What is the difference between an "ocean" and a "sea"?The Answer:According to our encyclopedia the words are synonymous.In addition, the word "sea" can also be used to describe a subdivision of an ocean that is more or less marked off by land boundries. That's the case with the North Sea, Caribbean Sea, and Yellow Sea. It is inaccurately used to describe large, land-locked salt-water lakes like the Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, and Aral Sea.Here are links to tables of the world's Largest Oceans and Seas and Largest Lakes if you're thirsting for more information.Oceans Excludes Great LakesGreat Lakes are not oceansOPC 10 Ocean Policy Commission, NOPC Submits Comments On Interim Framework for Effective Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning, 2-12, http://oceanpolicy.com/2010/02/12/nopc-submits-comments-on-interim-framework-for-effective-coastal-and-marine-spatial-planning-2/

It is unclear as to why the Ocean Policy/CMSP is applied to the Great Lakes. The Great Lakes are not oceans. The submerged lands in the Great Lakes region are under the jurisdiction of the adjacent states and are actually part of the territory of those states. There are no Great Lakes waters under exclusive federal jurisdiction. We are concerned that applying CMSP to the Great Lakes would in fact take away state authority in these regions and bring them under federal control setting up a constitutional conflict.Great Lakes are not oceansFlikkema 2 Elizabeth Flikkema, Childrens Author, Reading for Understanding, Grades 1 2, p. 112

Stand on the sunny shore of Lake Michigan. Feel the sand between your toes. Hear the seagulls screaming. Look at the water. You can't see the other side of the lake! Is it an ocean? No, it is a Great Lake.The five Great Lakes are not oceans. Their water is not salty The Great Lakes are huge freshwater lakes. The five lakes are Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Ontario, and Lake Erie.

Oceans Excludes Coast/EEZ 1NCOcean is water beyond the Contiguous ZoneCWA 12 Clean Water Act, Section 502 General Definitions, http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/guidance/wetlands/sec502.cfm

(10) The term "ocean" means any portion of the high seas beyond the contiguous zone.That excludes activities within 24 miles of shoreBaird 97 Brian E. Baird, Manager of California Ocean Resources Management Program, California's Ocean Resources: An Agenda for the Future, March, http://resources.ca.gov/ocean/html/chapt_3.html

OCEAN JURISDICTIONAL DESIGNATIONSOcean jurisdictions include some offshore regions with clearly defined sovereignty and regulatory regimes, while others have become less clear due to recent national and international developments (see Figure 3-1). Current ocean jurisdictional designations offshore California are:State Tidelands and Submerged Lands (shoreline to 3 nautical miles offshore): the federal Submerged Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C. 1301 et seq.) granted ownership of lands and resources within this body of water to coastal states such as California.Outer Continental Shelf (seaward of 3 nautical miles from shore): the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C.A. 1331 et seq.), passed in coordination with the Submerged Lands Act, confirmed federal jurisdiction over the resources beyond three nautical miles from shore and created a legal process for developing those resources (such as oil and gas).Territorial Sea (shoreline to 12 nautical miles offshore): pursuant to a 1988 proclamation by President Reagan (Proclamation No. 5928), the United States now asserts sovereign rights over the lands and waters out to 12 nautical miles from shore (the previous territorial sea designation was coextensive with State Tidelands in California -- shoreline to 3 nautical miles offshore). This proclamation does not disturb the rights of states in the waters out to three nautical miles established under the SLA. However, the term "territorial sea" is included in over 68 federal statutes and the new assertion of sovereignty creates ambiguity over the management of the area between 3 and 12 miles offshore. It has never been tested in the courts as to whether the President can unilaterally enlarge this jurisdiction to 12 miles for the purposes of these statutes. The term "marginal sea" is also used to describe the territorial sea.Contiguous Zone (12 to 24 nautical miles offshore): within this area, a nation can exercise control over customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary matters. Neither the Executive Branch nor Congress have taken the initiative to formally adopt a contiguous zone for the waters offshore the U.S..Oceans Excludes Coast/EEZ 2NCOceans are outside of any states territorial control---coastal areas arent topicalConner 00 William C. Conner, Senior District Judge for the United States District Court, Hartford Fire Insurance Company, Plaintiff, v. Joseph MITLOF d/b/a Hudson Valley Waterways, Village of Tarrytown, Village of Nyack, Nyack Parking Authority, Key Bank U.S.A., Rivercrest Homeowners Association a/k/a Rivercrest Corp., Garrison Yacht Club and Nyack Boat Club, Defendants, 12-15, http://www.leagle.com/decision/2000885123FSupp2d762_1804.xml/HARTFORD%20FIRE%20INS.%20CO.%20v.%20MITLOF

