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Roes, Aldwin (2010) Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885-1908. South African Historical Journal, 62 (4). pp. 634-670. ISSN 0258-2473

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Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885-1908*

Aldwin Roes

UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD

Al though the „atrocities of epical proportions‟ in the Etat Indépendant du Congo (EIC,

Congo Free State) are „legendary‟, no up to date scholarly introduction to the issue is

currently available1. In providing such an overview, the present article aims to offer a

point of access to the extensive literature and historical debates on the subject, while also

making the case for exchanging the currently prevalent top-down narrative, with its

excessive focus on King Leopold‟s character and motives, for one which considers the

EIC‟s culture of violence as a multicausal, broadly based and deeply engrained social

phenomenon2.

The coherence of the „Congo Atrocities‟ as a clearly definable and bounded historical

phenomenon owes as much to the humanitarian campaign mounted to denounce their

occurrence as to the nature of the events themselves3. Reformers, and historians after

them, have mainly focused on those features of the Leopoldian regime which violated the

emerging international norms of colonial government, in particular those associated with

* My sincere thanks go to Daniel Vangroenweghe, Jean-Luc Vellut, David Newbury and the four anonymous referees for their insightful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. 1 O. Likaka, Naming Colonialism: History and Collective Memory in the Congo, 1870-1960 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 35; K. Grant, A Civilized Savagery. Britain and the New Slaveries in Africa, 1884-1926 (New York: Routledge, 2005), 29. The overview by J. Stengers and J. Vansina, 'King Leopold's Congo, 1886-1908', in R. Oliver and G. N. Sanderson, eds, The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 6: from 1870 to 1905 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 315-58 is now a quarter century old. Jan Breman‟s essays „Primitive Racism in a Colonial Setting‟ and „The Civilization of Racism: Colonial and Post-colonial Development Policies‟ in J. Breman, ed, Imperial Monkey Business: Racial Supremacy in Social Darwinist Theory and Colonial Practice (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1990), 89-121 and 123-52 are slightly newer but less comprehensive. French speakers enjoy the advantage of two solid introductions by Jean-Luc Vellut: J.-L. Vellut, 'La Violence Armée dans l'Etat Indépendant du Congo. Ténèbres et Clartés dans l'Histoire d'un Etat Conquérant', Cultures et Développement, 16, 3 (1984), 671-707 and J.-L. Vellut, 'Réflexions sur la Question de la Violence dans l‟Histoire de l‟Etat Indépendant du Congo' in P. M. Mantuba-Ngoma, ed, La Nouvelle Histoire du Congo: Mélanges Eurafricains Offerts à Frans Bontinck (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2004), 269-87. 2 In line with its purpose as an introductory text, this article takes a high-gliding approach which omits the details of lived history but favours broader generalisations. The references do not merely support the specific statement to which they refer, but are mainly intended to point readers to more detailed literature on the subject. 3 The point is also made by F. Cooper, 'From Free Labor to Family Allowances: Labor and African Society in Colonial Discourse', American Ethnologist, 16, 4 (1989), 745-65.

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commercial monopolies, forced labour, and capital transfers to the metropole. Causes of

violence which also marked other colonial regimes were pushed firmly into the

background4. The account of the violent birth of colonial rule in the Congo basin offered

here nuances this ascribed exceptionalism (though it does not minimize the terror) and

facilitates the reintegration of the EIC into the broader historiography of, firstly, the

global impact of European colonial expansion and, secondly, Central Africa‟s turbulent

history in the longue durée.

The argument is divided into five sections. Following a general outline of the EIC‟s

violent system of administration (§1), a discussion of its social and demographic impact

(and the controversy which surrounds it) brings out the need for more regionally focused

and context sensitive studies (§2). The dispute surrounding demographics is also useful in

highlighting that what is fundamentally at stake is the place extreme violence in a

colonial setting should occupy in the history of European „modernity‟. Approaches which

hinge on Leopoldian exceptionalism and top-down economic imperatives alone are

particularly unhelpful in clarifying this issue: §3 relates how such approaches came to

dominate the distinct historiographical traditions which emerged in Belgium, Leopold‟s

successor as a colonial power between 1908 and 1960, and abroad. In §4 the causes

underlying the EIC‟s violent nature are explored in more detail, adding some flesh to the

argument that mass violence was a complex and multilayered phenomenon. While state

actors remain in the limelight, the focus here shifts from the state as a singular, normative

agent, towards what Christian Gerlach has labelled an „extremely violent society‟ in

which various individuals and social groups within and outside of the state committed

violent acts for multiple reasons5. Some of the arguments advanced are, by necessity,

general, tentative or patchy: a discussion of available source material with which

historians can fill some of the gaps (§5) concludes this article.

1. General outline

4 Moves by humanitarians to maintain the special status of the Congo Atrocities in the context of other dubious colonial practices are discussed in Grant, A Civilized Savagery. Attempts to break this mould can be found in Vellut, 'La Violence Armée‟ and Breman, Imperial Monkey Business. 5 C. Gerlach, 'Extremely Violent Societies: an Alternative to the Concept of Genocide', Journal of Genocide Research, 8, 4 (2006), 455-71.

3

The establishment of colonial rule in the Congo basin consisted of two simultaneous

developments: a European one involving international diplomacy, the raising of capital,

the development of a monopolistic legal system and a series of legitimizing discourses,

and an African one in which European power was articulated. The latter involved

adaptation to and interaction with a variety of dynamic social and political structures6.

The transition to colonial status in 1885, resulting from the skilful way in which King

Leopold II of the Belgians capitalized on European international rivalries, brought few

immediate changes to the territory enclosed within the EIC‟s liberally drawn borders7.

The chain of posts connecting the coast to Stanley Pool, established earlier by Leopold‟s

auxiliaries under the command of Henry Morton Stanley, formed the basis from which

colonial power was gradually extended8. During the first years of its existence, the EIC‟s

African presence consisted of a growing but loose network of armed trade posts grafted

onto African trade networks along the shores of the Congo River and its tributaries,

complemented by reconnaissance expeditions which gradually expanded the state‟s

knowledge of its territory and subjects. A number of mission stations and private trading

posts following similar paths completed the European presence9.

This European network was but one of several expansionist movements encroaching on

the Congo basin. At the end of the 19th century, many areas of the Congo were in a state

of turmoil and warfare as they became incorporated as frontier zones into the militarized

6 The literature on pre-colonial Congolese societies is extensive, but studies which cover the transition to colonialism are relatively scarce. A good introduction to the main political developments of the nineteenth century can be found in D. Birmingham, Central Africa to 1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), Chapter 3. Also see J. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna. A History of Central African States until European Occupation (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966) and J. Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests : toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990). 7 See J. Stengers, 'King Leopold's Imperialism', in R. Owen and B. Sutcliffe, eds, Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London: Longman, 1972), 248-76; J. Stengers, 'Léopold II et la Rivalité Franco-Anglaise en Afrique, 1882-1884', Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire, 47, 2 (1969), 425-79; J. Willequet, Le Congo belge et la Weltpolitik (Bruxelles: Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles, 1963); B. Emerson, Leopold II of the Belgians. King of Colonialism (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1979); R. Anstey, Britain and the Congo in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962); R. De Maximy and M.-C. Brugaillère, 'Un Roi-Homme d'Affaires, des Géographes et le Tracé des Frontières de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo (Zaïre)', Hérodote, Revue de Géographie et de Géopolitique, 41 (1986), 46-74. 8 H. M. Stanley, The Congo and the Founding of its Free State: a Story of Work and Exploration (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1885). Stanley‟s services to the EIC are documented by his biographers: F. McLynn, Stanley: Sorcerer's Apprentice (London: Constable, 1991); J. L. Newman, Imperial Footprints: Henry Morton Stanley's African Journeys (Dulles: Brassey's, 2004); T. Jeal, Stanley: The Impossible Life of Africa's Greatest Explorer (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007). 9 R. Slade, King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race relations in the Congo Independent State (London: Oxford University Press, 1962); Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold's Congo‟.

4

slave- and ivory economies centred on the Nile, Zanzibar and Angola10. Early European

incursions into this arena were by no means free from violence, brutality, plunder and

impressments of forced labour. However, until around 1890 the colonial state generally

infiltrated and manipulated rather than conquered and subjected African trade networks

and polities11. Around this time its approach shifted to an open assertion of supremacy. A

series of military confrontations ensued which were aimed at eliminating competitors and

monopolizing coercive power for the state, its allies and its auxiliaries. Campaigns

against the „Arabs‟ in Eastern Congo12 and expeditions to the Nile13 involved some of

the many large military columns composed of white officers, African mercenaries, allied

troops, slaves, porters, women and children which became a regular feature of the

remainder of the EIC‟s history14. Such columns were plunder machines as well as

conquering armies: not or inadequately provisioned they largely lived off the land,

raiding for food, slaves and war booty wherever they passed15. Their disruptive passage

constituted an unmistakeable but transient demonstration of the emerging state‟s power:

the colonial administration‟s dominance remained uneven as successful armed resistance

and mutinies of the state‟s African soldiery excluded sizeable regions from its control,

provoking a prolonged war of conquest which was still incomplete in 190816. Elsewhere,

administrative and military posts remained spread thin so that the routinized exercise of

10 Birmingham, Central Africa, B. Jewsiewicki, 'Notes sur l'Histoire Socio-économique du Congo (1880-1960)', Etudes d'Histoire Africaine, 3 (1972), 209-41; I. Ndaywel e Nziem, Histoire Générale du Congo: de l'Héritage Ancien à la République Démocratique (Bruxelles: De Boeck & Larsier, 1998), 239-48; D. Northrup, 'Slavery and Forced Labour in the Eastern Congo 1850-1910', in H. Médard and S. Doyle, eds, Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa (Oxford: James Currey, 2007), 111-23;Vellut, 'La Violence Armée‟; Vellut, 'Réflexions‟. 11 J.-B. Gewald, 'More than Red Rubber and Figures Alone: a Critical Appraisal of the Memory of the Congo Exhibition at the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 39, 3 (2006), 471-86; A. M. Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II, 1876-1900. Het Verloren Paradijs (Antwerpen: Standaard Uitgeverij, 1989); J. Fabian, Out of Our Minds : Reason and Madness in the Exploration of Central Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). A. M. Delathuy is the alias used by Jules Marchal for his earlier, Dutch works. The revised and extended French editions which appeared later under his own name are also included in the bibliography. 12 P. Ceulemans, La Question Arabe et le Congo, 1883-1892 (Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, 1959); P. Maréchal, De "Arabische" Campagne in het Maniema-gebied (1892-1894): Situering binnen het Kolonisatieproces in de Onafhankelijke Kongostaat (Tervuren: Koninklijk Museum voor Midden-Afrika, 1992). 13 R. O. Collins, King Leopold, England, and the Upper Nile, 1899-1909 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968); G. N. Sanderson, England, Europe, and the Upper Nile, 1882-1899 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967). 14 Ndaywel, Histoire Générale du Congo, 284-286; Vellut, 'La Violence Armée‟. 15 Vellut, 'Réflexions‟. 16 Ndaywel, Histoire Générale du Congo, 280; Stengers and Vansina, 'King Leopold's Congo‟; G. De Boeck, Baoni: Les Révoltes de la Force Publique sous Léopold II, Congo 1895-1908 (Berchem: EPO, 1987); Vellut, „La Violence armée‟, A. M. Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II en de Kongostaat (Berchem: EPO, 1985); Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II.

5

power usually depended on its delegation to local rulers and mercenaries restyled as

allied chiefs, several of whom retained considerable independence and coercive

capabilities17.

Within this institutional framework the EIC organised the forceful extraction of natural

resources, foodstuffs and labour. A weak capital base, largely limited to Leopold‟s

personal input, coupled with King‟s desire to finance his costly imperial projects from

local taxation led to a continuous drive to cut expenses and increase revenue18. In face of

the paucity of taxable economic activity the state routinely turned to tribute collecting

and forced labour as a way to marry both objectives19. Moreover, limited finance forced

local government posts into an increasingly parasitic relationship with their environment

while at the same time loosening their ties with the central administration. Regular levies

of foodstuffs and labour for porterage and other services were widespread but varied in

intensity with the local state presence, hitting the Lower Congo district hardest20.

