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TOWARDS MORE EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF RTE: A

BASELINE SURVEY OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN BIHAR AND

UP, 2011-12

Collaborative Research and Dissemination, New Delhi, www.cordindia.com

April 2013

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Contents

Acknowledgements 6

List of Tables and Figures for Bihar 7

List of Tables and Figures for UP 8

Executive summary 12

Introduction to the report 24

Part A. BIHAR 32

Section 1 Introduction 32

1.1 Background

1.2 Notifications by Government of Bihar related to RTE

1.3 Sample villages

1.4 Number of government and private schools

1.5 Size of government schools

1.6 Enrolment in government schools of children from disadvantaged communities

1.7 Gender wise enrolment in government schools

1.8 Characteristics of private schools

1.9 Madarsas

1.10 Anganwadis

Section 2 Infrastructure and Facilities 44

2.1 Teacher provision

2.2 All weather building

2.3 At least one classroom for every teacher and an office-cum-store-cum-Head

teacher’s room

2.4 Separate toilets for boys and girls

2.5 Safe and adequate drinking water facility for all children

2.6 Availability of a kitchen where the midday meal is cooked in the school

2.7 Playground

2.8 Boundary walls and fencing

2.9 Teaching learning equipment

2.10 Library

2.11 Play material, games and sports equipment

Section 3. Facilitating admission and retention of all children, particularly those

on the margin 57

3.1 Awareness and training on the RTE Act among teachers

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3.2 Admission policies

Admission not to be denied for lack of age proof

Admission for extended period as prescribed

Admission in age appropriate class

Run Special Classes to mainstream children who have never attended school /

dropped out of school

3.3 Ensure participation of children from weaker sections and disadvantaged social

groups

3.4 Participation of persons with disabilities (equal participation, protection and full

participation)

3.5 Participation of children of migrant families

3.6 Provision of “free” education

3.7 Children not to be kept back in any class or expelled from school till elementary

education is completed

3.8 Languages used to teach/explain

Section 4 Teachers and school functioning 66

4.1 Working days for schools and working hours for teachers

4.2 Teachers’ attendance in school

4.3 Students’ attendance

4.4 Profile of teachers appointed

4.5 Salary scales of teachers

4.6 Completion of curriculum

4.7 Non teaching duties

Section 5. Guidelines for teachers for transacting the curriculum 77

5.1 How teachers understand RTE guidelines for transacting the curriculum

5.2 Teaching activities reported by teachers

5.3 Teaching activities observed

5.4 Methods of controlling/disciplining children reported by teachers

5.5 Assessment: Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

5.6 Some problems expressed by teachers about implementing RTE guidelines

Section 6. Accountability in the school system 86

6.1 Role of head teachers

6.2 Role of Education Committee (Tadarth Shiksha Samiti)

6.3 Maintenance of records

Section 7. Concluding remarks 93

7.1 Only limited progress on the road towards RTE

7.2 Suggestions to strengthen the school system

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Part B. UTTAR PRADESH 98

Section 1 Introduction 98

1.1 Background

1.2 Notifications by Government of UP related to RTE

1.3 Sample villages and its educational facilities till Class 8





1.8 Anganwadis

Section 2 Infrastructure and Facilities 107


2.2 At least one classroom for every teacher and an office-cum-store-cum-Head

teacher’s room


2.4 Safe and adequate drinking water facility to all children

2.5 Availability of a kitchen where the midday meal is cooked in the school

2.6 Playground

2.7 Boundary walls and fencing


2.9 Availability of library facilities

2.10 Play material, games and sports equipment

Section 3. Facilitating admission and retention of all children, particularly those

on the margin 118

3.1 Awareness and training on RTE in a sample of schools


No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof

Admission for extended period as prescribed

Age appropriate enrolment and Special Classes to mainstream children

3.3 Ensure participation of children from weaker sections and disadvantaged social

groups

3.4 Participation of persons with disabilities

3.5 Ensure admission of children of migrant families


3.7 Children not to be kept back in any class / expelled from school till elementary

education is completed


Section 4 Teachers and school functioning 127

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4.1 Working days for schools / working hours for teachers

4.2 Teachers’ attendance in schools

4.3 Student attendance


4.5 Salary scales of teachers in UP

4.6 Completion of the curriculum

4.7 Meetings with guardians


Section 5. Guidelines for teachers for transacting the curriculum 138

5.1 How teachers interpret RTE guidelines for transacting the curriculum

5.2 Teaching practices reported and observed

5.3 Methods of controlling / disciplining children reported by teachers

5.4 Assessment: Use of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

5.5 Teachers’ feedback on the RTE guidelines

Section 6. Accountability in the school system 145


6.2 Role of School Management Committees


Section 7. Private schools in UP 153

7.1 Importance of private schooling in UP

7.2 Regulation of private schools in UP

7.3 Private schools in the sample villages

Section 8. Conclusion 163

8.1 Some progress on the road towards RTE

8.2 Too little accountability in the government system


References 168

Appendices 170

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Acknowledgements

The CORD team would like to thank the Chairperson of NCPCR, Dr Shantha Sinha for giving us

the opportunity to do this study on an extremely topical issue – progress towards the

implementation of the Right to Education Act. The purpose was to study the situation at a point

in time 18 months after the Act was notified, and to develop tools which could be re-used to

study the situation in the same states some years down the line or in other states in the

country. It has been an experience to dissect the Act and to think how best we could measure

progress on the range of aspects covered in it.

We would like to thank the research committee at NCPCR which included the Member

Secretary, Mr Luv Verma, Members Ms Dipa Dixit and Ms Kiran Bhatty, and Ms Karuna Bishnoi

of UNICEF. The committee had several meetings with us and gave us useful inputs before the

study, several times during the course of the study, and at the end of the study. These included

useful comments on the sampling, the tools and the Draft Report. NCPCR, through the kind

offices of the Member Secretary, made it possible for us to do the school survey. Detailed

comments on the draft report were received from Dr Nalini Joneja of NUEPA, and NCPCR

Members Mr Dhir Jhingran and Dr Vandana Prasad. We wish to thank them and other members

of NCPCR for their useful critiques. We would also like to thank Mr Anjani Kumar Singh,

Education Secretary, Directorate of Education, Government of Bihar and Mr Parthasarthy Sen

Sharma, State Project Director (SSA), Government of UP, members of the RTE Forum in Bihar

and UP, and consultants from TSG, EdCIL for meeting with us. It was vitally important for the

team to get their perspective of the situation in their states.

The CORD team gratefully acknowledges the vital contribution of its fellow researchers: Aruna

Popuri, Rajeev Kumar, Sunil Saroj, and Kanika Goel at earlier stages of the study and Chander

Shekhar, Tania Kahlon, and Aurora Bardoneschi at later stages of the study. Other members of

CORD, including our Trustee, Ms Claire Noronha, and staff members, Ashti Salman and Sanjeev

Kumar, also gave crucial inputs. The team is also indebted to their field staff from Bihar,

Rajasthan, Orissa, and UP. Finally, they wish to thank the respondents in the schools they

surveyed as well as other key informants in the sample villages for giving them their time and

sharing with them their valuable perceptions.