The Passengers argue that the term "marine insurance" in 2117(b)(3)(A) "concerns insurance for the ship owner's personal property in the course of import or export and is clearly not applicable to [Passengers's] personal injury claims." (Ram July 10 tr at 2.) The Hartford Policy definitely does not fall into this category, for there is no evidence that Conservator was involved in import/export shipping. On the contrary, it was a pontoon boat certified to travel only in the "Norwalk Connecticut harbor area, not more than one (1) mile from shore, on voyages not to exceed thirty (30) minutes in duration" (Coast Guard 5/21/97 Certificate of Inspection at 1). Thus, it was clearly not an "ocean going vessel;" nor was it even certified to travel on the ocean. See, e.g., BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 1080 (6th ed.1990), which defines "ocean" as "the main or open sea; the high sea; that portion of the sea which does not lie within the body of any country and is not subject to the territorial jurisdiction or control of any country, but is open, free, and common to the use of all nations."Oceans are outside of the territorial seaCFR 14 Code of Federal Regulations, Permits for Ocean Dumping of Dredged Material, http://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/33/324.2

For the purpose of this regulation, the following terms are defined:(a) The term "ocean waters" means those waters of the open seas lying seaward of the base line from which the territorial sea is measured, as provided for in the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone (15 UST 1606: TIAS 5639).Oceans Includes EEZOceans include the EEZMathews 11 Joe Mathews, Law Clerk at Springfield Law and Conservation Clinic Fellow at the University of Florida Conservation Clinic, Redefining the Territorial Sea in the Clean Water Act: Replacing Outdated Terminology and Extending Regulatory Jurisdiction, Sea Grant Law and Policy Journal, 4(1), Summer, http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/sglpj/Vol4No1/Matthews.pdf

3. The OceanThe ocean is defined as any portion of the high seas beyond the contiguous zone.49 Although the high seas is not defined in the CWA, the ocean as used in the CWA has been interpreted to include the Exclusive Economic Zone (seaward a distance of 200 nautical miles)50 as well as the high seas beyond the jurisdictional reach of the United States.51 Part VII of UNCLOS III, which discusses the High Seas states that it applies to all parts of the sea that are not included in the exclusive economic zone, in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State, or in the archipelagic waters of an archipelagic State.52 Although such an expansive definition was unlikely the intention of Congress when it passed the CWA, the statute does assert authority over ocean waters falling outside U.S. jurisdiction and it is a reasonable interpretation of the statutory language in light of UNCLOS III. This serves as another example of the confusion generated by Congress failure to update the CWA to reflect the existing extent of maritime claims under international law.Excluding coastal exploration undermines topic educationBaker 3 Joe Baker, Chief Scientist for the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Commissioner for the Environment, Exploration of the Seas:: Voyage into the Unknown, p. 175-176

Joe Baker, Chief Scientist for the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Commissioner for the Environment, discussed the value of ocean explorationexemplified by Australia's dependence on marine resources for its economic well-being. The scientific value of exploration is not the highest priority. It is the use of the dataand the assimilation and transmission of information to decision-makersthat is essential. Australia is one of the 12 mega-biodiverse countries, and the only developed country among the 12 mega-biodiverse countries. With the exception of Australia, the other eleven have an inverse proportion of gross national product to mega-biodiversity. Australia has a well-educated population, is politically stable, and has many special features such as the Great Barrier Reef. There is significant expertise in tropical marine systems, and as a result, Australia has responsibility for leadership in management and conservation for protection of mega-biodiversity.Dr. Baker's definition of ocean exploration is broad and includes a comprehensive awareness of the nature, role, and function of the oceans. It should be multidisciplinary and multinational. A coordinated international exploration program adds value by sharing costs and assets, sharing output, and eliminating overlap. Such a program should include studies of impacts of change on human populations, interactions at boundaries (e.g., ice, coastal margins, sea beds), the interdependency of living and nonliving components of ecosystems, bio-prospecting for pharmaceuticals, and bio-mining for exploitation of natural resources. The challenge is to determine priorities and develop criteria for study selection.He emphasized that ocean exploration should not focus exclusively on offshore oceanic environments. Coastal ocean exploration is equally important as offshore because these are the areas where the impacts of change will be the most severe. Finally, he offered the opinion that good exploration shares costs and benefits with developing countries in order to help all parties achieve sustainable development of ocean resources.No bright-line for their interpretationVisbeck 13 Martin Visbeck, Chair in Physical Oceanography at the Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences at the University in Kiel, et al., Securing Blue Wealth: The Need for a Special Sustainable Development Goal for the Ocean and Coasts and for Future Ocean Spatial Planning, December, sustainabledevelopment.un.org/getWSDoc.php?id=2910