Imposed as an obligation, the quantity and timing of such levies were left to the

discretion of state officials, their collection in many cases taking the form of razzias. In

the Upper Congo, the forceful appropriation of stocks of ivory proved another useful way

of complementing state and private incomes21. For several years, recruitment for the

17 H. Vanhee, 'Over Heren en Knechten: Chefs Médaillés in het Koloniale Congo' in J.-L. Vellut, ed, Het Geheugen van Congo: de Koloniale Tijd (Tervuren: Koninklijk Museum voor Midden Afrika, 2005), 79-82; D. Dibwe dia Mwembu, 'Un chef Songye Face au Pouvoir Colonial: le Cas de Lumpungu (1892-1919)', Cahiers de Tunisie, 33, 3-4 (1985), 49-70. Het Geheugen Van Congo has also appeared in French (La Mémoire du Congo: le Temps Colonial) and English (Memory of Congo: The Colonial Era). 18 Accounts of the drive to increase revenue are nearly unanimous in focusing on Leopold‟s desire to obtain a personal profit from his imperial venture, the unique feature of direct capital transfers from a colony to its metropole, or both. See the popularisations by N. Ascherson, The King Incorporated. Leopold II in the Age of Trusts (New York: Doubleday, 1963); A. Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost. A story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa (London: Macmillan, 1999); M. Ewans, European Atrocity, African Catastrophe. Leopold II, The Congo Free State and its Aftermath. (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002); D. Renton, D. Seddon and L. Zeilig, The Congo: Plunder and Resistance (London: Zed Books, 2007). My own views are closer in line with Vincent Viaene‟s interpretation of Leopoldian colonialism as an essentially political project: V. Viaene, 'King Leopold‟s Imperialism and the Origins of the Belgian Colonial Party, 1860–1905', Journal of Modern History, 80 (2008), 741-90. This imperial agenda involved considerable capital outlay in the colony (such as the expensive Nile expeditions) as well as the metropole (such as the encouragement of grand imperial architecture). It should be noted that, in its political and socio-cultural objectives, Leopold‟s colonialism did not differ significantly from that of imperial ultra‟s in Britain, Germany or France. 19 Budgettary constraints were exacerbated by the 1885 Berlin Treaty‟s prohibition on the levying of import duties (relaxed by the Brussels Treaty of 1890). See A. B. Keith, The Belgian Congo and the Berlin Act (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1919). 20 K. E. Friedman, Catastrophe and Creation: The Transformation of an African Culture (Philadelphia: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1991); S. Axelson, Culture Confrontation in the Lower Congo: from the Old Congo Kingdom to the Congo Independent State with Special Reference to the Swedish Missionaries in the 1880s and 1890s (Falköping (Sweden): Gummessons, 1970), 251-65. 21 Maréchal, De Arabische Campagne; Ceulemans, La Question Arabe.

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colonial army relied heavily on the „liberation‟ of slaves (enlistment of prisoners of war)

in the East as a way to reduce its bill22.

The impact of such measures on the EIC‟s budget deficits was little more than palliative

until it capitalized fully on the global rubber boom23. The „rubber regime‟ found its origin

in a combination of a surge in the metropolitan demand for rubber, the development of a

legal framework and justifying discourse in Brussels, and an increase in the state‟s

extractive capacity24. Forced labour was presented as a form of taxation, justifiable in the

absence of a monetary economy by the principle that colonized peoples should bear the

cost of their own administration and civilization. The legal theory of state ownership of

vacant lands was invoked in 1891 to appropriate the vast majority of the country‟s

rubber-bearing forests; large sections were subsequently leased to private concession

companies, such as the infamous Abir and Anversoise, in which the state retained a large

financial interest25. In combination, both principles legally transformed much of the

country into an enormous plantation on which Africans were obliged to harvest rubber in

payment of their taxes. The claim of state ownership over the country‟s main rubber

districts also excluded European traders from much of the potentially lucrative rubber

trade, provoking protests from European commercial circles which formed the nucleus

from which later a humanitarian reform movement developed26.

The everyday reality of rubber exploitation was defined less by such legal underpinnings

than by the methods used to obtain high levels of production. The triple limitations of an

underdeveloped state structure, the large size of the rubber area and a thinly spread

22 D. Northrup, 'The Ending of Slavery in Eastern Zaïre', in S. Miers and R. Roberts, eds, The End of Slavery in Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 462-82; Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II; Vellut, „La Violence Armée‟. Forced recruitment for the Force Publique (which included a military and civil element) continued into the Belgian colonial period. 23 „Rubber‟, in J. Mokyr, ed, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History. Volume 4 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 406-12. 24 While the legal framework and moral justification for forced labour were developed in Brussels, it would be worth exploring to what extent they were shaped by ideas formulated by local administrators based on their experience of African labour and local methods of surplus extraction. 25 The reliance on concession companies to develop the colonial estate was yet another way to minimize costs. It was a feature of cash-strapped administrations throughout the region. For the French Congo, see C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo au Temps des Grandes Compagnies Concessionnaires, 1898-1930 (Paris: Mouton, 1972), for Mozambique L. Vail, 'Mozambique's Chartered Companies: the Rule of the Feeble', Journal of African History, 17, 3 (1976), 389-416. 26 S. J. S. Cookey, Britain and the Congo Question, 1885-1913 (London: Longmans, 1968).

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population, which combined to render direct control over labour impossible27, were

overcome through a process of copying, adapting, extending and intensifying the

economic organisation of the Eastern slave frontier28. From improvised beginnings, a

system developed consisting of rubber collecting posts backed up by a highly mobile

military and served by a network of armed African auxiliaries (called sentinelles, gardes

forestières or capitaos) stationed in the villages upon which regular rubber quotas were

imposed29. Violence and terror tactics were used as a deterrent and as means of

enforcement and repression30. Rape, torture, mutilation, cannibalism, surprise raids and

summary executions were part of a repertoire of terror and psychological warfare. More

commonly, failure to meet set quotas was countered by corporal punishment and hostage

taking. Punitive expeditions dispatched to repeat offenders routinely massacred and

burned crops and villages31. From its birth in the Equator district in 1893 this brutal mode

of exploitation spread rapidly to other rubber growing regions32. The number of state and

27 Breman, Imperial Monkey Business; The problem of labour control is a central theme in F. Cooper, 'African Labor History', in J. Lucassen, ed, Global Labour History. A State of the Art (Bern: Peter Lang, 2006), 91-116 and F. Cooper, 'Africa and the World Economy', African Studies Review, 24, 2-3 (1981), 1-86. 28 Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II; N. R. Hunt, A Colonial Lexicon of Birth Ritual, Medicalization, and Mobility in the Congo (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 38-49; R. W. Harms, 'The World Abir Made: the Maringana-Lopori Basin, 1885-1903', African Economic History, 12 (1983), 125-139; Vellut, „La Violence Armée‟; Vellut, „Réflexions‟; Northrup, „The Ending of Slavery‟. 29 Robert Harms offers this description of the system in operation in the Abir territory (Equateur District): „the rubber agent made a list of all the men in the villages under his control, giving each man a quota of four kilos of dry rubber (eight kilos of liquid rubber) per fortnight. To oversee the collection he placed armed sentries, who were often former slaves, in the villages. The sentries, who lived in luxury at the expense of the villagers, made sure that each man collected his quota. They flogged, imprisoned, or shot villagers who fell behind […] Abir apparently had little difficulty containing resistance during the first decade of its rule. Each post kept a force of about eighty men armed with modern Albini rifles to put down resistance or punish villages that lagged behind in their quotas. To crush large-scale rebellions, the State kept a large force at Basankusu that could reach any part of the Abir territory by river steamer within a few days after being called by a rubber agent‟, R. W. Harms, 'The End of Red Rubber: a Reassessment', Journal of African History, 16, 1 (1975), 79. 30 As noted by Jock McCulloch, the disciplines of the market-place and the authority of states were so ineffectual within the colonial African context that colonial administrators, unlike their counterparts in Western Europe, had few non-violent means of enforcement available to them: J. McCulloch, 'Empire and Violence, 1900-1939' in P. Levine, ed, Gender and Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 236. The same point is made in G. Krozewski, 'Contextualizing Violence in Colonial Africa: European National Development, Empire, and Lineages of Conflict', Development Dialogue, 50 (2008), 69. EIC rule also involved negotiation and persuasion or propaganda, but their effectiveness or otherwise has not, to my knowledge, been studied systematically. 31 Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II ; Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II; D. Vangroenweghe, Rood Rubber. Leopold II en zijn Kongo (Brussel: Elsevier, 1985); D. Vangroenweghe, Voor Rubber en Ivoor. Leopold II en de ophanging van Stokes (Leuven: Van Halewijck, 2005); Vellut, „La Volence Armée‟; R. Anstey, 'The Congo Rubber Atrocities. A Case Study', African Historical Studies, 4, 1 (1971), 59-76; Harms, „The World Abir Made‟; Breman „Imperial Monkey Business‟, Ascherson, The King Incorporated; Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost; Ewans, European Atrocity, African Catastrophe. 32 Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II; T. M. Ngbwapkwa, „L‟Exploitation du Caoutchouc par l'Etat Indépendant du Congo dans le Territoire de Banzyville, district de l'Ubangi‟, Civilisations, 66, 1-2 (1993), 291-306. The system was

8

company posts was steadily increased in order to extend the area brought under

production. From a budgetary perspective the system was a success: by the turn of the

century financial deficits had given way to sizeable surpluses33.

While coercion was a central feature of labour mobilization throughout the EIC, the

relative autonomy of administrators and company agents coupled with variations in local

circumstances, such as relations with African elites and the type and quantity of produce

claimed, led to significant regional differences in the methods of tribute collection and,

consequently, the violence involved34. However, the latitude enjoyed by the men on the

spot was circumscribed by incessant administrative pressure and pecuniary incentives

aimed at increasing production, often leading to spiralling violence and ruthless over-

exploitation35. In time, this chaotic reality of unchecked local plunder machines was

streamlined into a legal framework which gradually subjected labour requisition to rules

and procedures. In November 1903 a limit of 40 hours of forced labour per month per

adult African was decreed, although it was coupled with a complex system of

equivalences in produce which still allowed for considerable elasticity in practice. The

most brutal forms of repression were outlawed and others were more strictly regulated.

The practical effect of these regulations was limited due to inadequate means of

enforcement together with the Brussels administration‟s clear message that refinement of

the legal framework was intended to regularize, not reform, existing practice, and that

revenues should therefore continue to increase36.

In part, the definition and narrowing of the boundaries of legitimate violence in the EIC‟s

legal system were a response to international humanitarian action and political pressure

challenging both the morality and the legality of Leopold‟s administration. Early protests

from trading circles were strengthened and eventually superseded by atrocity revelations

also exported abroad: D. Vangroenweghe, 'The 'Leopold II' Concession System Exported to French Congo with as Example the Mpoko Company', Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis, 36, 3-4 (2006), 323-72; C. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo au Temps des Grandes Compagnies. 33 J. Stengers, 'The Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo before 1914', in L. H. Gann and P. Duignan, eds, Colonialism in Africa (1870-1960) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 272. 34 Vellut , „La Violence Armée‟; Stengers and Vansina, 'King Leopold's Congo‟. 35 J. Stengers, 'The Congo Free State‟. 36 The Hubert Droogmans Papers at the State Archives (Rijksarchief/Archives d‟Etat) in Brussels contain many of these circulars. The point about increased revenues is made in H. Droogmans to Gouverneur Général, 27 Jan 1904, Droogmans Papers, I/1/6/13-17.

9

from ex-state officials, travellers and, especially, missionaries37. An international

humanitarian movement spearheaded by the British Aborigines Protection Society and,

from 1904 onwards, the Congo Reform Association widely publicized the brutality of the

EIC regime and elevated the subject to an issue of international politics38. Even though

mismanagement of the EIC also became a domestic political issue in Belgium following

the report of the Commission d‟Enquête39, continued international pressure contributed

significantly to the country‟s decision to annex the EIC in 190840. As a Belgian colony,

the administration of the Congo became subject to parliamentary control. Significant

legal reforms were implemented between 1908 and 1910, including a phased replacement

of the forced labour tax by taxes in coin, but evidence that annexation also constituted a

watershed moment in practice remains sparse41. In some areas the exhaustion of natural

rubber supplies, the decimation of the African population and desperate African

37 Many of these witnesses figure in Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost. Somewhat appart from other early critics of the EIC stands the African-American George Washington Williams. See J. H. Franklin, George Washington Williams: A Biography (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 38 W. R. Louis, 'The Triumph of the Congo Reform Movement, 1905-1908', in J. Butler, ed, Boston University Papers on Africa (Boston: Boston University Press, 1966), 267-302; Cookey, Britain and the Congo Question; W. R. Louis and J. Stengers, eds, E. D. Morel's History of the Congo Reform Movement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968); Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II; C. A. Cline, E. D. Morel, 1873-1924: The Strategies of Protest. (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1980); K. Grant, 'Christian Critics of Empire: Missionaries, Lantern Lectures, and the Congo Reform Campaign in Britain', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 29, 2 (2001), 27-58; J. B. Osborne, 'Wilfred G. Thesiger, Sir Edward Grey, and the British Campaign to Reform the Congo, 1905-1909', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 27, 1 (1999), 59-80. 39 Published on 30 October 1905. See J. Stengers, 'Le rôle de la Commission d'Enquête de 1904-1905 au Congo', Annuaire de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire orientales et slaves, 10 (1950), 701-726 (=Mélanges Henri Grégoire); Breman, „Imperial Monkey Business‟. 40 G. Vanthemsche, La Belgique et le Congo. Empreintes d'une Colonie, 1885-1980 (Bruxelles: Editions Complexe, 2007); J. Stengers, Congo. Mythes et Réalités. 100 Ans d'Histoire (Paris: Duculot, 1989); A. Stenmans, La Reprise du Congo par la Belgique (Bruxelles: Editions Techniques et Scientifiques, 1949). For an account which focuses more strongly on on internal pressures from an increasingly independent colonial lobby see V. Viaene, „Reprise-Remise. De Congolese Identiteitscrisis van België rond 1908‟ in V. Viaene, D. Van Reybrouck and B. Ceuppens, eds, Congo in België: Koloniale Cultuur in de Metropool (Leuven: Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2009), 43-62. 41 The claim was made in Stengers 'The Congo Free State‟, but see S. H. Nelson, Colonialism in the Congo Basin, 1880-1940 (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies. Africa series, 1994); D. Northrup, Beyond the Bend in the River: African Labor in Eastern Zaire, 1865-1940 (Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1988) and O. Likaka, Rural Society and Cotton in Colonial Zaire (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997) for cross-period case studies. Also see Jules Marchal‟s trilogy on forced labour after Belgian annexation: J. Marchal, Travail Forcé pour le Cuivre et Pour l'Or. l'Histoire du Congo, 1910-1945 (Borgloon: Bellings, 1999); J. Marchal, Travail Forcé pour le Rail. l’Histoire du Congo 1910-1945 (Borgloon: Bellings, 2000); J. Marchal, Travail Forcé pour l’Huile de Palme de Lord Leverhulme. l’Histoire du Congo 1910-1945 (Borgloon: Bellings, 2001).