Meera Samson Anuradha De Neha Gupta

April 2013

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List of Tables and Figures for Bihar

Table 1.1 Profile of Schools in Bihar’s Sample Villages

Table 1.2 Distribution of Government Primary Schools by Enrolment in Bihar

Table 1.3 Distribution of Government Upper Primary Schools by Enrolment in Bihar

Figure 1.4 Average Enrolment in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 1.5 Enrolment of Children from Disadvantaged Groups in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 1.6 Gender-wise Enrolment in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 1.7 Distribution of Villages by Number of Anganwadis

Table 1.8 Distribution of Anganwadi Centres by Observed Attendance

Table 2.1 Pupil Teacher Ratios in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 2.2 Primary Schools which meet RTE norms for PTRs in Bihar

Table 2.3 Government Schools which meet RTE norms for Head Teacher in Bihar

Table 2.4 Teacher Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 2.5 Student Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 2.6 Availability of Room for use as Office cum Store cum Head Teacher’s Room in

Government schools in Bihar

Table 2.7 Availability of Toilet Facilities in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 2.8 Availability of Safe and Adequate Drinking Water Facilities in Government Schools in

Bihar

Figure 2.9 Availability of Kitchen in Government Schools in Bihar

Figure 2.10 Availability of Playgrounds in Government Schools in Bihar

Figure 2.11 Presence of Boundary Wall or Fencing in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 2.12 Availability of Teaching Learning Materials in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 2.13 Availability of Library Facilities in Government Schools in Bihar

Figure 2.14 Availability of Games and Sports Equipment in Government Schools in Bihar

Figure 2.15a Government Schools in Bihar with Specified Infrastructure and Facilities Available

and Usable

Table 2.15b Availability of Specified Facilities in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 3.1 Awareness of the RTE Act among Teachers and Head Teachers in Government Schools

in Bihar

Table 3.2 Documents Required for Admission in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 3.3 Government Schools in Bihar that Grant Admission for Extended Periods as Prescribed

Table 3.4 Criteria for Selecting Grade when Admitting a 9 year old Never Enrolled child in

Government Schools in Bihar

Table 3.5 Children with Disability (CWD) Reported to be Enrolled in Government Schools in

Bihar

Figure 3.6 Availability of Ramps in Selected Government Schools in Bihar

Table 3.7 Training in Special Education among Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 3.8 Incidence of Disability and Availability of Teachers with Special Training in


Table 3.9 Schooling of Migrant Children in Government Schools in Bihar

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Table 3.10 Schemes to Reduce Costs of Schooling for Children in Bihar

Table 3.11 Retention of Students in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 3.12 Striking Off Names of Students for Prolonged Absence in Government Schools in

Bihar

Table 3.13 Languages Used to Teach/Explain in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.1 Working Days for Classes 1-5 in Government Schools in Bihar


Table 4.3 Distribution of Government schools in Bihar by the number of days closed for

different reasons

Table 4.4 Teacher Absenteeism in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.5 Reasons for Teachers’ Absence on Day of Survey in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.6 Student Attendance on Day of Survey in Government Schools in Bihar

Figure 4.7 Student Attendance Before and After Mid-day Meal in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.8 Attendance Rates in Selected Classes in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.9a Profile of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar: Type of Service and Gender

Figure 4.9b Profile of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar: Type of Service

Figure 4.9c Profile of Teachers in Primary and Upper Primary Schools in Bihar

Figure 4.10 Educational Qualifications of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Figure 4.11 Teachers with Professional Teacher Education in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.12 Differences between Regular Teacher and Locally Appointed Teachers in Education

Levels and Training

Table 4.13 Salary Scales of Teachers for Selected Classes in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.14 Teachers’ Satisfaction with Level and Regularity of Pay in Bihar Schools

Table 4.15 Accessibility of Schools a Problem for Some Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 4.16 Problems faced by School Teachers in Completing Curriculum on Time in


Table 4.17 Non-Teaching Duties of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 5.1 Training of Teachers to Incorporate a Different Perspective of the Child and of

Education

Table 5.2 Methods Used to Discipline Students as Reported by Teachers in Government Schools

in Bihar

Table 5.3 Methods Used to Discipline Students by Teachers as Observed in Government Schools

in Bihar

Table 5.4 Organized Activities in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 5.5 Assessment of Children’s Progress by Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 5.6 Maintenance of Pupil Files in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 6.1 Disciplinary action taken by Head Teachers against Teachers in Government Schools in

Bihar

Table 6.2 Appointment of Head Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 6.3 Setting up of Education Committees in Government Schools in Bihar

Table 6.4 Functioning of Education Committees in Government Schools in Bihar

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Table 6.5 Support received from Education Committees as reported by Head Teachers in


Table 6.6 Monitoring by SMC/TSS as Reported by Head Teachers in Government Schools in

Bihar

Table 6.7 Registers Maintained in Government Schools in Bihar

List of Tables and Figures for UP

Table 1.1 Profile of Schools in UP’s Sample Villages

Figure 1.2 Average Enrolment in Government Schools in UP

Figure 1.3 Distribution of Government Schools by the year of establishment in UP

Figure 1.4 Enrolment of Children from Disadvantaged Groups in Government Schools in UP

Figure 1.5 Gender-wise Enrolment in Government Schools in UP



Table 2.1 Schools which meet RTE norms for PTRs in UP

Table 2.2 Government Schools which meet RTE norms for Head Teacher in UP

Table 2.3 Pupil Teacher Ratios in Government Schools in UP

Table 2.4 Teacher Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in UP

Table 2.5 Student Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in UP

Table 2.6 Availability of Room for Use as Office cum Store cum Head Teacher’s Room in

Government Schools in UP

Table 2.7 Availability of Toilet Facilities in Government Schools in UP


UP

Figure 2.9 Availability of Kitchen in Government Schools in UP

Figure 2.10 Availability of Playgrounds in Government Schools in UP

Figure 2.11 Presence of Boundary Wall or Fencing in Government Schools in UP

Table 2.12 Availability of Teaching Learning Materials in Government Schools in UP

Table 2.13 Availability of Library Facilities in Government Schools in UP

Figure 2.14 Availability of Games and Sports Equipment in Government Schools in UP

Figure 2.15a Government Schools in UP with Specified Infrastructure and Facilities Available

and Usable

Table 2.15b Availability of Facilities in Government Schools in UP

Table 3.1 Awareness of RTE Act among Teachers and Head Teachers in Government Schools in

UP

Table 3.2 Documents Required for Admission in Government Schools in UP

Table 3.3 Government Schools in UP that Grant Admission for Extended Period as Prescribed

Table 3.4 Criteria for Selecting Grade when Admitting a 9 year old Never Enrolled child in


Table 3.5 Children with Disability (CWD) Reported to be Enrolled in Government Schools in UP

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Table 3.6 Training in Special Education among Teachers in Government Schools in UP



Figure 3.8 Availability of Ramps in Government Schools in UP

Table 3.9 Schooling of Migrant Children in Government Schools in UP

Table 3.10 Schemes to Reduce Costs of Schooling for Children in UP

Table 3.11 Retention of Students in Government Schools in UP

Table 3.12 Striking Off Names of Students for Prolonged Absence in Government Schools in UP

Table 3.13 Languages Used to Teach/Explain in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.1 Working Days for Primary and Upper Primary Government Schools in UP