2 There is no standard definition of coasts or the coastal zone. Commonly, the coastal zone is understood as the interface or transitional area between terrestrial and marine environments and their mutual influences (Woodroffe, 2002). Yet the coastal zone is strongly impacted by human activity and thus characterized by functional linkages and interactions between environmental and human systems, both on land and at sea. In our context, we understand the coastal zone as a complex human-environmental system that extends as far into the sea and onto the land as its key functional linkages and interactions extend.Oceans Excludes Above SurfaceOceans begin at the surfaceKnight 13 J.D. Knight, Webmaster of Sea and Sky, Astronomer and Marine Aquarium Hobbyist, Layers of the Ocean, http://www.seasky.org/deep-sea/ocean-layers.html

Scientists have divided the ocean into five main layers. These layers, known as "zones", extend from the surface to the most extreme depths where light can no longer penetrate. These deep zones are where some of the most bizarre and fascinating creatures in the sea can be found. As we dive deeper into these largely unexplored places, the temperature drops and the pressure increases at an astounding rate. The following diagram lists each of these zones in order of depth.Epipelagic Zone - The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone and extends from the surface to 200 meters (656 feet). It is also known as the sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists. With the light come heat. This heat is responsible for the wide range of temperatures that occur in this zone.*** EXPLORATIONExploration Discovery 1NCExploration is discovery through observation and recordingNAS 00 National Academy of Science Study, Ocean Exploration, http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/osb/miscellaneous/exploration_final.pdf

What Is Ocean Exploration?As defined by the Presidents Panel on Ocean Exploration (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2000), ocean exploration is discovery through disciplined, diverse observations and recordings of findings. It includes rigorous, systematic observations and documentation of biological, chemical, physical, geological, and archeological aspects of the ocean in the three dimensions of space and in time.Activity after discovery isnt explorationHertzman 13 Len Hertzman, Partner at Ashurst Australia, Exploration Expenditure No Bright Line Test, 5-29, www.ashurst.com/doc.aspx?id_Content=9175