10

resistance brought the rubber regime to an end prior to Belgian annexation42. Elsewhere,

for example in the Kasai and Lomami, forced collection continued past 190843.

The terror of the rubber regime was only part of a much wider wave of violence and

dislocation affecting Congolese societies over a period which exceeded the lifespan of

Leopold‟s African empire. Preceded by years of intensified warfare, plunder and slave

raiding which saw the disintegration and reconfiguration of the area‟s largest political

systems, the first decades of the colonial encounter considerably deepened the political,

social, economic and cultural disruption experienced by Africans44. Colonial officials and

missionaries linked worrying increases in venereal disease, alcoholism, and witchcraft

accusations, as well as dropping birth rates, to the demoralising effects of European

administration45. The forced labour system created serious demographic imbalances

while devastating sleeping sickness and smallpox epidemics spread along the states‟

extended communication routes46. Mortality rates were heightened by exhaustion,

malnutrition and unhealthy working conditions, contributing to a severe decline in the

Congo‟s population which continued into the interwar period47. Under Belgian rule the

colonial state‟s control was further extended and became more centralised, labour

42 Harms, 'The End of Red Rubber‟; Ngbwapkwa, 'L'Exploitation du Caoutchouc‟. 43 Osborne, „Wilfred G. Thesiger‟; O. Likaka, 'Rural protest: the Mbole against Belgian rule, 1897-1959', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 27, 3 (1994), 589-617. After the liberalization of trade in 1910, there was a short boom in private rubber trading which awaits study. 44 P. M. Martin, 'The Violence of Empire', in D. Birmingham and P. M. Martin, eds, History of Central Africa. Volume 2 (New York: Longman, 1983), 1-26. The chronology of libeli rituals, which Nancy Rose Hunt uses as a prism through which periods of intense strain on Lokele authority structures can be identified, shows how amongst the Lokele incursions by the Swahili, EIC forces and the Belgian colonial administration were experienced as different waves of colonial occupation: Hunt, A Colonial Lexicon, 27-79. In an ironic comment upon to colonial state‟s abolitionist pretentions, the Mbole branded EIC officials Atama-Atama, the name previously given to the slave raiders from which they had alledgedly been liberated: Likaka, Naming Colonialism, 102-5. 45 E.g. the alarming accounts by the Flemish missionaries M. D‟Hossche, „De Ontvolking in Kongo‟, Onze Kongo, (1912), 221-28 and 390-95 and L. Bittremieux „Over de Oorzaken van „t Verval der Zwarten‟, Onze Kongo (1912), 211-20. The inclusion of alcoholism in the alledged causes of decline is interesting given the EIC‟s legal restrictions on the import of alcohol and its sale to Africans. The experience of trauma is a central theme in N. R. Hunt, 'An Acoustic Register, Tenacious Images, and Congolese Scenes of Rape and Repetition', Cultural Anthropology, 23, 2 (2008), 220-53; demoralisation as an aspect of the destruction of native peoples is treated in C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914. Global Connections and Comparisons (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 432-50. 46 B. Fetter, Demography from Scanty Evidence: Central Africa in the Colonial Era (Boulder: L. Rienner, 1990). 47 Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟, 228; N. R. Hunt, '“Le Bebe en Brousse”: European Women, African Birth Spacing and Colonial Intervention in Breast Feeding in the Belgian Congo', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 21, 3 (1988), 401-32; W. Blondeel, 'De “Commission Permanente pour le Protection des Indigènes” en het Demografisch Probleem in Belgisch Kongo. De Alarmkreet van 1919', Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-Mer. Bulletin des Séances, 3 (1976), 273-315; J.-P. Sanderson, 'Le Congo Belge entre Mythe et Réalité. Une Analyse du Discours Démographique Colonial', Population, 55, 2 (2000), 331-55.

11

mobilization was rationalized, new economic sectors appeared and the gravest forms of

physical abuse were gradually curtailed, leading to a new set of constraints and limited

possibilities for social mobility and increased wealth48. Changes in the exercise of state

power were significant, but coercion and systematic violence were never purged from a

colonial system which cemented racial inequality, stifled African initiative and furthered

the forceful integration of its subjects at the bottom tier of the economic system49.

2. Social and demographic impact and the vexed question of modernity

As established above, the intensity, substance and impact of European occupation varied

across regions and evolved over time. African experiences of EIC conquest and rule were

equally determined by political or social affiliation, gender, cultural identities and the

way in which individuals were able to negotiate changing pressures, constraints and

opportunities. As an agent of „creative destruction‟, the colonial state fostered more than

physical violence alone: the disintegration of existing social structures was linked to

attempts at establishing a new order which, in the European imagination, provided the

ultimate justification for the abuse, murder and plunder which accompanied the colonial

encounter50. Taking such diversity and complexity into account is important, but should

not detract from the fact that EIC rule entailed extreme, gratuitous, large-scale and

inexcusable violence, widespread suffering and death.

How widespread? An intense controversy has erupted on the issue of the EIC‟s

demographic impact. A maximalist position, which currently appears to be dominant,

estimates that roughly fifty per cent of the Congo‟s African population perished under

48 Nelson, Colonialism in the Congo Basin; G. Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila. A People's History. (London: Zed Books, 2002); Ndaywel, Histoire Générale du Congo; R. Anstey, King Leopold's Legacy. The Congo under Belgian Rule 1908-1960 (London: Oxford University Press, 1966). Still useful as an introduction to the interwar period is R. L. Buell, The Native Problem in Africa. Vol 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1928). 49 M.-B. Dembour, „La Chicotte comme Symbole du Colonialisme Belge?‟, Canadian Journal of African Studies-Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines, 26, 2 (1992), 205-25. On Africans‟ continued critiques of colonial violence and domination, particularly in rural areas, see Likaka, Naming Colonialism. How the failure of the liberal intermezzo of 1910-1914 led to more stringent state controls on the economy and African labour awaits further study. For a more general introduction to structural violence in African colonial economies, largely drawing on Rhodesian and South African examples, see J. McCulloch, 'Empire and Violence‟. 50 An obvious implication is that there is an important structural side to colonial violence. The rejection of the claim that „civilization‟ or „development‟ is the greater good redeeming the violence of colonialism constitutes the core of the post-colonial critiques of empire. A solid introduction to this „post-liberal‟ position in relation to the destruction of native peoples is offered in A. D. Moses, 'Conceptual Blockages and Definitional Dilemmas in the 'Racial Century': Genocides of Indigenous Peoples and the Holocaust', Patterns of Prejudice, 36, 4 (2002), 7-36.

12

EIC rule, which would imply a death toll running into the millions51. Opposed to this is a

group of minimalists or, more accurately, agnostics which stresses the unreliable and

extremely rudimentary nature of available demographic data while also pointing to often

unspecified regional variations and the multiplicity of causes of population decline, with

epidemics –for which Europeans alledgedly bear little responsibility– figuring most

prominently52. According to this group, the claim that EIC rule constituted a massacre „of

holocaust proportions‟ is based on shaky data, largely unsubstantiated and overdrawn53.

While a firm estimate of the number of victims must indeed remain elusive, pleas of

ignorance should not lead to an evasion or minimization of the issue of population

decline54.

More relevant than a sterile polemic about aggregated numbers would be the compilation

of a more precise geography of the impact and experience of EIC rule. Even at a lower

level of aggregation no precise „body count‟ can be expected, as most deaths have never

been recorded55. However, aside from indirect evidence provided by skewed age

pyramids in later population surveys, there is an abundance of qualitative evidence of

demographic crises at the local level56. African testimonies and memories of specific

massacres as well as various accounts by European eyewitnesses bear witness to the

extent of turmoil, famine, warfare and population decline in most parts of the EIC57.

51 E. D. Morel, The Black Man's Burden: the White Man in Africa from the Fifteenth Century to World War I (Manchester and London: National Labour Press, 1920); M. Twain, King Leopold's Soliloquy. A Defence of his Congo Rule (Boston: The P. R. Warren Co., 1905); Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost; Ndaywel e Nziem, Histoire générale du Congo; L. De Saint Moulin, 'What is Known of the Demographic History of Zaire since 1885?', in Fetter, ed, Demography from Scanty Evidence, 299-325. 52 The prime target of such criticism is Henry Morton Stanley, who‟s fanciful demographic calculations alledgedly formed the basis of some of the dramatic extrapolations. See Stengers, Congo. Mythes et Réalités, 306-7. 53 The quote is from Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 225. The critique is formulated in Stengers, Congo. Mythes et Réalités; Louis and Stengers, E. D. Morel's History; J.-L. Vellut, 'Prestige et Pauvreté de l'Histoire Nationale. A Propos d'une Histoire Générale du Congo', Revue Belge de Philologie et d'histoire, 77, 2 (1999), 480-517 ; M. Dumoulin, Leopold II, un Roi Génocidaire? (Bruxelles: Académie Royale de Belgique, 2005) and Vanthemsche, La Belgique et le Congo, 40-1. 54 Gewald, „More than Red Rubber‟. Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟ notes, rightly, that percentages are more reliable than absolute numbers. Population piramids from later periods also provide clues. 55 State sources are, for example, largely silent on casualties resulting from punative expeditions, eufimistically called promenades („walks‟). Ngbwapkwa, 'L'Exploitation du Caoutchouc‟, 298. 56 Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟, 228. 57 Many of these are documented in Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II; Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II; Vangroenweghe, Rood Rubber; Vangroenweghe, Voor Rubber en Ivoor. The terms in which Africans spoke of the EIC regime are often revealing in themselves. Te Mobusa Ngbwapkwa relates how the Ndekere remember the punetative expeditions sent against them in 1901 as „Zo kpi, nda Zo ko‟ („a true massacre, having led to the quasi-extermination of the population‟), and Osumaka Likaka notes that, in the Upper Congo, the EIC‟s representatives were collectively

13

While generally impressionistic on demographics, travellers to the Lower and Upper

Congo in the early 20th Century were distinctly alarmist: they described severe hardship

and decimation of the African population devastating entire districts58. Whether this

population decline was due to high mortality, low natality, migration, or a combination of

these is not always clear. What is certain is that the crisis was widespread and severe, and

by no means confined to the rubber areas. A more refined historical geography is still

needed which relates the experiences of trauma, demographic decline and social change

within Congolese societies to the uneven development of the EIC‟s political and

economic structures.

It is impossible to neatly distinguish the impact of the different scourges of famine,

disease, warfare, forced labour and state violence which ravaged the African population.

Nonetheless, here too a completely agnostic attitude should be avoided. Minimalists have

correctly pointed out that demographic decline was by no means the direct result of

violence alone59. The epidemics which swept the region, sleeping sickness and smallpox

in particular, had a particularly severe effect. Failed harvests caused several famines. The

spread of „moral evils‟ such as venereal disease and alcoholism and the low birth rate of

Congolese women, two issues which preoccupied missionaries and colonial officials

alike, point to the experience of severe trauma and social problems unleashed or

exacerbated by the colonial encounter60. This multiplicity of causes has been used to

argue that the demographic deficit of the early colonial period was only marginally

related to the „Congo atrocities‟ and state violence61. While this point has some validity,

the „collateral damage‟ of epidemics and malnutrition was not unrelated to the forced known as „Ipanga Ngunda‟ („he who destroys the country‟). Ngbwapkwa, 'L'Exploitation du Caoutchouc‟, 298; Likaka, Naming Colonialism, 85-7. 58 One sensitive observer was the British consul Roger Casement, whose diaries and report are published in S. Ó Síocháin and M. O'Sullivan, The Eyes of Another Race: Roger Casement's Congo Report and 1903 Diary. (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2003). Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟, 226-9; Sanderson, „Le Congo Belge‟. 59 This has never been contested by maximalists: see Hochschild‟s discussion of multiple causes of population decline in King Leopold’s Ghost, 225-34. It is a regular feature of mass violence that the demographic impact far exceeds the number of deaths by physical violence alone. See, for example, a report by the International Rescue Committee on the recent (post-1996) conclict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where it is stated that only 0.4 per cent of the estimated 5.4 million casualties is directly attributable to violence: „the majority of deaths have been due to infectious diseases, malnutrition and neonatal- and pregnancy-related conditions‟, Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo: An Ongoing Crisis (International Rescue Committee: 2007), 4. 60 E. g. D‟Hossche, „De Ontvolking‟; Bittremieux, „Over de Oorzaken‟; Sanderson, „Le Congo Belge‟; Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟. 61 Stengers, Congo. Mythes et Réalités; P. Maréchal, „Kritische Bedenkingen bij de Controverses over Leopold II en Congo in de Literatuur en de Media‟, in Vellut, Het geheugen van Congo, 43-9, Dumoulin, Léopold II.