Table 4.2 Distribution of Government Schools in UP by the number of days closed for different

reasons

Table 4.3 Teacher Absenteeism in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.4 Reasons for Teachers’ Absence on Day of Survey in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.5 Student Attendance on Day of Survey in Government Schools in UP

Figure 4.6 Student Attendance Before and After Mid-day Meal in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.7 Attendance Rates in Selected Classes in Government Primary Schools in UP

Table 4.8 Attendance Rates in Selected Classes in Government Upper Primary Schools in UP

Figure 4.9a Profile of Teachers in Government Schools in UP: Type of Service

Figure 4.9b Teacher Profile in Primary and Upper Primary Schools in UP

Table 4.9c Teacher Profile in Government Schools in UP: Type of Service and Gender

Figure 4.10a Educational Qualifications of Teachers in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.10b Educational Qualifications of Male and Female Teachers in Government Schools in

UP

Figure 4.11a Teachers with Professional Teacher Education in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.11b Professional Teacher Education among Male and Female Teachers in Government

Schools in UP

Table 4.12 Salary Scales of Teachers for Selected Classes in Government Schools in UP

Table 4.13 Teachers’ Satisfaction with Level and Regularity of Pay in UP Schools

Table 4.14 Accessibility of Schools a Problem for Some Teachers in Government Schools in UP



Table 4.16 Parent-Teacher Meetings for Monitoring Child’s Progress in UP Schools

Table 4.17 Non-Teaching Duties of Teachers in Government Schools in UP


Education

Table 5.2 Methods Used by Teachers for Explaining Lessons in Government Schools in UP

Table 5.3 Use of Teaching Aids Observed in Government Schools in UP


in UP


in UP

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Table 5.6 Assessment of Children’s Progress by Teachers in Government Schools in UP


Table 6.1 Disciplinary Action taken by Head Teachers against Teachers in Government Schools

in UP

Table 6.2 Appointment of Head Teachers in Government Schools in UP

Table 6.3 Setting Up of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

Table 6.4 Composition of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

Table 6.5 Regularity of Meetings of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

Table 6.6 Functioning of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP



Table 6.8 Monitoring by SMC as Reported by Head Teachers in Government Schools in UP

Table 6.9 Registers Maintained in Government Schools in UP

Table 7.1 Enrolment in Classes 1 to 8 in Rural Areas in Uttar Pradesh

Table 7.2 Distribution of Sample Villages by Availability of Private Schools

Table 7.3 Distribution of Private Schools by Classes Taught

Table 7.4 Distribution of Private Schools by School Type, Recognition Status and Year of

Establishment

Table 7.5 Annual Fees in Private Schools in UP

Table 7.6 Average Enrolment in Elementary Classes in Private Schools in UP

Figure 7.7 Enrolment by Gender in Private Schools in UP

Figure 7.8 Proportion of Children from Disadvantaged Groups Enrolled in Private Schools in UP

Table 7.9 Availability of Teachers and Classrooms in Private Schools in UP

Table 7.10 Private Schools in UP with Specified Infrastructure and Facilities Available and Usable

Table 7.11 Availability of Trained Teachers in Private Schools in UP

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Executive Summary

The objective of the study is to provide a baseline for the extent of compliance with the RTE Act

in schools in rural areas of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in 2011-12, eighteen months after the Act

has been passed. A sample of 89 villages in Bihar and 102 villages in UP was selected and

surveyed between November 2011 and February 2012. Villages were selected through

multistage stratified random sampling.

RTE implementation is expected to impact the number and quality of different types of schools

in a village. In this context, data was collected from all education institutions in the village on

some parameters which included infrastructure and facilities, and number of teachers

appointed and students enrolled. This was supplemented by a detailed survey of a sample of

government primary and upper primary schools in which there were semi-structured interviews

with the head teacher, and teachers of class 3 and class 7, collection of data from school

registers, and observation of teaching activities in class 3 and class 7 for the duration of one

period during the school day. Members of the Education Committees responsible for RTE

compliance were also interviewed, as also members of the panchayat for any role they may be

playing in this area.

The report looks at the provision of infrastructure and teachers because the RTE Act sets

certain standards and norms with regard to these parameters. The focus is equally on the

implementation of other aspects of the Act. It looks at what teachers know of the Act, how they

understand it, what they report they are implementing, and what kind of problems they face

with implementation. It looks at how other stakeholders understand their roles and

responsibilities. Finally, it looks to see what systems are in place in terms of records to enable

monitoring of the implementation of the Act. The methodology is based on a single day’s visit

to a village. In this context it is not useful to research issues such as discriminatory behavior in

schools towards weaker sections and socially disadvantaged groups.

An important objective of the study is to provide tools which can be used in other states to

explore the issue of compliance with the RTE Act. This report will be useful for policy direction

as it looks at the achievements and gaps in every area – infrastructure, teacher provisioning,

capacity of stakeholders, and support and monitoring mechanisms.

Bihar

The 89 sample villages in the study in Bihar were selected from 15 districts. NSSO has divided

Bihar into 7 subregions. Two districts have been randomly selected from each of 6 sub-regions

and 3 districts have been randomly selected from the larger sub-region of Purnea. The sample

villages were comparatively large. The villages had a large number of government schools (136)

and very few private schools (7).

Access to primary and upper primary schooling

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Primary schooling in the sample villages was available mainly through government provision.

Government schools with primary grades included 71 primary schools (with grades 1-5) and 64

upper primary schools (63 schools with grades 1-8, one school with grades 6-8). Forty per cent

of villages had more than one government school with primary grades. The sample villages also

had 7 private schools, 6 of which were primary schools.

Upper primary schooling in the sample villages was available only through government

provision with the exception of 1 private secondary school. The majority of villages (70%) had a

school with upper primary grades.

However, the sample villages in Bihar were large and the high enrolment relative to the

provision of teachers and classrooms indicates that the supply of schooling needs to be urgently

expanded.

Provision of infrastructure and teachers in government primary schools

The study found severe teacher and infrastructural shortages in the primary schools in the

sample villages. Nine were single teacher schools. Only 20% of schools had at least 2 teachers

and met RTE norms to have a PTR within a specified limit. (This varied between 30 and 40

depending on the numbers enrolled in primary grades.)

Schools had a severe shortage of classrooms. The average SCR was extremely high (81). The

maximum SCR was as high as 296.There were schools which were unable to function at

different times in the year because they were flooded or the roof leaked.

Infrastructure was also poor on other counts. Less than 40% of primary schools had a kitchen

shed for preparation of the midday meal. Less than one fourth of primary schools had

playgrounds, boundary walls, and separate toilets in a usable condition for boys and girls.

Games and sports equipment was available, but only in half the primary schools.

Only in a few aspects was the infrastructure good. A high proportion of primary schools had

safe drinking water (78%), though it was difficult to say it was adequate for so many children.

Nearly all schools (91%) had some teaching learning materials, and investigators saw them

being used in classrooms.