What is "exploration"?One of the key issues in the proceedings concerned the meaning of the word "exploration" as used in section 37 of the Act.While it is clear that "exploration" extends to activities involved in searching for and drilling exploration wells to discover petroleum reserves, prior to the Tribunals decision, it was not clear whether the word "exploration" extended beyond the immediate discovery of petroleum. For example, if a taxpayer drilled an exploration well and discovered petroleum, does expenditure incurred subsequent to that point in time cease to have the character of exploration expenditure (even though the extent and quality of the reserve may be unknown)?Further, it was unclear whether the term "exploration" extended to circumstances where a taxpayer did not yet know whether an identified reserve was commercially or technically viable to allow for the development and later production of a petroleum project (ie where the reserve is not a proven reserve). If activities of this nature were in connection with "exploration" then the costs of assessing the commercial or the technical feasibility of exploiting a reserve are likely to be referrable to "exploration" and therefore within section 37 of the Act.A further step along the continuum is whether "exploration" continues until a final investment decision is made to proceed with a project in relation to a proven reserve. Again, it was not clear whether expenditure incurred on activities prior to a final investment decision being made are referrable to "exploration" and therefore within section 37 of the Act.In its decision the Tribunal concluded, after considering the legislative history of the Act, that there is nothing in the legislative history or in the extensive case law referred to by either party to suggest that the term "exploration" should be read as meaning other than its ordinary everyday meaning understood in the context in which it appears. The Tribunal found it useful to borrow from the language of a research report prepared by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics in 1996 (ABARE report) in considering the nature of the activities which naturally fall within the meaning of the word "exploration", as the word would be understood by a user of ordinary English familiar with oil and gas mining.The ABARE report refers to: oil and gas companies using a range of survey techniques to identify prospective fields. These may be geological, gravity, magnetic, seismic (2D and 3D) or geometrical surveys. In prospective areas, new field wildcat wells are drilled to discover the location of accumulations. In the event of a discovery, appraisal wells may also be drilled to provide a more accurate indication of the potential size and quality of the oil and gas resources.The ABARE report then stated "[if] the discovery is significant, a feasibility study of the field for future development and production is undertaken". The Tribunal took the view that although activities in the nature of feasibility studies were included by the ABARE report as falling within the "exploration phase" as opposed to the "production phase", activity of that kind is of a distinctly different nature to that included within the ordinary meaning of the term "exploration". Accordingly, the Tribunal found at [322]: as a matter of fact, that in the context of section 37(1) of the PRRTA Act, the ordinary meaning of the word 'exploration' contemplates the use of any range of survey techniques to identify prospective oil or gas fields. Those survey techniques would include, but not be limited to, geological, gravity and magnetic, seismic (2D and 3D) and a geometric surveys together with any scientific or technical analysis necessarily associated with evaluating their results. 'Exploration' also includes the drilling of appraisal wells to provide a more accurate indication of the potential size and quality of the oil and gas reserves. However, the ordinary meaning of the word 'exploration' does not, in the Tribunal's view, extend to include feasibility studies of the field for future development and production. [emphasis added]Voting issue---Limits---they include any activity that potentially gains knowledge, which makes research impossible---the mechanism of exploration is the only hope for limits because action in any part of the ocean is topical---limits are key to preparation and clashGround---action beyond discovery artificially inflates advantage ground and opens up unique production Affs that change the link direction to generics---ground is key to fairnessExploration Discovery ViolationExploration ends at the point of discoveryGrieve 13 Stewart Grieve, Partner at Corrs Chambers Westgarth, Exploration Expenditure Under The Microscope, 9-11, http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=84f4dbcb-26c8-4db7-9559-7ad03949040f

ZZGN suggests that there is a temporal aspect to exploration. Despite the AAT dismissing the exploration phase and production phase dichotomy in the ABARE Report, it seems, according to the AAT, that generally exploration occurs only up until the point of discovery. The problem however, is in stating precisely when a discovery is made. Between first identification of the resource and the commissioning of feasibility studies lies a range of activity that, on the AAT definition, may or may not constitute exploration. When, for instance, does appraising the size and quality of a field constitute exploration and when does it constitute a feasibility study for future development? In that regard, clearly exploration and feasibility studies are not unrelated concepts.The target must be new or unexploredCFR 12 Code of Federal Regulations, TITLE 30 - MINERAL LANDS AND MINING, http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/pdf/uscode30/lii_usc_TI_30_CH_17_SE_643.pdf

643. Exploration definedAs used in this chapter, the term exploration means the search for new or unexplored deposits of minerals, including related development work, within the United States, its Territories and possessions, whether conducted from the surface or underground, using recognized and sound procedures including standard geophysical and geochemical methods for obtaining mineralogical and geological information.Exploration is discovery of the unknownLaloganes 12 John Laloganes, Doctorate Candidate in Organization Leadership at Argosy University, An Exploration of Wine, Haiku and Erotica, Cellar Angels, 4-5, http://blog.cellarangels.com/wine-haiku-erotica-pinot-noir-wine-trends/2012/

The use of the term exploration is aptly applied to signify the intent of discovering an unknown. We explore in order to examine something creativelyless linear while applying an unorthodox perspective that may parallel an unsuspectingly distinct topic. Not Exploration unless the Aff ventures into unknown parts of the OceanBan 12Raymond J. Ban Chair, NOAA Science Advisory Board Ocean Exploration and Research Review Transmittal Letter November 26, 2012 http://www.sab.noaa.gov/Reports/OER_Review_TransmittalLetter_Final.pdf.