14

labour regime62. Scorched earth tactics, plunder, population displacement, exhaustion,

neglect of farms due to tax obligations as well as unhealthy working conditions

considerably (but immeasurably) increased Africans‟ susceptibility to famine and disease.

Moreover, famine and disease have their own geographies, and sharp demographic

decline has equally been noted in areas which were unaffected by the major epidemics63.

The heated debate over population decline, with critiques of demographic data bordering

on the obsessive, concerns more than figures alone. Minimalists generally recognise that

even a serious downward revision of the estimated 10 million victims forwarded by

Morel, Hochschild and others does not substantially alter the picture of a brutal colonial

system engendering widespread violence, death and devastation –even if they tend to

confine the most serious excesses to the „red rubber‟ episode alone64. What they do take

issue with is the association with genocide and the Holocaust which a demographic crisis

of this proportion evokes. Drawing on Joseph Conrad and Hannah Arendt, Sven

Lindqvist has popularized an approach which sees colonialism as the prime expression of

modernity‟s capacity for evil and a laboratory for genocidal, exterminatory ideologies65.

In Lindqvist‟s account the EIC is transformed from a dysfunctional, brutal colonial

system based on the exploitation of forced labour into the first and major instance of

mass violence of the Twentieth century. The view that the decimation of native peoples

around the globe can be at least partly attributed to genocidal tendencies at the heart of

the western intellectual tradition is not uncommon amongst historians of American and

Oceanic aboriginal societies, but the extension of the argument to the EIC is relatively

new and remains contested66.

62 Gewald, „More than Red Rubber‟; Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 225-34. 63 E.g. Osborne, „Wilfred G. Thesiger‟. 64 As in Stengers, „The Congo Free State‟. 65 S. Lindqvist, 'Exterminate all the Brutes'. One man's Odyssey into the Heart of Darkness and the Origins of European Genocide (London: Granta, 1997); J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness (1902); H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1951). The theme has achieved considerable popularity among historians of colonial genocide, in particular in relation to the violence of the settler frontier. E. g. P. Wolfe, 'Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native', Journal of Genocide Research, 8, 4 (2006), 393. 66 Despite the increased attention being paid to colonial violence, the EIC has not, as yet, conquered a place in the academic literature on genocide, R. G. Weisbord, 'The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's Genocide in the Congo and the Vatican', Journal of Genocide Research, 5, 1 (2003), 35-45 being the exception that proves the rule. The category of „colonial genocide‟ is still largely reserved for areas where Europeans settled, but this is starting to change with shifting interpretations of the concept (See Moses, 'Conceptual Blockages'). To my knowledge, Mark Levene‟s stimulating account of modern mass violence stands alone in linking the EIC‟s „extreme exterminatory violence‟ to a more nuanced global context than the one proposed by Lindqvist. M. Levene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation State. Volume 2: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide (London: I.B. Tauris, 2005), Chapter 5.

15

Three objections are advanced against the incorporation of the EIC into such a narrative

on the modernity of mass violence: (1) no premeditated large-scale extermination took

place, (2) the roots of violence were at least partially endogenous, and (3) reducing

colonialism to racism, greed, and violence ignores the ideas of moral and material

improvement which constituted the European „civilizing mission‟67. These points are

worthy of consideration. It is particularly the case that, in a discourse whose underlying

purpose is not the study of the colonial encounter itself but the critical questioning of

European modernity, the extent to which colonial violence was fundamentally shaped by

dynamics in the contact zone, and not merely acted out in it, threatens to get lost68.

Acknowledging such complexities does not however preclude the existence of important

linkages, not necessarily of a linear variety, between extreme colonial violence and

European arguments about race, development, labour, masculinity and sovereignty69.

Without these, instances of mass violence on the colonial periphery appear as isolated

aberrations from an otherwise progressive norm70, and connections between centrally

imposed transformative development and structural violence are obscured71. The question

is not whether the EIC‟s demographic catastrophe can be integrated into the history of

modern mass violence, but how, and, consequently, what this wider history should look

like. Exceptionalist, statist, and top-down perspectives dominated by King Leopold‟s

67 Vellut, „Réflexions‟; Maréchal, „Kritische Bedenkingen‟; Dumoulin, Léopold II; J.-L. Vellut, „Préface‟ in Vanthemsche, La Belgique et le Congo, 11-28. Note that Mark Levene considers the absence of intent at extermination „a unifying factor‟ of Fin de Siècle Colonial Genocides: M. Levene, 'Empires, Native Peoples, and Genocide' in A. D. Moses, ed, Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History (New York, Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2008), 194. 68 For a critique of the concept of modernity see F. Cooper, Colonialism in Question. Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 113-49. An important blind spot is the active participation in (and experience of) violence by Africans, and the often locally generated tensions which produced these. The approach‟s Eurocentric periodization also veils much lived experience, privileging suffering at the hands of colonial agents over pre-colonial violence and ignoring the continuities in administrative practice following Belgian annexation and legal reforms as well as, crucially, the difficult processes of coping with trauma and re-integrating victims and perpetrators into society. Vellut, „Prestige et Pauvreté‟; Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟. 69 Krozewski, „Contextualizing Violence‟. 70 This is, of course, exactly what humanitarians were arguing. Cooper, „From Free Labor‟, 750. 71 The connection between economic development („modernization‟) and exterminatory violence is encapsulated in the concept of „developmental genocide‟. See H. Fein, „Scenarios of Genocide: Models of Genocide and Critical Responses‟ in I. W. Charny, ed, Toward the Understanding and Prevention of Genocide (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984), 3-31; V. Lal, 'Genocide, Barbaric Others, and the Violence of Categories: A Response to Omer Bartov', American Historical Review, 103, 4 (1998), 1187-90. It is also a central theme in M. Levene, Genocide; Krozewski, „Contextualizing Violence‟; Moses, „Conceptual Blockages‟.

16

greed and the EIC‟s legal system are ill-suited to the purpose. It is to the dominance of

such perspectives that we now turn.

3. Historiography and the dominance of top-downism

Past and present interpretations of mass violence in the EIC are dominated by the figure

of Leopold II, the personification of greed, presiding as absolutist monarch over a

machinery of death aimed at squeezing extortionate quantities of rubber out of his

African subjects72. This close identification of the EIC (as a political institution and an

era in the history of the Congo) with its sovereign developed in two distinct settings. In

Belgium, a posthumous glorification of Leopold served both national and colonial

interests73. Elsewhere, in particular in the English-speaking world, it was the

humanitarian campaigners‟ casting of Leopold as the rogue of the Congo Atrocity saga

which left an enduring legacy74. While Leopold‟s absolute power at the centre of the

EIC‟s administration justifies some of this attention, the resulting narrative is reductionist

on two counts: mass violence has been confined to a bounded temporal and geographical

arena (the EIC‟s rubber districts between 1890 and 1908) and provided with a

monocausal (Eurocentric, top-down) explanation75.

72 A recent example is revealing: „Although he [Leopold] never set foot there, he ran the Congo as a private enterprise, extracting wild rubber by brutal coercion, killing or maiming countless Africans‟, M. Shipway, „Belgian Imperial Policy‟ in P. Poddar, R. S. Patke and L. Jensen, eds, A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures. Continental Europe and its Empires (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), 31. Also see Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost; Ewans, European Atrocity, African Catastrophe; Ascherson The King Incorporated; Renton, Seddon and Zeilig, The Congo; E. D. Morel, King Leopold's Rule in Africa (London: W. Heinemann, 1904); M. Twain, King Leopold's Soliloquy. A Defence of his Congo Rule (Boston: The P. R. Warren Co., 1905); A. C. Doyle, The Crime of the Congo (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1909). 73 V. Viaene, 'La Crise Identitaire Congolaise de la Belgique aux Alentours de 1908 et les Origines de la 'Mémoire' du Congo Léopoldien' in R. Giordano, ed, Autour de la Mémoire. La Belgique, le Congo et le Passé Colonial (Paris, Torino: L'Harmattan, 2008), 61-96; M. G. Stanard, 'Learning to Love Leopold?: Belgian Popular Imperialism, 1830-1960s' in J. M. MacKenzie, ed, European Empires and the People: A Comparative Survey of Popular Imperialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010), forthcoming; G. Vanthemsche, 'The Historiography of Belgian Colonialism in the Congo' in C. Lévai, ed, Europe and the World in European Historiography (Pisa: CLIOHRES, 2006), 89-119. 74 N. R. Hunt, 'Rewriting the Soul in a Flemish Congo', Past and Present, 198 (2008), 192-3. 75 Collective memories and historical studies from the Democratic Republic of the Congo are not discussed in this section. The former will be touched upon in §5, for an overview of the historiography see I. Ndaywel e Nziem, 'L‟Historiographie Congolaise', Civilisations, 54, 1-2 (2005), 237-54. Despite hopeful beginnings in the 1960s and 1970s, Congolese historians have had a limited impact on the academic debate on the EIC due to difficult working conditions and limited resources. The strength of Congolese contributions has been their regional focus and use of oral testimony.

17

During the final years of its existence, the EIC‟s administration had become the subject

of vigorous debate and bitter criticism, as well as praise and paid propaganda, in the

Belgian public sphere76. However, following Belgian annexation in 1908 and Leopold‟s

death a year later, critical discussion of colonial matters became increasingly confined to

an inner circle of colonial experts while Leopold was rather spectacularly rehabilitated in

an increasingly homogonous historical consciousness. Stripped of both content and

context, the dead king became the embodiment of the moral virtues –energy, vision and

generosity– at the core of the socio-cultural agenda of the Belgian colonial lobby77. For

domestic as well as international reasons (the protection of the monarchy and the warding

off of potential colonial rivals), official discourse based the legitimacy of Belgian

sovereignty over the Congo on its continuity with Leopold‟s EIC, ignoring the salient fact

that the transfer of power had been due to domestic and international criticism of its

violent and exploitative nature78. The EIC became coterminous with heroic pioneers and

the suppression of the slave trade, and the Congo reform campaign was henceforth

dismissed as a dubious attempt at robbing Belgium of its rightful colonial possession79.

It was not until the 1950s, when Jean Stengers directed some critical attention to the

EIC‟s administration and the missionaries Hulstaert, Boelaert, and Bontinck documented

dissenting perspectives from Africans, that cracks in this triumphalist narrative started to

appear, as yet without significantly impacting Belgium‟s complacent self-image80. While

decolonization subsequently inspired a more critical attitude towards European

colonialism, the end of colonialism also marked a dwindling of interest in and funding for

76 Viaene, „King Leopold‟s Imperialism‟; Viaene, 'La crise Identitaire Congolaise. Critical works include F. Cattier, Etude sur la Situation de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo (Bruxelles: Larcier, 1906) ; A. Vermeersch, La Question Congolaise (Bruxelles: Bulens, 1906) ; E. Vandervelde, Les Derniers Jours de l'Etat du Congo (Mons: La Société Nouvelle, 1909) ; A. J. Wauters, Histoire Politique du Congo Belge (Bruxelles: Pierre Van Fleteren, 1911). On the EIC‟s propaganda machinery, see R. Wiggers, „De "Fédération pour la défense des Intérêts Belges à l'Etranger" en het Persbureau van de Onafhankelijke Kongostaat, 1903-1908‟', Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-Mer. Bulletin des Séances, 38, 2 (1992), 135-83. 77 Viaene, „King Leopold‟s Imperialism‟. 78 Stanard, „Learning to Love Leopold?‟. 79 Louis and Stengers, E. D. Morel's History; Vanthemsche, 'The Historiography of Belgian Colonialism‟; Vanthemsche, La Belgique et Le Congo, 42-4. Feelings of angst and guilt did inspire some dissonant voices from the Congo‟s European inhabitants: Hunt, „Rewriting the Soul‟. 80 J. Stengers, 'Belgian Historiography since 1945' in P.C. Emmer and H. L. Wesseling, eds, Reappraisals in Overseas History (The Hague: Leiden University Press, 1979), 161-81.

18

African and colonial history in Belgium81. The closure of the „politically sensitive‟ EIC

archives until the 1980s further contributed to the lingering survival of the official

discourse82. When they were finally opened, this enabled Daniel Vangroenweghe and

Jules Marchal to published studies which contrasted sharply with what had gone before83.

Infuriated by the obfuscation of violence and the glorification of Leopold, these authors

produced a mirror-image centred on violence in which Leopold was degraded from

visionary genius to black hearted villain. While now playing a very different part, the

king remained the lead actor in the saga of the EIC84.