Provision of infrastructure and teachers in government upper primary schools

The upper primary schools were mostly composite schools with both primary and upper

primary grades. There was only 1 upper primary school with only grades 6-8. All these upper

primary schools also had severe teacher and infrastructural shortages. There was 1 single

teacher school. Although it is not possible to say if these schools were RTE compliant in terms

of the PTR, since teachers taught both primary and upper primary grades, 87% of these schools

had a PTR greater than 40, which is the maximum permitted under the RTE Act under any

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circumstances.1 Only 13% of these schools had at least 2 teachers and a PTR less than or equal

to 40. Teacher shortage is more acute than in primary schools.

The upper primary schools had a severe shortage of classrooms. The average Student

Classroom Ratio was also as high as 99. The situation with respect to shortage of classrooms

was worse than in the primary schools because of the very high enrolment in these schools.

There was a shortage of toilet facilities. Even a single common toilet was not accessible in 11%

of schools. RTE Act requires that schools have at least 2 toilets – one for boys and one for girls.

This was available in only 36% of schools. In any case, two toilets are certainly not adequate for

schools with the high numbers enrolled.

On all other aspects, infrastructure and facilities in the upper primary schools were somewhat

better than in the private schools. A high proportion of upper primary schools (78%) had safe

drinking water, though it was difficult to say it was adequate for so many children. A high

proportion of these schools (74%) also had a kitchen shed for preparation of the midday meal.

Playgrounds were also available in 59% of schools. Most (58%) schools had boundary walls (to

ensure that children stay in school). Nearly all schools had some teaching learning materials,

and investigators saw them being used in classrooms. Games and sports equipment were also

available in 83% of schools, though there was evidence of organized sports activity only in a few

schools.

Awareness of the RTE Act and Extent of Implementation of Policies to Draw and Retain All

Children to School

The Draft Rules of the Government of Bihar were formulated in May 2011. There have been

numerous notifications issued about different aspects of RTE.

The study found that there was very limited implementation of the RTE Act on the ground in

most aspects. This was not surprising given that teachers had not received any training on RTE.

Neither did they have any written materials on the Government notifications on RTE for

reference.

There have been sustained efforts to make education “free” in the sense of providing cash

towards purchase of uniforms and stationery, and textbooks for all students enrolled in primary

and upper primary grades. However, efforts to provide “free education” did not go beyond this.

The study found that there was no mention in any school of transport costs being covered for

any child, except for equipment given to some children with disability. Also that there was any

requirement on the school or the SMC or the panchayat to find out which children were

attending irregularly or not at all, and to ensure that if there was some financial barrier to their

coming to school, that it would be noted and action taken.

1 The Act accepts a maximum PTR of 40 for schools where enrolment in primary grades is more than 200.

15

Teachers tended to be uncertain about most of the Act’s specifications. There were a number

of weak links with regard to enrolling children who had never been enrolled or had dropped out

of school. Only two fifths (41%) of schools reported that they were admitting children without

documents of proof of age. A larger proportion (61%) reported that they were admitting

children to school even after 30 September, which had been the cut-off date prior to the RTE

Act. However, the school records indicated that there were admissions past 30 September only

in 33% of schools. It could be that no children (for example, from migrant families) had asked

for admission past 30 September. A small proportion of teachers (21%) expressed that they

were not cutting off children’s names for prolonged absence from school.2 Children were

reported to not being retained in the same class at the end of the year on any count in 43% of

schools. Teachers were aware that corporal punishment was prohibited. The cane was not seen

to be used a lot, but it was visible. Teachers say they teach with love, though according to one

teacher this was the “official version”. Overall, teachers reported that they abide by the new

notifications, but they do not agree with them.

Admitting children to the age-appropriate class and running Special Classes for them so they

can catch up with the rest of the class did not appear to be happening. While a few schools

reported that they were doing this, they were unable to provide any details on where these

classes were held and when. Similarly, changing the system of assessing children also requires a

major investment. Supplementing or replacing the earlier system of tests and annual

examinations by a new system which requires the teacher to maintain records of the child and

to evaluate his/her performance on a regular basis is an enormous change which can happen

only with considerable guidance and monitoring.

Teachers were conscious of the rights of disabled children to be in school. Teachers were

getting some training on how to work with such children. While disabled children were being

enrolled, and schools were being provided with ramps, the numbers of disabled children seen

in school were much less than those enrolled, and the proportion of schools with at least one

teacher with training on disability was low.

Teacher recruitment, qualifications and training

Bihar has chosen to lean heavily on a teacher cadre, who were largely recruited locally, at very

low salaries. Only one fourth of all teachers appointed were permanent or regular teachers

(20% male and 5% female). A very high proportion (75%) were panchayat appointees (40%

male and 35% female). Overall, there were more male teachers (60%) than female teachers.

The majority of female teachers had passed Class 12 at most (74%). This also applied to 50% of

the male teachers. Close to half (46%) of the female teachers had no training, as opposed to

28% of male teachers.

2This was a topical issue at the time of the survey as the government wanted to reduce “double enrolment” of

children. Teachers were instructed to strike off the names of children who were absent for a prolonged period of

time and were reported to be enrolled in other schools.

16

The qualifications of the large cadre of locally appointed teachers were low – 66% have passed

Class 12 at most compared to 41% of regular teachers. Higher proportions also had no teacher

training (43%) compared to 12% of regular teachers.

There was a considerable difference between the teachers teaching in the 1-5 schools and

those teaching in the 1-8 schools. A much higher proportion (26%) of teachers in the 1-5

schools have not passed class 12 compared to 16% teachers in the upper primary schools. The

RTE Act requires that all teachers teaching primary grades should have passed Class 12. This is

an important gap. Approximately half (49%) the teachers in the primary schools had no training

compared to 31% of the teachers in the upper primary schools.

Teachers teaching upper primary grades are required to be graduates. 44% of teachers in the

upper primary schools were graduates. It is possible that some of the other teachers also teach

upper primary grades in these schools.

Findings on salary scales are based on interviews with one class 3 and / or one class 7 teacher in

a government school in the sample villages. According to the Panchayat Teacher rules, no

teacher should be paid less than Rs 6000 per month. There were two teachers who reported

getting paid less than this amount (Rs 2000, and Rs 5000, respectively). The majority of regular

teachers were getting over Rs 20,000 a month, the majority of locally appointed teachers

reported that they were getting upto Rs 8,000 a month.

Guidelines for teachers on transacting the curriculum

The RTE Act requires that teachers teach in a way that looks at children differently, as persons

with a right to be treated respectfully irrespective of their background, as persons whose

potential needs to be fully built up, as persons who need inputs to develop in an all round

manner, to be taught through activities that are relevant and take their needs and interests into

account. Teachers are prohibited from using corporal punishment. All these provisions have

important implications for the kind of input teachers need if they are to use new teaching

learning methods effectively.

The teachers in Bihar had not had any training specific to RTE and its requirements. A small

proportion of teachers (21%) reported that they had had earlier trainings related to similar

concepts. The study found that teachers in general did have some understanding of the way in

which the RTE Act envisioned that the child should be taught. Earlier trainings had exposed

them to the need to be more sensitive to the child and his/her world, and to focus on building

up the child. This is an extremely useful beginning. However, the study did not find evidence of

these understandings being put into practice. Methods of teaching which were being used were

engaging children in writing and rote learning activities primarily. An important part of their

expressed role as teachers was on making children clean / obedient.