I am pleased to transmit to you the following report from the Ocean Exploration and Research (OER) Program review. This review was conducted under the Science Advisory Board Ocean Exploration Advisory Working Group (OEAWG) as per its terms of reference. The review panel found that the OER Program has had impressive successes in science, mapping, data management, education, politics, and diplomacy. However, there remain vast unexplored regions of the ocean. The panels major finding is there is undiminished motivation for ocean exploration research. The panel affirmed that ocean exploration is distinct from comprehensive surveys and at-sea research, including hypothesis-driven investigations aimed at the ocean bottom, artifacts, water column, and marine life.Its not exploration if someone has been there beforeOER 12Office of Exploration and Research, OER, is a subsection of the NOAA, The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. This blue-ribbon panel and report was commissioned by Raymond J. Ban Chair, NOAA Science Advisory Board. Ocean Explorations Second Decade December 2012. http://explore.noaa.gov/sites/OER/Documents/about-oer/program-review/2012-12-12-FINAL-OE-Review-Report.pdf.The 2000 Panel recommended the U.S. government establish the Ocean Exploration Program for an initial period of 10 years, with new funding at the level of $75 million per year, excluding capitalization costs. The 2000 Panels recommendations are listed to the right. The present Panel affirms the brief definition of exploration of the 2000 Panel: Exploration is the systematic search and investigation for the initial purpose of discovery and the more elaborated definition of the US Navy: Systematic examination for the purposes of discovery; cataloging/documenting what one finds; boldly going where no one has gone before; providing an initial knowledge base for hypothesis-based science and for exploitation. The Panel affirms that Ocean Exploration is distinct from comprehensive surveys (such as those carried out by NAVOCEANO and NOAA Corps) and at-sea research (sponsored by National Science Foundation, Office of Naval Research, and other agencies), including hypothesis-driven investigations aimed at the ocean bottom, artifacts, water column, and marine life. The present Panel finds undiminished motivations for the U.S. National Program in ocean exploration. In fact, spurred in part by the Ocean Exploration Program, a renaissance of ocean exploration has occurred during the past decade, both nationally and globally. Most famously, in March 2012 Titanic film director James Camerons vertical torpedo visited the Mariana Trenchs Challenger Deep, Earths deepest valley. The first human to visit the Challenger Deep since 1960, Cameron descended in 2 hours and 36 minutes and ascended in a remarkable 70 minutes. The project involved many partners, including the National Geographic Society, Rolex Corporation, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and Camerons own enterprises. It attracted billions of web hits, more than any prior event. Among other highly visible ventures in ocean exploration during the past decade were the cooperative international Census of Marine Life, the Russian flag-laying at the North Pole seafloor, and the renewed visits to the RMS Titanic.Exploration Discovery Limits 2NCTheir interpretation makes all activity in the ocean topical---clearly restricting exploration to discovery is the only mechanism for limitsNAS 69 National Academy of Sciences, In an Ocean Quest The International Decade of Ocean Exploration, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CZIC-gc11-o25-1969/html/CZIC-gc11-o25-1969.htm

The term "International Decade of Ocean Exploration' can be interpreted very broadly. Thus the Steering Committee gave early consideration to the features that could serve to distinguish programs of the Decade from the whole of ocean science and engineering. A broad statement of the basic objectives of the Decade was developed, as follows:To achieve more comprehensive knowledge of ocean characteristics and their changes and more profound understanding of oceanic processes for the purpose of more effective utilization of the ocean and its resources.The emphasis on utilization was considered of primary importance. In contrast to the total spectrum of oceanography and ocean engineering, the principal focus of Decade activities would be on exploration effort in support of such objectives as (a) increased net yield from ocean resources, (b) prediction and enhanced control of natural phenomena, and (c) improved quality of the marine environment. Thus Decade investigations should be identifiably relevant to some aspect of ocean utilization.The word "exploration" has a number of meanings, extending from broad reconnaissance to detailed prospecting. Exploration effort of the IDOE should include the scientific and engineering research and development required to improve the description of the ocean, its boundaries, and its contents, and to understand the processes that have led to the observed conditions and that may cause further changes in those conditions.Of all the ocean investigations that will contribute in some way to enhanced utilization, we believe that those involving cooperation among investigators in this country and abroad are particularly appropriate for the Decade. Decade Programs would often be of long-term and continuing nature, would require the facilities of several groups, and would be directed toward objectives of widespread, rather than local or special, interest. It is anticipated that these programs within the United States may be cooperatively implemented both by government agencies (federal and state) and by private facilities (academic and industrial).As the title suggests, international cooperation will be of particular importance. Such cooperation has long been a characteristic of oceanog- raphy, for reasons described in the following paragraph (from "Inter- national Ocean Affairs" published by the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research in 1967).The world ocean covers 71 % of the earth's surface. Most countries have sea coasts and make some use of the sea, although national jurisdiction extends over only a small fraction of the ocean's area; the remainder is common property.