While the Anglophone historiography was not troubled by Belgium‟s nationalist counter-

discourse, here too a shared appreciation for the progressiveness of colonial rule had

marginalized the study of colonial violence until the end of the colonial period85. When

interest in the Congolese past resurged in Britain and the United States during the 1960s,

the EIC regime was rediscovered through the lens of the Congo reform campaign which

had left numerous traces in the press, government files, missionary archives, travel

literature and a wide range of publications86. As it was through the study of this

humanitarian movement itself that the issue was brought back to prominence, the

Anglophone historiography was again dominated by its perspective and, especially,

Morel‟s sharp analysis of the forced labour system87. One of the enduring characteristics

of the humanitarian perspective has been the notion of Leopoldian exceptionalism. As

previously noted, the reformers‟ mobilization of public support largely depended on their

81 G. Castryck, 'Whose History is History? Singularities and Dualities of the Public Debate on Belgian Colonialism' in C. Lévai, ed, Europe and the World in European Historiography (Pisa: CLIOHRES, 2006), 78; Stengers, 'Belgian Historiography‟. 82 Vanthemsche, 'The Historiography of Belgian Colonialism‟. 83 The works in question are Vangroenweghe, Rood Rubber and Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II. 84 The commotion and controversy following the popularization of this perspective by Adam Hochschild and the fierce reactions to more radical reinterpretations demonstrate that the place the EIC should occupy within Belgian historical consciousness remains contested. See Dumoulin, Léopold II; Castryck, 'Whose History is History?‟. 85 The sympathy Belgium gained as a victim of German aggression and a wartime ally further contributed to the relative neglect of EIC history. 86 The main works are H. R. Fox Bourne, Civilization in Congoland: a Story of International Wrong-doing (London: P.S. King & Son, 1903); E. D. Morel, Red rubber. The Story of the Rubber Slave Trade Flourishing on the Congo in the Year of Grace 1906 (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1906); Doyle, The Crime of the Congo; Twain, King Leopold's Soliloquy. 87 R. Wuliger, The Idea of Economic Imperialism, with Special Reference to the Life and Work of E. D. Morel (PhD thesis, University of London, London, 1953); Louis, „The Triumph‟; Louis and Stengers, E. D. Morel's History; Cline, E. D. Morel; B. Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa, 1895-1914 (London: Macmillan, 1968).

19

ability to present the evils of the EIC not as a consequence but a distortion of the core

principles of colonial rule88. The labour tax, land alienation, commercial monopolies and

Leopold‟s love of money were the central tropes of a discourse which left the

fundamental progressiveness of Europe‟s engagement with native peoples intact.

With this analysis, reformers succeeded in conquering the public mind –the public heart

was mainly targeted through the medium of photography. Photographs of mutilated

Congolese bodies were particularly successful in eliciting a strong emotional response

and were therefore obsessively repeated in print and in the magic lantern shows which

were a prominent feature of the Congo Reform campaign89. This privileging of mutilation

and atrocities excluded other forms of ruination from view, be it sexual predation,

starvation or more diffuse forms of violence with a wider geographical application90. The

essence of the humanitarian legacy lies in the combination of this horrific visual imagery

with an analysis of the peculiar legal system which Leopold engineered, and the obvious

implication that one directly caused the other. The rediscovery of Joseph Conrad‟s Heart

of Darkness as a condemnation of Leopold‟s maladministration of the Congo further

raised its profile in the Anglophone collective memory, where the identification of the

EIC with mass violence is now deeply embedded91. In Belgium, where the humanitarian

perspective has also acquired a domineering presence, the picture remains more complex

as remnants of the colonial discourse and national pride oppose its hegemony.

4. A violent state/a state of violence: explaining mass violence

Violence was an integral feature of colonialism, as it involved the imposition and

maintenance of expatriate minority rule and, often, strong interventionism in the

economic life of its subjects92. This does not imply, however, that brutal and violent acts

were always, or even usually, centrally planned or directed. Often, violence occurred in

88 Cooper, „From Free Labor‟; Grant, A Civilized Savagery. 89 S. Sliwinski, 'The Childhood of Human Rights: The Kodak on the Congo', Journal of Visual Culture, 5, 3 (2006), 333–63; T. J. Thompson, 'Light on the Dark Continent: The Photography of Alice Seely Harris and the Congo Atrocities of the Early Twentieth Century', International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 26 (2002), 146-9; Grant, „Christian Critics of Empire‟. 90 Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟, 23. 91 H. Hawkins, „Conrad's Critique of Imperialism in Heart of Darkness‟, PMLA, 94, 2 (1979), 286-99. 92 McCulloch, „Empire and Violence‟; Cooper, „African Labor History‟.

20

localized settings, was improvised, and committed by subordinate officers, African

auxiliaries or non-state actors. The EIC‟s territory was marked by a society-led culture of

violence quite separate from the policy objectives of its administration93. Nonetheless, the

colonial state decisively shaped the contours of mass violence in two important ways.

First, by setting the terms on which Congolese producers were forcefully integrated into

the international economy it generated and deepened conflicts, notably but not

exclusively between its own representatives and African producers, thus determining the

structural relationship between perpetrators and victim groups94. Second, the

administration displayed a very high tolerance for violence against Africans, officially

and unofficially condoning means of enforcement well beyond those acceptable in a

European context. This climate of impunity was a reflection of both state weakness and

the leniency of a heavily biased judicial system and moral code which minimized or

justified violent transgressions by reference to the need to uphold European power and

prestige in the face of African barbarity95. A comprehensive account of mass violence in

the EIC should encompass the role of the state as well as the concrete social contexts,

interactions and actors in the contact zone.

This section offers seven perspectives on the state of violence surrounding Congo‟s

colonial encounter with Europe. Individually, these are part-explanations of a complex

phenomenon; taken together they point to ways of moving beyond the top-down

approach which attributes its occurrence to a particular legal system or Leopold‟s rotten

personality. This list of causes is merely a starting point for a more refined historical

analysis: the task of reconstructing how, in different parts of the EIC and at different

times, they interacted to produce specific historical outcomes still lies ahead. The

93 Gewald, „More than Red Rubber‟. In so conceptualizing colonial violence, I draw inspiration from Gerlach, „Extremely Violent Societies‟ and Wolfe, „Settler Colonialism‟. 94 The term „state‟ in its singular, normative form –as used here for the sake of brevity and clarity– obscures the existence of a complex and hierarchic state bureaucracy, which renders the duality between the state and its local representatives somewhat problematic. The legislative and executive branch (respectively in Brussels and Congo) did contribute to the escalation of violence in different ways, but in the important case of the rubber regime the use of extreme violence was at least in some cases ordered by high ranking officials in the executive branch (such as the Vice Gouverneur Général or Commissaire de District) –an observation which somewhat qualifies my statement that mass violence in the EIC was not centrally planned. See Stengers, „The Congo Free State‟, 280-1 for the differing responsibility of the legislative and executive branch. For the organisation of the rubber system see Vangroenweghe, Rood Rubber; Vangroenweghe, Voor Rubber en Ivoor; Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II; Delathuy, E.D. Morel tegen Leopold II; Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost. 95 M. Taussig, Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man : a Study in Terror and Healing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) argues that colonial violence mimics the ascribed barbarity of indigenous peoples.

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argument here mainly concerns the need to embed the colonial state within its widest

possible context.

1. Political culture and the establishment of sovereignty

The implantation of the colonial state and the assertion of its sovereign rights involved

military conquest and the elimination of powerful competitors. The assertion of

dominance was a drawn out, mediated and often truncated process96. However, even

though control remained superficial in some parts, and was „delegated‟ to allied chiefs

and warlords in others, the logic of the colonial state legitimized and necessitated a

number of interventions, notably the raising of revenue and the subjection of the African

population to the rule of law. The identification of the state interest with its own survival

and expansion and the implementation of a loosely defined model of development

sensitive to metropolitan needs, helped define the contours of legitimate violence97. As

„good‟ colonial government entailed the successful enforcement of a legal system

designed to bring about the desired social transformation, the state entitled itself to use its

military power and machinery of criminal punishment to settle conflicts over land,

labour, the direction of trade, tax obligations and production methods98.

In the eyes of EIC officials and European opinion, a powerful civilizing discourse which

presented colonial domination as a precondition for Africa‟s social, cultural and

economic improvement provided the ultimate justification for the culture of violence it

engendered. Such ideas enabled the rationalization of violence as being supportive of the

greater good and led the administration to accept high worker mortality and disruptive

recruitment practices as the inevitable costs of progress99. No less important for being

96 Ndaywel, Histoire Général, 280; Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold‟s Congo‟. 97 The „development plan‟ mainly consisted of unlocking Congo‟s labour power, stimulating primary exports, developing a rudimentary infrastructure, guaranteeing secure title to land and property to European investors, and enforcing civil order. These „normal‟ features of EIC policy have not received much attention in a historiography dominated by the (atypical) rubber system which grew primarily out of the imperative of state survival. For a broad view, see A. G. Hopkins, „The “New International Economic Order” in the Nineteenth Century: Britain's First Development Plan for Africa‟ in R. Law, ed, From Slave Trade to 'Legitimate' Commerce: The Commercial Transition in Nineteenth-Century West Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 240-64. 98 Krozewski, „Contextualising Violence‟, 58. 99 On the post-liberal refusal to accept „modernity‟ as the good which redeems colonial violence, see Moses, „Conceptual Blockages‟. Also see Mark Levene‟s suggestion that „colonialism may have been inherently incompatible with its lofty aims‟, Levene, Genocide, 239.

22

inadequately understood is the impact of the imperial elite‟s social Darwinian worldview,

in which the domination of „inferior‟ races was naturalised and seen as crucially

important to the strength and survival of the Belgian „race‟100.

2. Ruthless economic exploitation

Revenue collection and labour mobilization were the most visible, pervasive and

disruptive aspects of the colonial administration. The crucial importance of rubber to the

state‟s solvency accounts for both the intensity of its exploitation, and the prominence of

the „rubber regime‟ in explanations of the mass violence sweeping the region. The rapid

development of wild rubber exploitation in the EIC was part of an international

speculative rubber boom which also affected producers in the rainforests of Latin

America and other African colonies101. King Leopold fully capitalized on the

opportunities world demand for rubber offered him to improve the state‟s precarious

finances and to fulfil his private imperial ambitions102. The relentless pressure he

personally exerted on his subordinates to increase production, and a perverse system of

bonuses which rewarded the excesses of state and concession company agents, spurred

on a ruthless and deadly scramble for revenue.

Following the analysis of Edmund Dene Morel, leader of the Congo Reform Association

and a prolific writer, the legal system by which the state obtained forced tax labour to

work the „vacant‟ lands which it appropriated dominates explanations of its violent

outcome. To Morel, the crucial issue was access to land: the EIC‟s seizure of the rubber

forests implied the substitution of freely enacted and mutually beneficial trade

100 For the argument that the social darwinistic outlook of imperial elites could render violence „necessary‟ see Levene, „Empires‟, 199 and Krozewski, „Contextualising Violence‟. The mental horizon of the Belgian, metropolitan colonial elite is explored in Viaene, „King Leopold‟s Imperialism‟. 101 B. Weinstein, The Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850–1912 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983); Taussig, Shamanism; J. F. Munro, „Monopolists and Speculators: British Investment in West African Rubber, 1905-1914‟, Journal of African History, 22 (1981), 263-78; J. F. Munro, „British Rubber Companies in East Africa before the First World War‟, Journal of African History, 24 (1983), 369-79; Coquery-Vidrovitch, Le Congo; Vangroenweghe, „The “Leopold II” Concession System‟. Roger Casement, the British consul whose damning report on the EIC did much to push the British government into action, would later write a similar report on rubber gathering in the Amazon: M. Taussig, 'Culture of Terror - Space of Death. Roger Casement's Putumayo Report and the Explanation of Torture', Comparative studies in society and history, 26, 3 (1984), 467-97.Guinée‟s experience provides an interesting contrast to the EIC: E. L. Osborn, „“Rubber Fever”, Commerce and French Colonial Rule in Upper Guinée, 1890-1913‟, Journal of African History, 45 (2004), 445-65. 102 Viaene, „King Leopold‟s Imperialism‟.

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relationships with African rubber collectors with coercive means of labour extraction

which by definition relied on violence103. Forced labour systems indeed share a reliance

on violence for preventative and repressive purposes104, but the EIC‟s legal system does

not suffice to explain the nature and intensity of violence used. The forced cotton

cultivation of a later period, for example, was equally coercive but was not accompanied

by the same culture of violence105.

The brutality of the EIC‟s regime was linked to a more complex process of interaction

with, and adaptation to, local circumstances. In its most general sense, this represented

the articulation of capitalist expansion with indigenous modes of production and

distribution106. Europeans were hampered in their search for wage labour and revenues by

the limited commodification of social relationships in the societies they encountered, and

the ease by which those who preferred not to engage in production for the market could

avoid doing so through subsistence production, flight, or migration107. Explanations for

Africans‟ reluctance to engage in the kind of market production colonial governments

desired centred on the idea of the „lazy native‟, which was used to justify forced labour as

an educational measure108. To organise the profitable extraction of natural resources

under these circumstances, EIC officials resorted to copying and adapting the social

organisation and terror tactics of the Eastern slave trade109.