Functioning of schools linked with roles and responsibilities of teachers / SMC / local bodies

17

Numerous stakeholders are supposed to be involved in monitoring teacher and student

attendance. In particular, SMCs as envisaged in the RTE Act have this role. Head teachers also

share in this role as part of the SMCs. All teachers are required to be punctual and work as

much as 45 hours a week (at school and in preparation at home).

The SMCs in Bihar at the time of the survey in 2011-12 were ad hoc committees, formed with

very limited scope. They were to function till elections to the SMCs could be held after a year.

These ad hoc committees or Tadarth Shiksha Samitis had primarily to look after school

construction, midday meals, and other schemes such as provision of uniforms, textbooks and

scholarships. Its monitoring role was extremely limited.

The study also indicates that there was no clear line of accountability in Bihar’s schools. In a

sample of 96 schools surveyed in detail, head teachers were not appointed in 41% of schools

and absent in a further 23% of schools. Head teachers also reported that they play a limited

supervisory role in monitoring the attendance of other teachers.

The local bodies were not keeping any records of children in the village whether they were in

school or out of school. They were also not part of the education committees.

The study found that the functioning of schools on certain basic parameters leaves much to be

desired.

• While schools reported that their working days were as required by the Act, they also

mentioned how they had to close suddenly because of extreme weather conditions

(cold / heat) and on account of floods. The team also found closure of schools on

account of festivals extended beyond the day on which the school was officially closed.

• While a relatively small proportion (11%) of teachers was absent on the day of the

survey due to personal reasons, the investigators found that teachers came late and left

early.

• Only 41% of the students were present on the day of the survey, and some of these

students (10%) left after the midday meal was served. The situation was worse in the

larger upper primary schools.

The situation is cloudy because of double enrolment – children are reportedly enrolled in

government schools and private schools, but attend only private schools; children are enrolled

in madarsas and government schools, and may attend both madarsas and government schools

at different times in the day; children are enrolled in government schools which they may or

may not attend; simultaneously go for private tuition in large groups.

The concluding section makes some suggestions for action which we summarise in brief.

There is an urgent need to invest in every aspect of infrastructure and facilities specified under

the norms for a school by the RTE Act. More teachers need to be recruited. Teachers recruited

need to have the qualifications and training specified by the NCTE. This is an enormous

18

challenge for the state. It is extremely difficult for teachers to transact curriculum as required

by RTE in the sense of building the capacity of a child as envisioned by the RTE Act. Teachers

need to learn and experience these concepts in their own training programmes before they can

implement them.

The RTE Act suggests roles for various stakeholders. Fulfilling these roles is beyond the capacity

of most unless there is sustained effort in building that capacity in the persons involved, both

within and outside the education department. All stakeholders need to understand the RTE Act

better and their role in implementing it (head-teacher and teachers, SMC, sarpanch). It is

important that head-teachers, teachers and SMC members learn more about the rationale of

having a rights based approach in dealing with all children.

The SMC and head-teacher and teachers all need to play a role in monitoring teacher

attendance, children’s attendance and school functioning in general. The sarpanch is required

to take note of any child who is out of school. It is important to put in place a system of records

to ensure that RTE will be implemented.

Uttar Pradesh

The study in UP was conducted in 102 sample villages selected from 17 districts, one district

from each of 17 sub-regions that UP has been divided into by NSSO. The sample villages were

comparatively small and accessible. The villages had a large number of government (107) and

private schools (55).

Access to government primary schooling

Government primary schooling could be accessed only through schools with grades 1-5. All

sample villages in UP had a government primary school, but none of these schools had been set

up in the last 10 years. During the same period access to private schooling at the primary stage

increased significantly.

Provision of teachers and infrastructure in government primary schools

The provision of teachers and infrastructure does not indicate that these primary schools had

the minimum norms and standards for a school. There were 2 primary schools which were

single teacher schools; 59% of primary schools did not have an acceptable PTR. Schools had

insufficient classrooms: The student classroom ratio was high at 42. There were playgrounds in

only 47% of schools, although 73% of schools had some games and sports equipment. Separate

toilets for boys and girls were not available and usable in 56% of schools. On the other hand,

the majority of these primary schools did have some important elements required for a school

– they had access to safe drinking water and to a kitchen shed. Only a small proportion of

primary schools (with enrolment more than 150) required Head teachers to be appointed. This

was satisfied by the majority of these schools.

19

Access issues for government upper primary schooling

Government upper primary schooling could be accessed only through schools with grades 6-8.

Access to a government upper primary school within the village was restricted to 57% of the

sample villages. 34% of the villages had an upper primary school within 3 kms (as required by

RTE). 9% of the villages had an upper primary school only beyond 3 kms (unacceptable to RTE).

The class sizes in the 106 primary and 58 upper primary schools in the sample villages were

found to be quite similar indicating that children are dropping out as they transition between

the primary and upper primary stages of schooling.

The study found limited access to upper primary facilities in the sample villages in UP even

though a large proportion of the upper primary schools have been set up in the last 10 years

indicating that there has been an expansion of facilities for this level of schooling.

Provision of infrastructure and facilities in government upper primary schools

Teacher provision was very limited. Over one quarter of these upper primary schools were

single teacher schools (unacceptable under RTE). PTR norms were not satisfied by 39% of the

upper primary schools. However, Head teachers were appointed in 13 out of 14 schools in

which they were to be appointed.

Existing upper primary schools had a shortage of classrooms though less than primary schools.

There were 2 schools with only a single classroom. The overall SCR was 26.

Existing upper primary schools had some access to most other infrastructural requirements.

The proportion of schools without a functioning boundary wall was 58%, without a usable

playground was 56%, and without separate toilets for boys and girls (in a usable condition) was

48%.

Awareness of the RTE Act and Extent of Implementation of Policies to Draw and Retain All

Children in School

It is evident that a majority of teachers and head teachers in U.P. have received some form of

RTE training mostly for a duration of 4 days. Most teachers reported getting the Samvad

module, as RTE training material.

The RTE Act is focused on bringing and retaining all children in school until they complete

elementary education. Some of these policies teachers were able to grasp more easily but they

were not necessarily convinced of the rationale. High proportions of teachers reported that

they were putting these policies into practice.

• Children without documents were reported to be given admission.

• Children were admitted even if they came for admission after 30 September

• Children with disability were enrolled in schools.

20

• Children were not kept in the same grade at the end of a year

• Children’s names were not cut off the register even with prolonged absence.

• Corporal punishment was prohibited.

The study indicated that there could be problems with the way these policies were being

implemented. Registers showed that only a small proportion of schools had given admission to

children after 30th

September. While schools were admitting children with disability only a small

proportion of those enrolled were observed to be in school. In addition, on the basis of the

study, it was particularly difficult to judge to what extent teachers were using corporal

punishment to discipline children when not being observed or how sensitive teachers were to

discriminatory behavior towards children of disadvantaged groups from among teachers or

other children.

There were some policies related to admission and assessment which teachers found more

difficult to implement effectively as they require new systems to be put in place. These include

the policies of age appropriate enrolment for children who have never been enrolled or

dropped out of school, and the running of Special Classes to mainstream these children. This

was also true for using CCE (Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation) to assess children and

to maintain records for each pupil. Only small proportions of teachers said they were

implementing them, and even they could not provide information on when these Special

Classes were held or show Pupil Files for any children.