3. Under-capitalization and state weakness

103 Most succinctly argued in E. D. Morel, „The “Commercial” Aspect of the Congo Question‟, Journal of the Royal African Society, 3, 12 (1904), 430-48, but also see Morel, Red Rubber. The legal appropriation of „vacant‟ land was of paramount importance, but the state did not, and could not, in practice separate Africans from the land they held. The legal appropriation of land was enforced through a ban on selling its produce, and did not include lands used for subsistence agriculture. 104 Breman, Imperial Monkey Business. 105 See Likaka, Rural Society and Cotton; Likaka, Naming Colonialism. 106 Cooper, „Africa and the World Economy‟. 107 Cooper, „African Labor History‟; G. Austin, 'Resources, Techniques and Strategies South of the Sahara: Revising the Factor Endowments Perspective on African Economic Development, 1500-2000', Economic History Review, 61, 3 (2008), 587-624; Taussig, „Culture of Terror - Space of Death‟. 108 W. J. Samarin, The Black Man's Burden. African Colonial Labor on the Congo and Ubangi Rivers, 1880-1900 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989); Cooper, „From Free Labor‟. 109 Vellut, „La Violence Armée‟; Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II.

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An influential current of thought attributes much of the brutality of the EIC‟s rule to the

absence of sufficient resources to effectively administer King Leopold‟s extensive

territory110. The state‟s shortage of funds lay at the basis of both a fanatical drive to

generate short-term revenue to finance colonial conquest and occupation and a reduction

of expenditure to a bare minimum. Even after 1895, when the state‟s financial outlook

had improved markedly as a result of the rubber boom, the administration continued to be

starved of much needed resources as a result of Leopold‟s decision to reserve substantial

sums for his imperial projects and self-aggrandizement111.

Such economizing had far-reaching consequences for the make-up of the state. The

colonial infrastructure, transport links and medical services remained rudimentary. The

underdeveloped central administration and embryonic judicial system were only able to

exercise minimal control over the interior, leading to a climate of impunity which was

particularly grave in the vast tracts of rubber forests contracted out to private concession

companies112. The lack of both support and supervision from the centre left local

administrators and company agents often alone in improvising ways of obtaining food,

labour and the expected revenues. Periodic shortages in trade goods, logistic difficulties

and other inefficiencies further weakened the fabric of the state, forcing many state posts

into a parasitic relationship with their environment. While in some areas institutionalized

and negotiated forms of tribute collection proved manageable, much of the EIC

fragmented into local plunder-economies in which state officials, concession company

agents or the state‟s African allies raided their territory for food, labour and resources.

The violence committed was spurred on by pressure from the centre to collect taxes and

to rely on force when needed, but also responded to and varied with local circumstances.

110 This is the interpretation in, amongst others, R. Oliver and J. D. Fage, A Short History of Africa (New York: Penguin, 1984); J. F. Munro, Africa and the International Economy, 1800-1960 (London: J. M. Dent, 1976); W. G. Clarence-Smith, 'Business Empires in Equatorial Africa', African Economic History, 12 (1983), 3-11; A. G. Hopkins, 'Imperial Business in Africa. Part II: Interpretations', Journal of African History, 17, 2 (1976), 267-90. 111 Stengers, „The Congo Free State‟. But see Jean-Phillipe Peemans‟ caveat that too much causal weight is often attributed to the exceptional but relatively modest capital transfers to Belgium: J.-P. Peemans, 'Capital Accumulation in the Congo under Colonialism: the Role of the State' in P. Duignan and L. H. Gann, eds, Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960. The Economics of Colonialism (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 165-212. 112 Harms, „The World Abir Made‟. The combination of a weak state and strong companies is well rehearsed in Mozambican historiography. See for instance Vail, „Mozambique's Chartered Companies‟.

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Lack of resources prevented the EIC from establishing a close-knit network of state posts.

Even more so than in other African colonies, state power in the EIC was „arterial‟ rather

than „capillary‟: the state presence was largely concentrated in the Lower Congo and in a

series of administrative and military posts occupying strategic positions along long-

distance trade routes113. Beyond these posts, the state was most commonly represented by

African mercenaries, allied chiefs and warlords, each often also pursuing their own

economic and political agendas114. The impossibility of establishing direct control over

the movements and activities of its African subjects limited the arsenal of disciplinary

methods the state had at its disposal. Hostage taking, raids, the stationing of sentries in

villages and the threat of corporal punishment, torture or open war were among the most

effective methods available to put an unwilling population to work when production

could not be directly supervised.

An undercapitalized EIC, then, possessed the determination and capacity to extract

considerable resources from its territory, but lacked the ability (and arguably the will) to

control the means by which such extraction occurred. It was this combination of official

preoccupation with revenue and the absence of an effective civil administration which to

influential observers such as Lord Cromer, Wilfred Thesiger and Félicien Cattier lay at

the core of the „maladministration‟ of the EIC115.

4. African resistance

Africans did not passively submit to the EIC‟s claim to sovereign rights or its demands

for labour and produce, and it was mostly through the brutal repression of such resistance

that the latent violence of colonial rule and impressments of involuntary labour became

overt. Contrary to the myth of peaceful occupation propagated by Belgian colonial

discourse, „primary resistance‟ from African rulers refusing to submit to European rule

necessitated a prolonged war of conquest which outlasted the EIC116. In areas where the

state‟s military dominance was established, Africans continued to resist its demands for

113 The terminology is derived from F. Cooper, 'Conflict and Connection: Rethinking Colonial African History', American Historical Review, 99, 5 (1994), 1516-45. Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold‟s Congo‟. 114 Vellut, „La Violence Armée‟. 115 Osborne, „Wilfred G. Thesiger‟; F. Cattier, Etude sur la Situation. 116 Vellut, „La Violence Armée‟ ; Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold‟s Congo‟ ; Ndaywel, Histoire Générale.

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labour and produce in a variety of ways117. Instances of outright rebellion, murders of

state or company representatives, the evasion of duties through permanent migration or

temporary flight as well as industrial sabotage (for example by cutting the rubber vines)

have been documented118. A series of mutinies within the state‟s military also seriously

challenged the EIC‟s rule over large parts of its territory119. The violent response such

challenges provoked reflects the seriousness of the danger African resistance posed to

state authority. In many cases, officials saw no other effective response than to further

raise the level of violence in an attempt to terrorize their subjects into submission120

The degree of violence required to contain the enduring unrest and quell the resistance to

the state‟s labour demands did much to expose the emptiness of the civilizing discourse

on which its legitimacy depended121. Africans testified in great numbers before state

officials, judicial officers, missionaries and the Commission d‟Enquête122. The stark

contrast between the presumed moral and material benefits of colonial rule and the

systemic terror which these witnesses described provided sufficient ammunition for an

international humanitarian campaign to successfully challenge Leopold‟s rule. By

refusing to submit to the EIC‟s exploitative practices, Africans had played an important

part in this process123.

5. Interaction with African societies and political structures

Resistance was but one of the ways in which Africans engaged with European expansion.

Differences, divisions and conflicts between and among African ethnic and social groups 117 Likaka, „Rural protest‟. 118 Delathuy, E. D. Morel tegen Leopold II ; Delathuy, De Kongostaat van Leopold II; Vangroenweghe, Rood Rubber; Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila; Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold‟s Congo‟. 119 De Boeck, Baoni. 120 Consider, for an extreme example, the following quote from a letter by Jules Jacques, Commissaire de District at Lake Leopold II, a high ranking state official, to his subordinate Chef de Poste: „Decidedly, these people from Inongo are filthy scum. They have come to cut down the rubber vines at Ibali. We need to beat them into absolute submission or complete extinction […] Warn them that if they cut down another vine, I will exterminate them to the last man‟. („Décidément ces gens d‟Inongo constituent une bien vilaine engeance. Ils sont venus couper les lianes à caoutchouc à Ibali. Nous devrons taper sur eux jusqu‟à soumission absolue ou extinction complète […] Prévenez-les que s‟ils coupent encore une liane, je les exterminerai tous jusqu‟au dernier‟). Quoted in J. Marchal, L'Etat Libre du Congo: Paradis Perdu. L'Histoire du Congo 1876-1900 (Borgloon: Paula Bellings, 1996), 360. My translation. 121 Likaka, Naming Colonialism. 122 As a result, African voices are present in the colonial archive. Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟. 123 Likaka, Naming Colonialism.

27

were fundamental to shaping the patterns of resistance and collaboration, mutual

adaptation and intercultural exchange which defined the colonial encounter and the

violence which accompanied it124. Explanations of the mass violence of the EIC era need

to take into account such pre-existing social and political configurations and dynamics as

well as the ways in which these were exploited by Europeans and their continued

evolution in interaction with the colonial state.

During the second half of the 19th century the Congo Basin was the locus of dramatic

social change125. Historians have documented migrations and conquests, increased social

stratification, disintegration of large political units and attempts by ambitious leaders to

forge new ones, transformations in and intensification of slavery systems, a marked

militarization of societies, intensified competition for wealth and power and changes in

gender patterns. The societies the EIC tried to contain within its borders were neither

unified nor uniform, nor were they isolated from each other or the outside world. Many

of the region‟s dynamics were related to the incorporation of large parts of it as raiding

frontiers into Africa‟s expansive slave trading networks126. Although long-distance trade

in ivory and slaves brought considerable wealth to some, its effects on the frontier

regions in the Congo were mostly destructive, generating a climate of generalized

warfare, deep divisions, antagonism and extreme violence.

As the EIC sought allies and collaborators through which to solidify its power, it was

drawn into and exploited these conflicts and rivalries. While the abolitionist discourse

deployed in Europe prescribed the active suppression of the slave trade and the protection

of its victims, military and political expediency, as well as cultural preferences, more

often led to the establishment of collaborative relations with dominant groups and

conquering slavers127. Rather than being abolished, slavery systems and inequalities in

124 Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest. 125 See Birmingham, Central Africa for an introduction. 126 P. E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: a History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); J.-L. Vellut, 'Rural Poverty in Western Shaba, c. 1890-1930' in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds, The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (London: Heinemann, 1977), 294-316; Jewsiewicki, 'Notes sur l'Histoire‟. 127 E. J. Glave, 'Cruelty in the Congo Free State', The Century, 54, 5 (1897), 699-715; Likaka, „Rural Protest‟; Vangroenweghe, Voor Rubber en Ivoor. Some of these alliances were short-lived and ended in conflict when the power balance shifted, famously so in the cases of Tippu Tip and Ngongo Lutete. Others, such as Lumpungu, retained considerable autonomy and power within the colonial structure.

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power were incorporated into the colonial framework as a means to mobilize the labour

colonialism required128. Af rican intermediaries not only mattered to the physical exercise

of state power, but also made up the channels through which information on the region,

its peoples, their practices and suitable modes of administration was gathered. The

prevalence of Zanzibaris and Afro-Arabs as culture brokers appears to have been

constitutive to the borrowing, extension and adaptation of the violent Afro-Arab system

of resource extraction for the benefit of the EIC129.

Over time the EIC‟s conquest and military dominance eroded the power of the country‟s

ruling elites. However, this effect was not always immediately apparent, and in some

cases enterprising Africans were able to consolidate or expand their wealth and power

through political alliances with the state130. The outcome was an uneven distribution of

burdens and opportunities. The more powerful leaders were able to mediate the

incorporation of their subjects into the colonial order and mitigate some of its effects,

often by shifting the burden of the EIC‟s demands for labour and produce to their weaker

neighbours and subjected peoples. Elsewhere, the Afro-Arab „sentry system‟, involving

the stationing of armed state auxiliaries inside village communities, was widely adopted.

Often, these sentries exploited their position of state-backed power to appropriate wealth,

wives, and sexual services, while their usurpation of local political power hampered the

negotiated, indirect exercise of state power on the long term131.

6. Perpetrator motivation and character

Even though the extraction of labour and resources was at the heart of EIC state violence,

the atrocities committed were not the result of measured economic rationality alone. State

and company agents and their auxiliaries were more than profit-maximizing stick-figures

increasing levels of brutality in a calculated response to financial bonuses for increased

128 Northrup, „The Ending of Slavery‟. 129 Vellut, „La Violence Armée‟ 130 Vanhee, „Over Heren en Knechten‟. 131 An account of the sentry system in operation in Katanga is given in a letter by the Scottish missionary Dugald Campbell in Morel, King Leopold’s Rule, 452-62. These African auxiliaries are understudied: their origin, role and subsequent re-integration into society deserves further scrutiny. At times, they appear to have been drawn from dominant groups, building upon existing patterns of domination, while on other occasions they may have been merely locals faced with the unenviable choice of being „among the hunters or the hunted‟. See Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟.

29

rubber production. The banality and pervasiveness of violence and the sadistic brutality

of some of the atrocities committed require a broader understanding of perpetrator

motivation132. Europeans and their African associates often used their position of

unchecked power for the fulfilment of a variety of personal economic, psychological or

sexual ambitions, with relative impunity leading to cumulative brutalization133.

Comparative evidence also suggests that the arbitrary nature of autocratic political

systems could profoundly influence the behaviour of their own administrations134. The

socialisation of agents into an administration where official approval, promotions,

financial benefits and even timely provisioning could depend solely on their success in

raising revenue merits further study, as do more personal psychological processes such as

desensitization, group conformity, indoctrination, victim dehumanization, cumulative

brutalization, racism, fear and paranoia which facilitated the commitment of violent

acts135.