Issues related to teachers’ recruitment, qualifications and training

The study found 2 broad categories of teachers: regular teachers who were 72% of all teachers

and locally recruited teachers who were 28% of all teachers. There were a higher proportion of

males among the better-paid regular teachers. and a higher proportion of females among the

poorly-paid contract teachers.

The teacher cadre in the UP schools had a majority of males (54%) but also a substantial

proportion of females (46%). Male and female teachers were both highly qualified – 70% of

males and 79% of females were graduates. Higher proportions of male teachers had

professional teacher training – 72% of men compared to 61% of women.

Primary school teachers were required to have completed class 12: this was not satisfied by

only 4% of teachers. Upper primary school teachers were required to be graduates: this was not

satisfied by 28% of teachers. The picture in terms of teacher training looks quite rosy if one

looks at teachers in all schools – 69% of teachers had training. However, the situation is drastic

for primary schools. Nearly half (46%) of primary school teachers need training. These are

mostly the contract teachers. Nearly all upper primary school teachers were trained. There

were a higher proportion of males among the upper primary school teachers. There were a

higher proportion of females among the primary school teachers.

21

Findings on salary scales are based on interviews with one class 3 and / or one class 7 teacher in

a government school in the sample villages. There was a high proportion of contract teachers

among the Class 3 teachers. They were reported to be paid Rs 3500. Among the Class 7

teachers, there were no contract teachers. Regular teachers reported that they were paid

between Rs 20,000 – Rs 30,000. One fourth of the regular were being paid above 30 thousand

rupees.

Guidelines for teachers on transacting the curriculum

The Act requires a change in the way that knowledge is constructed. Teachers articulated their

understanding of these concepts -- all round development of the child; building up child’s

knowledge, potential and talents; development of physical and mental abilities to the fullest

extent; learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a child friendly and child

centred manner.

Teachers spoke of how children could be drawn into the learning process, primarily through

using TLMs or activities, teaching as per children’s interests or based on their ‘mental level’.

Explaining well was considered important as also removing fear from children. Teachers

suggested the use of activities such as sports and PT, and music, dance, excursions etc. as a

means to ensure all round development. However, the study found that only in 9% schools (14

schools) was any form of sports activity observed. Teachers also felt that all round development

included telling children the importance of cleanliness and teaching them social skills and

values.

There seemed to be relatively little understanding of possible problems of children from

marginalised communities. The difference between children’s levels was acknowledged but as a

consequence of their abilities not their background. There was no mention of the need to

include children from all communities. Inclusion is limited to helping weaker children and in few

cases, encouraging shy children to speak.

Although the teachers reported that they implement these principles in their classes,

observation of teaching for the duration of one period in Class 3 and Class 7 in schools in the

sample villages indicated that teachers generally used more traditional teaching methods:

reading from the textbook, asking questions from students, writing on the board, and

explaining. Future trainings for teachers need to build on their existing knowledge and allow

them to see the principles laid out in the Act put into practice. Implementing these changes will

take training and time, as it is not what has been the teacher’s own experience in school or

during their professional teacher training.

Functioning of schools linked with roles and responsibilities of teachers / SMC / local bodies

Schools reported that they were open for more than the minimum number of days specified by

the RTE Act but this is unlikely to be true. Schools were found to be closed at various times

during the survey.

22

The study found that absenteeism of teachers due to personal reasons was comparatively low –

11% on the day of the survey. It is possible that the picture of teacher regularity and punctuality

is actually worse than it appears, as the team noted that in many cases the regular teachers

depended on the contract teachers to open and close up the school, and came for a shorter

part of the school day themselves. Many of the contract teachers themselves came late and left

early. Fifteen per cent of teachers were reportedly absent due to official duties. This meant that

on the day of the survey more than one fourth of teachers were not in school.

The team found that student attendance even before the midday meal was less than half of the

enrolment, and that it dropped post the midday meal. Observed attendance was also lower

than what was reported in the register.

The study found that SMCs generally included the required number of parents. However, SMCs

had only a limited idea of their roles and responsibilities, which are quite comprehensive,

including making of the School Development Plan and to be the first stop for any grievance

redressal about the working of the school. SMCs were primarily involved in schemes involving

distribution of uniforms and textbooks and the cooked midday meal.

The private sector

Privatisation of schooling in rural UP has been taking place. Access to a private school with

primary grades was available in 46% of the villages. Access to a private school with upper

primary grades was available in 28% of the villages. Secondary schooling was available in 13% of

the villages. Not all private schools had a preprimary section.

The private schools were mostly recognized, although their infrastructure was limited and their

teachers were not trained. There were unrecognized private schools, most of which had been

set up in the last 5 years. Enrolment was higher in the recognized private schools. Fees were

higher too.

Private schools are playing an important role in providing access to schooling. However, there

are issues of gender and social equity. Private schools have a higher share of boys (59%) than

girls. Private schools have a lower share of SCs than government schools. This is even though

the government provides scholarships of Rs 300 and Rs 480 for children from disadvantaged

social groups for all children enrolled in certain grades in government and recognized private

schools.

Madarsas are playing an important role in providing access to primary schooling for Muslim

children.

Contribution of government schools to gender and social equity

There are more girls than boys in government schools, at primary and upper primary levels. To

some extent this reflects the availability of private schools with upper primary grades in the

23

sample villages, since boys are more likely to be sent to private schools. But it also reflects the

availability of government upper primary schools in these villages which makes them highly

accessible for girls.

The proportion of SCs enrolled in government schools is higher than proportion of SCs in the

population as a whole. There are a comparatively lower proportion of Muslims enrolled in

government schools relative to their share in the population as a whole. The proportion drops

considerably between primary and upper primary schools.

The way ahead

Access to schools needs to be improved. More government schools at both primary and upper

primary levels are required.

School based planning is essential – there is considerable variation in quality of infrastructural

and teacher provision among the government schools.

Infrastructural gaps need attention particularly the shortage of classrooms but others too.

Infrastructural gaps are particularly great in the upper primary schools.

The shortage of teachers needs to be unpacked, according to what the RTE requires for the

stage of schooling and the numbers of students enrolled. Basic educational qualifications of

teachers need to be brought in line with RTE norms. In addition, to recruiting more teachers,

they need to be posted where they are required.

The RTE Act requires that the local authorities / sarpanch take action if they know of children

who might drop out of school because they cannot cover transport costs of getting to school or

other costs that they might incur. The sarpanch or other panch members interviewed in the

sample villages did not have records of children who were out of school, so there was no

question of them knowing why children were out of school and if taking action was required.

The Act is premised on the basis that schools will function in a way in which all children are able

to access their right to free and compulsory elementary education. To this end, it outlines the

duties of the teachers, of SMCs, and of local bodies. Teachers are accountable to the education

authorities in the state, local body members are elected which is supposed to bring with it built

in accountability. But SMCs are accountable at most to the parent body, an amorphous group

which include a sizable proportion from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, and would

need to be empowered to demand accountability on any front. SMC members also need

training in other aspects such as making School Development Plans and in monitoring school

expenditure to fulfil the roles envisaged for them. All stakeholders need ongoing training

programmes with monitoring mechanisms in place to function more effectively.