Historically, such questions have been marginalised by narratives which focused instead

on the „quality‟ or „character‟ of state officials. Serving an unscrupulous and rapacious

King Leopold, critics identified a local administration staffed with dubious personnel of

low moral standing136. While Jean Stengers spoke of „ordinary Belgians‟ locked into a

violent system, doubts about the poor intellectual, moral and organisational qualities of

state and concession company personnel have been commonplace among the

administration‟s higher echelons, external observers and historians alike137. At times,

132 Gewald, „More than Red Rubber‟, Breman, Imperial Monkey Business, Taussig, „Culture of Terror‟. 133 Baron Nisco, Acting President of the Court of Appeal at Boma, noted in December 1903 that the violence which Europeans, including state officials, routinely inflicted upon Africans had no legal basis whatsoever. Coercion and corporal punishment were used arbitrarily to uphold the power and prestige of European officials and civilians alike partially because a legal framework encapsulating the reality of racial domination and forced labour was lacking. Such violence, while illegal, had to be tolerated since the legal system provided Europeans with insufficient means to impose their will on „unwilling natives‟. Quoted in Vangroenweghe, Voor Rubber en Ivoor, 377-9. It is following in this order of ideas that I typify the EIC‟s culture of violence as partly society-led. A similar argument is made for Rhodesia in McCulloch, „Empire and Violence‟. 134 I. Kershaw and M. Lewin, eds, Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). 135 Jan Vansina hypothesizes that the loneliness and disease may have been important factors, in Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold‟s Congo‟, 352. Johannes Fabian has also remarked that, quite often, Europeans were not in full possession of their senses, but ill with fever and under the influence of drugs and alcohol. Fabian, Out of Our Minds. 136 See, for example, Morel in Louis and Stengers, E. D. Morel's History. Also see the observations made, for the Katanga region, by J. B. Thornhill, Adventures in Africa under the British, Belgian and Portuguese Flags (London: John Murray, 1915) and R. R.Sharp, Early Days in Katanga (Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, 1956). 137 Stengers, „The Congo Free State‟; Stengers and Vansina, „King Leopold‟s Congo‟, 352.

30

such perceived shortcomings linked into essentialist conceptions of race, nationality or

class. Doubts were cast over the colonial aptitudes of the Belgian „race‟, while the petty

bourgeois background of the lower ranks of the state machinery equally raised questions

about their fitness to rule. Lack of „character‟ (a concept closely related to ideals of

masculinity) was held to cause Europeans to succumb to the degenerative and brutalizing

effects of the African climate, environment and people138. The most common „genetic‟

explanation of violence, however, concerned African auxiliaries and native troops which,

if inadequately supervised, were argued to be prone to surrender to their „savage

instincts‟139.

While the explanatory value of „character‟ to the problem of mass violence is limited at

best, the EIC did experience difficulties in attracting suitable personnel due to high

mortality rates, undesirable working conditions, modest wages and the low prestige of the

Congolese colonial service140. As a result, recruitment standards were low and discredited

personnel were retained to complement the structurally understaffed administration. A

rapid turnover in personnel, the lack of education for colonial service and the loose ties

with the central administration left many state posts in the hands of young and

inexperienced recruits who improvised ways to assert their dominance over an

environment often perceived as hostile. Agreements with the Belgian and Italian army,

the enlistment of Scandinavian officers and West African subordinate cadres somewhat

alleviated the EIC‟s staffing problems, but also ensured that the administration became

strongly infused with a military spirit141.

7. Racism

138 D. N. Livingstone, „The Moral Discourse of Climate: Historical Considerations on Race, Place and Virtue‟, Journal of Historical Geography, 17 (1991), 413-34; D. Kennedy, „The Perils of the Midday Sun: Climatic Anxieties in the Colonial Tropics‟, in J. M. McKenzie, ed, Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 118-40. 139 Breman, Imperial Monkey Business, 95. 140 Emerson, Leopold II of the Belgians, 237. 141 L. H. Gann and P. Duignan, The Rulers of Belgian Africa 1884-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979).

31

The attribution of inherent characteristics on the basis of „race‟ or ethnicity was deeply

engrained within European thought142. Racism was also at the centre of the EIC‟s

colonial ideology. It was Africans‟ assumed backwardness and slaving instincts which

justified colonial conquest, their inherent laziness which justified forced labour, and their

insolence, dishonesty, violent nature and childlike behaviour which justified the state‟s

authoritarian rule and the use of force in excess of what was acceptable in Europe. In the

eyes of state officials, the particular barbarity of the EIC‟s African inhabitants

necessitated a firm, ruthless and often brutal exercise of authority143. The idea that

colonial rule brought civilization to these „benighted‟ Africans proved a powerful tool in

playing down the severe disruption it caused: as the great task of remaking Africans

seemed impossible to achieve without it, violence, turmoil and demographic decline were

accepted as necessary evils offset by colonialism‟s ulterior benefits. A fatalistic attitude

towards violence and social upheaval masked the state‟s failure or unwillingness to

safeguard African societies from the excessive and arbitrary requisitioning of workers,

food and taxes or to control the violence committed by its representatives.

By dehumanizing victims and precluding empathy for the suffering inflicted upon them,

racism was also crucial to facilitating the commitment of extreme and sometimes sadistic

acts of violence144. Writings from Europeans residing in the Congo often reveal aversion,

intense hatred and deep contempt for the Africans amongst whom they lived. Parallel to

(and in tension with) conceptions of the civilizing mission and African moral

improvement circulated notions of native irreclaimability, depicting Africans as beasts of

burden and dirty brutes whose lives counted for little or nothing. Such racist depictions

underlay the banality of violence against Africans and the thoughtlessness with which

some Europeans resorted to physical abuse, murder, plunder and warfare. Low penalties

for crimes against Africans and their lax treatment by the administration and courts

structurally reinforced the idea that African lif e was cheap145.

142 Levene, Genocide; Moses, „Conceptual Blockages‟; M. Banton, Racial Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes to Race (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971). 143 Taussig, „Culture of Terror‟; Breman, Imperial Monkey Business. 144 Gewald, „More than Red Rubber‟; Breman, Imperial Monkey Business. 145 Compare to McCulloch, „Empire and Violence‟.

32

Racism was not a strictly European preserve. Jean-Luc Vellut notes the contempt the

Islamised „Waungwana‟ displayed towards the pagan „Washenzi‟ and the way in which

in this case too the marking of difference facilitated the commitment of brutalities and

extreme violence146. Nor were racist notions uniform: Europeans held varying and

sometimes positive ideas on African racial characteristics, and could interact with

Africans accordingly. Few rigid institutional boundaries yet separated Europeans from

Africans, leading to the development of close and sometimes intimate relationships

between them. Cutting across this pluriformity of attitudes and interactions, however,

fundamentally uneven power relations, racial inequality codified in law, and the twin

ideas of white superiority and the legitimacy of European dominion remained

unquestioned.

5. Sources

The above overview of the roots of the EIC‟s culture of violence remains static and

incomplete. Its main aims have been to pave the way for more geographically precise and

dynamic approaches and to point to ways in which the study of violence in the EIC can

usefully be refocused. What is now needed is a clearer picture of the variations in impact

and experience of EIC rule (and their causes), a shift from state-centred, top-down

interpretations to an understanding of violence as deeply rooted and society-led, the

investigation of multiple actors and social groups in interaction with the colonial state,

and a broader contextualisation of the EIC‟s violent history within broader currents of

European and African history147. The focus in this article has been predominantly on

causes and perpetrators, but the recovery of lived experience and the exploration of

structural change are at least as urgent. Although the EIC period is one of the most

intensely studied in Congolese history, the research agenda remains long. Fortunately,

there exists a wide range of sources with which to tackle it. This final section serves as a

rough introduction to this material148.

146 „La Violence Armée‟. It should be noted that in this case religion, not race, was the significant marker of difference, which (in a limited number of cases) left the door open for co-optation through conversion. 147 A good bibliographic guide to the existing literature up to 1996 is J.-L. Vellut, F. Loriaux and F. Morimont, Bibliographie Historique du Zaïre à l'Epoque Coloniale (1880-1960): Travaux Publiés en 1960-1996 (Louvain la Neuve: UCL. Centre d'Histoire de l'Afrique, 1996). Also see J.-L. Vellut, Guide de l'Etudiant en Histoire du Zaïre (Kinshasa and Lubumbashi: Editions du Mont Noir, 1974). 148 A comprehensive guide to archival material on Belgian colonial history held in Belgium and abroad (but apparently excluding archives in the DRC) is currently being prepared by Lien Ceûppens and Laure d'Ursel for the Belgian State

33

Belgian archives contain most of the material required to offer a comprehensive inside

perspective on the colonial administration and the violence it engendered149. For

information on the latter, researchers no longer need to rely on published accounts and

testimonies circulated by the regime‟s critics: the EIC government and related records

which have been gradually opened up have provided most of the detailed information on

which the highly critical studies by Jules Marchal and Daniel Vangroenweghe are

based150. Wilful destruction of compromising material and years of relative neglect mean

that records can be fragmentary, scattered, poorly organized and inadequately

inventorized, but the remaining material is still far richer than is often suggested151.

Official documents and personal papers of state officials ranging from the rank and file

up to the Gouverneur Général, Secrétaire d‟Etat and some of King Leopold‟s personal

entourage offer a wealth of information on state policy as well as personal testimonies,

correspondence and reports152. Some of these reports are surprisingly critical of state

practice, while others are noteworthy for their blatant racism and boastful descriptions of

extreme violence153. Travel accounts and autobiographical notes of various private

individuals who visited the Congo offer another interesting perspective on the country, its

Archives and the Royal Museum for Central Africa. Publication is scheduled for 2012, but online access to the database is promised sooner (see http://arch.arch.be for more details). 149 A couple of general introductions to African archives held in Belgium give a useful overview of the most important collections. See, for example, H. Legros and C. A. Keim, 'Guide to African Archives in Belgium', History in Africa, 23 (1996), 401-409. Most introductions to Belgian archive collections are now themselves historical artifacts, but still worth consulting are M. Van Grieken-Taverniers, La Colonisation belge en Afrique centrale: Guide des Archives Africaines du Ministère des Affaires Africaines 1885-1962 (Bruxelles: Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, du Commerce Extérieur et de la Coopération au Développement, 1981); F. Peemans and P. Lefevre, Les Sociétés Coloniales belges: Archives et Données Bibliographiques (1885-1960) (Bruxelles: CEDAF, 1980) ; and Vellut, Guide de l'Etudiant. 150 These records are now held at the African Archives, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Brussels (AA). See Van Grieken-Taverniers, La Colonisation Belge; Legros and Keim, „Guide to African Archives‟. 151 Although a large part of the EIC archives were famously burned at the time of Belgian annexation, it is not clear exactly what was destroyed. It seems likely that what Leopold‟s collaborators aimed to cover up was not the human cost of his administration, but the King‟s financial machinations. G. De Boeck, „EIC: les Cadavres dans le Placard‟ (http://www.congoforum.be/upldocs/EIC_%20les%20cadavres.pdf, accessed 22 Mar 2010). 152 The main repository for personal papers is the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren. See P. Van Schuylenberg, Le Mémoire des Belges en Afrique Centrale. Inventaire des Archives Historiques Privées du Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale de 1858 à nos Jours (Tervuren: Museé Royal de l‟Afrique Centrale, 1997). Other relevant private papers and correspondence are included in the Fonds IRCB (AA), while the State Archives, Brussels hold the records of high functionaries such as Edmond Van Eetvelde and Hubert Droogmans. The papers of King Leopold and some of his immediate entourage can be consulted at the Archives of the Royal Palace, Brussels. The series Service Personnel Africaine at the AA contains files on most colonial officials. 153 Much depended on circumstance: reactions against humanitarian agitation were almost unanimously defensive, but internally discussion and criticism were possbile. See, for example, Dhanis on the Abir concession in Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟.

34

administration and its people. Many archival sources, such as the records of court cases,

which are now accessible up to 1910, still await their historian154.

Missionary sources rival government records both in the detail they provide and in their

wide geographical scope155. State officials exempted, protestant and catholic missionaries

were the most numerous group of Europeans residing in the EIC. As missionaries were

also less concentrated in the urban areas of the Lower Congo, they were the most

prominent European observers of, and participants in, developments in the interior156.

Unsurprisingly, this privileged position implicated missionaries directly in the Congo

atrocity campaign as their testimony and endorsement was much coveted by

humanitarians and the state alike. The decision to participate on either side of the debate

mostly depended on strategic considerations related to evangelisation, which remained

the missionary societies‟ primary concern157. Public interventions by missionaries were

154 These are held at the AA. Files become available after a 100 year closure period. I do not include records held in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in this survey. While there is no doubt that important official records and correspondence can still be found at the Archives Nationales de la République Démocratique du Congo and at various archives at the old administrative centres, no up to date introductions to this material currently exist. For the situation in the 1970s see Vellut, Guide de l'Etudiant. 155 The different missionary orders and organisations each focused on a specific geographical area, which renders missionary sources particularly suitable for regional studies. For a useful map of the Catholic missionary districts see K. T. Streit, Katholischer Missionsatlas: Enthaltend die Gesamten Missionsgebiete des Erdkreises (Steyl: Verlag der Missionsdruckerei, 1906). R. Slade, English-speaking Missions in the Congo Independent State (1878-1908) (Brussel: ARSOM, 1959) also has a good map which includes protestant missions. Archives of Catholic missions are held at the mother house in Tongerloo, Belgium for the Premonstratensians (Uele District), Westmalle, Belgium for the Trappists (Equateur District) and Borgerhout, Belgium for the Sacred Heart Fathers (Stanley Falls and Aruwimi); at the Vatican for the White Fathers (Lake Tanganyika); both at the Vatican and at Heverlee, Belgium for the Jesuits (Kwango District); at KADOC in Leuven, Belgium for the Scheutists (Equateur and Kasai Districts) and Redemptorists (Bas-Congo District); and at the Mill Hill Missionaries Heritage Centre, Liverpool for the Mill Hill Fathers (Lac Leopold II). My sincere thanks go to Vincent Viaene for providing me with much of this information. Protestant missions included the Baptist Missionary Society (archives at Regent‟s Park College, University of Oxford), Congo Balolo Mission (archives at the Centre for the Study of Christianity in the Non-Western World, University of Edinburgh), American Baptist Foreign Mission Society (archives at Mercer University, Atlanta, GA), American Presbyterian Congo Mission (archives at Montreat, NC) and the Svenska Missionsförbundet (archives at Riksarkivet Marieberg, Stockholm). 156 Although I have not discussed their complex roles, missionaries themselves were, in various ways, participants in the EIC‟s coercive system and culture of violence even as they were (sometimes) highly critical of its excesses. See A. M. Delathuy, Missie en Staat in Oud-Kongo, 1880-1914. Witte Paters, Scheutisten en Jezuïeten (Berchem: EPO, 1992); R. Kinet, "Licht in die Finsternis": Kolonisation und Mission im Kongo, 1876-1908: Kolonialer Staat und Nationale Mission zwischen Kooperation und Konfrontation (Berlin: Lit Verlag, 2003); W. François, „De Onderzoekscommissie voor Congo (1904-1905) en de Missies van de Jezuïeten‟, Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis, 37, 1-2 (2007), 79-142. 157 P. Kennedy, Black Livingstone: A True Tale of Adventure in the 19th Century Congo (New York: Viking Press, 2002); Delathuy, Missie en Staat in Oud-Kongo; D. Lagergren, Mission and State in the Congo: a study of the Relations between Protestant Missions and the Congo Independent State Authorities with Special Reference to the Equator District, 1885-1903 (Uppsala: Gleerup, 1970); Slade, English-speaking Missions; S. Shaloff, Reform in Leopold's Congo (Richmond: John Knox Press, 1970); C. A. Cline, 'The Church and the Movement for Congo

35

thus somewhat skewed to favour the missionary cause: critics were keen to present the

excesses of Leopoldian colonialism as evidence of the shortcomings of a materialistic

colonialism in need of moral improvement through increased missionary involvement.

However, missionary evidence is by no means limited to such public pronouncements.

Missionary archives contain a wealth of internal correspondence and detailed reports

which provide information not only on the missionaries and their daily lives, but also on

the social, political and economic context in which they operated and on the people they

tried to convert. The writings of two prominent missionaries, Émeri Cambier (Scheut)

and Fernand Allard (Jesuit), which are available in published form, provide just a taste of

the richness of this missionary evidence, as does a recent compilation of correspondence

by American Presbyterian missionaries158.

Other interesting sources include the consular reports which provided foreign powers

with the ammunition they needed to exert diplomatic pressure on King Leopold, as well

as the correspondence originating from foreign diplomatic representatives residing in the

Congo159. The famous report compiled by the British consul Roger Casement in 1903

may have been more significant as a landmark in the politics of Congo reform than it is

for the information it provides on the EIC administration, but it was but the first of a

series of more detailed and analytical reports written by an extended British consular staff

during the decade which followed160. American, Portuguese, Italian, Dutch, and French

consuls also wrote reports on violence and maladministration within the EIC, though of

Reform', Church History, 32, 1 (1963), 46-56; D. Northrup, 'A Church in Search of a State: Catholic Missions in Eastern Zaïre 1879-1930', Journal of Church and State, 30, 2 (1988), 309-19; Axelson, Culture Confrontation. 158 D. Gallez, ed, Fernand Allard: Journal du Congo (1905-1907): un Apprentissage Missionnaire (Bruxelles: Institut Historique Belge de Rome, 2001); A. Cornet and F. Bontinck, eds, Émeri Cambier: Correspondance du Congo (1888-1899): un Apprentissage Missionnaire (Bruxelles: Institut Historique Belge de Rome, 2001); R. Benedetto, ed, Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa: A Documentary Account of the American Presbyterian Congo Mission and the Human Rights Struggle in the Congo, 1890-1918 (Leiden: E. J. Bril, 1996). 159 Cookey, Britain and the Congo Question ; W. R. Louis, „Roger Casement and the Congo‟, Journal of African History, 6, 1 (1964), 99-120; W. R. Louis, „The Philosophical Diplomatist Sir Arthur Hardinge and King Leopold's Congo, 1906-1911‟, Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-Mer. Bulletin des Séances, 11, 6 (1965), 1402-30; W. R. Louis, „The Triumph of the Congo Reform Movement‟; Osborne, „Wilfred G. Thesiger‟, A. Porter, „Sir Roger Casement and the International Humanitarian Movement‟, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 29, 2 (2001), 59-74. 160 The full report has been published, first as D. Vangroenweghe and J.-L. Vellut, eds, Le Rapport Casement (Louvain la Neuve: Université Catholique de Louvain, 1985), and subsequently, jointly with Casement‟s important Congo diaries, in Ó Síocháin and O'Sullivan, The Eyes of Another Race. Hunt‟s „sensory reading‟ of the report is successful in recovering African experience: see Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟.

36

variable quality and often based on second-hand information161. While consular reports

have lost some of their earlier importance due to the opening up of government archives

in Belgium, they still contain much valuable information besides offering an interesting

insight in the troubled process of defining sound practice in colonial policy.

Humanitarian activists and organisations which campaigned against the Congo

administration left another rich archival legacy. The voluminous collection of Edmund

Dene Morel‟s papers at the London School of Economics is particularly useful. Its

relevance extends well beyond Morel‟s handling of the Congo Reform campaign itself, as

it contains a very rich correspondence with a range of local informants as well as

sympathizers, politicians and the ideologically unconverted162.

Although the written record represents a wide range of perspectives, it is almost exclusively

European in origin. Nonetheless, Europeans regularly recorded the concerns and testimonies of the

many African victims, perpetrators and witnesses of colonial violence who related their

experiences. Official reports often quote native informants, albeit in a mediated form, so that a

careful reading of these documents can reveal much of the way in which Africans experienced and

interpreted the transformations and hardships brought about by colonial occupation. Of particular

value is the evidence given by African men and women to the Commission d‟Enquête, which

investigated allegations of state violence in the Equator province, and can be consulted at the

African Archives in Brussels163. In addition to contemporary written sources, historians can make

use of personal and popular memories of the violence of the EIC which have endured until the late

colonial period and beyond164. A number of these memories, which appear to have been very vivid

in the Equator‟s rubber districts, have been collected or transcribed by the Flemish catholic

missionary Edmond Boelaert165. Some of these testimonies have been subsequently published,

others are preserved at the Centre Aequatoria166. Overall, however, relatively little has been done to

161 Foreign Office files at the National Archives, London contain several of these reports. 162 Another important collection is the archive of the British Aborigines Protection Society held at Rhodes House, University of Oxford. 163 258 Africans testified in front of the commission, including 13 women. See Hunt, „An Acoustic Register‟, 225. 164 In their study of rubber atrocities in the Equator province, Roger Anstey and Robert Harms have made use of some of this oral testimony. Anstey, 'The Congo Rubber Atrocities‟; Harms, „The world Abir Made‟. For the Ubangi District, the same was done by Ngbwapkwa, „L‟Exploitation du Caoutchouc‟. 165 N. R. Hunt, „Rewriting the Soul‟. 166 E. Boelaert, H. Vinck and C. Lonkama, 'Arrivée des Blancs sur les Bords des Rivières Equatoriales (partie 1)', Annales Aequatoria, 16 (1995), 13-134 ; E. Boelaert, H. Vinck and C. Lonkama, 'Arrivée des Blancs sur les Bords des

37

record or recover African memories and interpretations of the EIC‟s conquest, administration and

forced labour policies167.

At the time of the events, most of the above sources were not publicly available. Instead,

information reached European audiences through the numerous pamphlets and articles

published or inspired by either the humanitarian reform campaign or the equally

vociferous counter-campaign financed by King Leopold168. While news on Congolese

affairs was thus ideologically filtered and often contradictory, the „rubber atrocity‟

revelations left a deep impression on the European conscience and imagination. The

skilful use of sensational photographs, touring lantern shows, gifted orators, evangelical

grassroots organisation and a prodigious output of pamphlets, books, and newspaper

articles turned the Congo Reform campaign into the largest sustained protest against

colonial exploitation during the early Twentieth century169. Their direct political

achievements aside, these protests left visible traces in European culture. The space the

EIC occupied in European literary and cultural production opens its own avenues for

historical research. An atrocity literature which displayed, aestheticized and exoticized

violence against Africans, affirmed Central Africa‟s acquired image as a primitive and

barbaric „Heart of Darkness‟ in need of external salvation170.

Taken together, a detailed examination of this rich archival record and the possibilities

for recovering African experience allow for a much fuller appreciation of both the

complexity and brutality of the colonial encounter than the one provided by the current

state-centred literature. The dragging of the EIC from under Leopold‟s shadow and its re-

integration into the broader historiography on European expansion and African

adaptations to colonial rule is both possible and long overdue.

Rivières Equatoriales (partie 2)', Annales Aequatoria, 17 (1996), 7-415. The Centre Aequatoria has a very informative website (www.aequatoria.be). 167 A recent exception is Likaka, Naming Colonialism which makes effective use of the collective and individual names given to Europeans as a point of entry into African experiences and prespectives. 168 R. Wiggers, „De "Fédération pour la Défense"‟; G. Vanthemsche, „The Historiography of Belgian Colonialism‟. 169 Grant, A Civilized Savagery; Grant „Christian Critics of Empire‟; Sliwinski, „The Childhood of Human Rights‟; Thompson, „Light on the Dark Continent‟. 170 S. Gehrmann, Kongo-Greuel. Zur Literarischen Konfiguration eines Kolonialkritischen Diskurses (1890-1910) (Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2003); K. Dunn, Imagining the Congo: the International Relations of Identity (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); J. Peffer, 'Snap of the Whip/Crossroads of Shame: Flogging, Photography, and the Representation of Atrocity in the Congo Reform Campaign', Visual Anthropology Review, 24, 1 (2008), 55-77.

38

6. Bibliography

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Breman, J., ed, Imperial Monkey Business: Racial Supremacy in Social Darwinist Theory and Colonial Practice (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1990). Buell, R. L., The Native Problem in Africa. Vol 2 (New York: Macmillan, 1928). Castryck, G., „Whose History is History? Singularities and Dualities of the Public Debate on Belgian Colonialism‟ in C. Lévai, ed, Europe and the World in European Historiography (Pisa: CLIOHRES, 2006), 71-88. Cattier, F., Etude sur la Situation de l'Etat Indépendant du Congo (Bruxelles: Larcier, 1906). Ceulemans, P., La Question Arabe et le Congo, 1883-1892 (Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales, 1959). Clarence-Smith, W. G., „Business Empires in Equatorial Africa‟, African Economic History, 12 (1983), 3-11. Cline, C. A., „The Church and the Movement for Congo Reform‟, Church History, 32, 1 (1963), 46-56. Cline, C. A., E. D. Morel, 1873-1924: The Strategies of Protest (Belfast: Blackstaff Press, 1980). Collins, R. O., King Leopold, England, and the Upper Nile, 1899-1909 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968). Conrad, J., Heart of Darkness (1902); Cookey, S. J. S., Britain and the Congo Question, 1885-1913 (London: Longmans, 1968). Cornet, A. and Bontinck, F., eds, Eméri Cambier: Correspondance du Congo (1888-1899): un Apprentissage Missionnaire (Bruxelles: Institut Historique Belge de Rome, 2001). Cooper, F., „Africa and the World Economy‟, African Studies Review, 24, 2-3 (1981), 1-86. Cooper, F., „From Free Labor to Family Allowances: Labor and African Society in Colonial Discourse‟, American Ethnologist, 16, 4 (1989), 745-65. Cooper, F., „Conflict and Connection: Rethinking Colonial African History‟, American Historical Review, 99, 5 (1994), 1516-45. Cooper, F., Colonialism in Question. Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). Cooper, F., „African Labor History‟, in J. Lucassen, ed, Global Labour History. A State of the Art (Bern: Peter Lang, 2006), 91-116. Coquery-Vidrovitch, C., Le Congo au Temps des Grandes Compagnies Concessionnaires, 1898-1930 (Paris: Mouton, 1972). D‟Hossche, M., „De Ontvolking in Kongo‟, Onze Kongo, (1912), 221-28 and 390-95.

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