24

TOWARDS MORE EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF RTE: A BASELINE SURVEY OF

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN BIHAR AND UP, 2011-12

INTRODUCTION TO THE REPORT

The RTE Act of 2009 can play a vital role in enabling India’s children achieve their fundamental

right to education of quality. The onus is on the state to make schooling of quality available to

all children as a justiciable right. The specifications in the Act are wide and varied. It sets out

minimum norms and standards for every school on infrastructure and facilities, the number of

teachers required based on Pupil Teacher Ratios, and the availability of teaching learning

materials, a library, and games and sports equipment. It specifies the minimum number of days

that schools should be functioning, and requires fundamental changes in the ways in which all

children will be enrolled in school and how they will be retained in school so they can access

their right to elementary education. Mental harassment and corporal punishment are

prohibited. Children will be assessed through an ongoing system of evaluation on a wide range

of parameters, and cannot be retained in the same grade at the end of the year. Teachers need

to be qualified and trained. The Act provides guidelines to teachers on their duties ranging from

their need to complete the curriculum as well as how they are to transact the curriculum in a

way in which children are able to develop to their full potential. It also gives important roles to

local authorities and to school-based education committees to work with the staff in school to

monitor the situation. In addition, the education committees are to engage in planning for the

future. Implementing such a wide-ranging Act is not an easy task, and needs support and

monitoring to ensure that it does work effectively. Social audits conducted by civil society

organisations at the village level provide an important input to understand ground realities at a

micro level. Useful for the macro picture it provides as well as for details for individual schools

is DISE data which provides updated school level data for the entire country. However, DISE

data is primarily on teacher and infrastructure availability, and student enrolment. There are

some questions with regard to its accuracy, as it depends on data provided by teachers within

the government schooling system itself.3 It is useful to supplement these efforts with research

studies such as this one. Its value lies in the fact that it is an independent effort focused on the

progress made towards the implementation of the RTE Act.

Objectives of the study

This study was conceived of as a baseline survey which will help to monitor implementation of

RTE in schools in villages of Bihar and UP. It explores the degree of compliance wrt the

requirements of the RTE Act in these two states in 2011-12, two years after the RTE has been

notified.

3 Teachers may find the task burdensome. They may also have personal compulsions to inflate enrolment and

attendance (linked as it is with the provision of teachers and incentives such as midday meals).

25

With RTE, major changes are expected in access and quality of schooling, in both the

government and the private sector. A well defined monitoring role is also envisaged for village

local bodies and SMCs. The study provides a framework which allows the situation to be

captured on a range of parameters, now and after a period of time when it is expected that the

picture will show enormous changes.

The study focuses on all the educational facilities in a village. In this way, it allows us to capture

changes not just within the individual school but also the schooling system – the comparative

roles of the government and private sector.

The focus of the study was to provide a baseline of the schooling situation in the states of Bihar

and UP. RTE implementation is expected to impact number and type of schools available in a

village. So it was decided to begin by making a random selection of villages. Some basic

information was collected about all educational facilities in these villages, from preprimary

upwards. This enables us to get insights about access and quality of education, both through

government and non-government provision. At least one school with primary grades was

selected in every sample village to survey in detail.

The study highlights priority areas of intervention for effective implementation of the RTE Act in

these states.

This was in the nature of a pilot study to develop easy to use tools to monitor different aspects

of RTE implementation. The value of the research is that the tools and framework of analysis

can be used as resources for other groups interested in conducting such surveys.

Methodology

The survey was designed as a baseline survey which would serve as a tool for monitoring

implementation of RTE. The two states were selected because they have among the highest

proportions of children (6-13 year age group) out of school (7.6% in UP, 7.2% in Bihar, according

to SRRI, 2009).

The study is based on primary data collected from all schools in 89 villages in Bihar and 102

villages in UP. There were also informal interviews with key informants in the two states. In

particular, the research team spoke to officials in the Department of Education in Bihar and UP

including the Education Secretaries, and to those working in this field from non government

organizations4 active in the development sector, to get their perspective on the current

situation.

4 Both states have several groups active in the RTE Forum – a nation-wide network of civil society organizations

working on mobilizing all stakeholders for better implementation of RTE.

26

The primary data is primarily quantitative but with qualitative elements. Data was collected in a

single visit to a selected village by a 4 person team. During the visit data was collected from all

education institutions in the village. In addition school and village functionaries responsible for

RTE compliance were interviewed and, where possible, supplemented by structured

observation by the survey team.

More detailed observation was done in one or two sample schools in the village. All other

educational institutions – anganwadi centres, and all government and private schools were

surveyed using a structured questionnaire. There was a short semi-structured questionnaire for

a panchayat member in the sample villages to record their involvement in RTE implementation

and a longer semi-structured questionnaire for an executive member of the School

Management Committee was used for the same purpose. In both cases, any records kept at

were looked at by researchers. Details about village characteristics and facilities were collected

to set the context of the schooling data.

For the detailed school survey, details of schooling facilities, teachers and administration were

collected through semi-structured interviews with head-teachers. This was supplemented by

structured observations of the school infrastructure and functioning,5 and collection of data

from the attendance registers and other registers. Upto two class teachers6 (Class 3 and Class 7)

were interviewed in each of these schools to record their knowledge and perception of RTE

rules and the extent to which they are implementing them inside the classroom. This was

supplemented by structured observations inside upto 2 classrooms7 (Class 3 and Class 7) for the

duration of one period in the school day.

Sampling design

The main principle behind the sampling strategy was to generate reliable estimates. Villages

were selected through multistage stratified random sampling. While randomness was an

important criterion for selection, attempt was made to keep the survey logistically feasible

within a limited time and budget. A sample of 90 villages in Bihar and 102 villages in UP was to

be selected. The sample size was determined with the help of the sample size calculator

(www.surveysystem.com) to give reliable estimates.8

5 This included aspects such as physical infrastructure, midday meal, whether children are left to wander around

unattended, whether there is any organized activity outside the classroom. 6 The number of class teachers interviewed depended on the grades being taught in the school. Schools with both

primary and upper primary grades had both a class 3 and class 7 teacher interviewed. Schools with only primary

grades had only a class 3 teacher interviewed. Schools with only upper primary grades had only a class 7 teacher

interviewed. 7 A similar rationale applies for the number of classrooms observed. Schools with only grades 1-5 had only class 3

observed. Schools with only grades 6-8 had only class 7 observed. Schools with grades 1-8 had both classes 3 and 7

observed. 8 These estimates have a confidence interval (or margin of error) of 10% and confidence level is 95%. So it is

possible to predict with 95% confidence level that the actual value lies within an interval of 10% (plus or minus) of

the estimate. Probability theory suggests that the sample size for a given confidence level and confidence interval

27

Selection of districts: A two stage stratified random sample design was adopted to select this

sample. For the first stage NSSO’s classification of states into regions and sub-regions was used.

In Bihar there are 7 NSSO sub-regions. 15 districts were chosen in the following way: two

districts were chosen randomly from 6 sub-regions, and 3 districts were chosen randomly from

Purnea sub-region (which was larger than other sub-regions). In Uttar Pradesh there are 17 sub-

regions. 17 districts were chosen randomly – one from each sub-region.

Selection of blocks: The village directory used by RGI for census survey was used as the

sampling frame. The blocks in the villages were stratified into two strata according to the

population size. One block was chosen randomly from each strata, that is one large and one

small block were selected.

Selection of villages: From each selected block, villages with a population less than 300 were

not considered as, according to Government norms, the probability of a school in small villages

is low. Very large villages (population more than 8000) were also not considered as they are

comparatively few in number and have some urban characteristics. The villages with population

between 3000 and 8000 in 2001, were stratified into three sub-stratums according to their

population size. One village was chosen randomly from each strata, giving us 3 sample villages

from each block, and 6 sample villages from each district. As the focus was to survey

government schools, villages which did not have a government school were replaced.

Selection of schools: Some basic information was collected from all educational facilities in the

sample villages – from pre-primary to higher secondary – government and private. In Bihar’s 89

villages, there were 136 government schools, 7 private schools, 7 madarsas, and 163

anganwadis. In UP’s 102 villages, there were164 government schools, 55 private schools, 4

madarsas, and 161 anganwadis. In addition, the team surveyed in detail a sample of schools: 95

schools with primary grades and 62 schools with upper primary grades in Bihar, and 101 schools

with primary grades and 58 schools with upper primary grades in UP.9

In Bihar, the government schools usually had classes 1 to 5 (primary) or classes 1 to 7 or 8

(upper primary). So if a village had both a 1-5 and 1-8 school,10

the team was asked to choose

the 1-8 school as the school to survey in detail as the study was focused on elementary

education rather than only primary education. The 1-5 schools had generally been set up more

recently and had much poorer infrastructure and lower enrolment per grade compared to the

1-8 schools. If the village had more than one primary school, the largest primary school was

selected. In Bihar, the schools surveyed in detail included 34 primary schools (with grades 1-5),

61 upper primary schools with grades 1-8, and 1 school with grade 6-8, which together

does not depend on population (total number of villages in each state), when the population is very large. So even

though the number of villages in Uttar Pradesh is much larger than in Bihar, we took a similar sample size. 9 The proposal had been to select a certain number of government schools to survey in detail – at least 90 schools

with primary grades and 30 schools with upper primary grades in Bihar, and at least 102 schools with primary

grades and 34 schools with upper primary grades in UP. 10

This was true for 36% of the sample villages in Bihar.

28

accounted for 95 schools with primary grades and 62 schools with upper primary grades as

mentioned above.

In UP, government schools usually had classes 1 to 5 (primary) or classes 6 to 8 (upper primary).

If the village had more than one primary school, the largest primary school was surveyed in

detail. If the village had a primary and an upper primary school, both were surveyed in detail.

This included 101 primary schools and 58 upper primary schools, as mentioned above.

Table 1. Sample size

NSSO

Sub-

regions

Distric

ts

Blocks Villages Basic information

on all educational

facilities

Detailed survey of a

sample of

government schools

Bihar 7 15 30 89

136 government

schools, 7 private

schools, 7

madarsas, 163

anganwadis

34 primary schools,

61 upper primary

schools (1-8), 1 upper

primary school (6-8)

UP 17 17 34 102

164 government

schools, 55 private

schools, 4

madarsas, 161

anganwadis

101 primary schools

and 58 upper primary

schools (6-8)

Special features of the study

Most surveys are based only on outcomes observed in schools and not on the processes. A

speciality of the methodology of this study was to assess the knowledge and perceptions of

different stakeholders in the schooling system – usually not done in the survey process. The

study focuses on all those who are assigned roles and responsibilities under the RTE Act. The

greatest role is that of the teachers, but there are also important roles assigned to the local

bodies or panchayats and to new community organizations (called School Management

Committees) required to comprise 75% of members from the parents of children enrolled in

the school. The report discusses with these stakeholders (1) what they know of their roles and

responsibilities; (2) what training they have received; (3) what materials they have; (4) to what

extent they are implementing the Act.

With the teachers, the study discusses the enormous changes in the way the school is now

expected to function – with respect to the admission process, the teaching learning process in

the classroom, and the assessment process; also the efforts needed to be inclusive of all

children, to be conscious that discrimination and mental harassment and physical violence are

prohibited, and the need to retain children in school even if they are irregular or their learning

is not adequate by the teacher’s standards. It also explores to what extent teachers report that

their interaction with parents have changed, and how they perceive the role of the SMC. With

29

SMC executive members, the study discusses the composition of their organizations, how often

they meet, and to what extent they fulfil the roles assigned to them. With panchayat members,

the study tries to explore how they see their roles and what their knowledge is of village

children who are out of school / from migrant families. With all stakeholders, the study looked

particularly at evidence to see if any systems had been put in place to ensure that they carried

out their assigned duties. Specifically, the team asked to see any registers in the school which

might keep a record of such activities.

Such a study is useful for policy directions – if RTE norms are not fulfilled did the shortcomings

arise from lack of clarity of concepts among the stakeholders, or stakeholders not fulfilling their

duty even while knowing what is required of them. The survey looks at gaps in every area – lack

of capacity, lack of infrastructure and support, and / or lack of monitoring.

Limitations of the study

Limited data was collected from private schools. The focus was particularly on progress towards

RTE compliance in the government schools in the two states.

The purpose of the study was to get a macro picture of the government schooling system, and

identify systemic issues in implementation of the RTE Act. It was a large cross-sectional survey

of educational facilities and conducted within a short period of time (based on a visit to 6

randomly selected villages in a randomly selected district each week). The intention was to use

an easily replicable model. It was not designed to probe into issues which require complex

methodology and especially trained investigators. Such a study may require repeated visits to

the research site to probe a fewer number of issues in greater depth. To capture issues such as

discriminatory attitudes / mental harassment / physical violence in schools, research which is

particularly focused on this, is more useful than a broad based survey. Such a survey is good to

capture only stray incidents of discrimination which may occur at the time of the research

team’s visit to the school. Nevertheless, efforts were made to raise these issues with teachers

and researchers were asked to note any signs of discrimination, however subtle, as well as

teachers’ engagement around issues of inclusion.

The study was focused on the supply side of schooling – in particular the providers on the

ground. The design and methodology did not include the exploration of perceptions of parents

and children. This could be usefully done in another study to get feedback from parents and

children to see what they understand of the provisions of the RTE Act, and what their

experience is of the way in which it has been implemented.

The survey collected information on the official length of the school day and the official number

of working days to get an idea of the system in each state as it is officially operating on the

ground. It was not to check how long the school actually functioned or how many days the

school was open. Feedback from parents and children were hence not considered a critical part

of the study.

30

Structure of the report

Findings of the study are presented separately for Bihar (see Part A) and UP (see Part B). The

study is focused both on school management and school functioning.

Section 1 provides the context in each state. Section 2 looks at what infrastructure and facilities

were available in all schools in the sample villages, and whether these facilities were usable.

Provision of teachers was also noted for these schools.11

Section 3 looks at school policies

specified under RTE which are aimed to bring all children into school and retain them in school

for at least 8 years, particularly children on the margin (those from socially disadvantaged

groups, children with disability), who are most at risk of dropping out due to problems at home

and/or in school. Findings are based on a sample of government schools surveyed in detail.12

Head teachers were interviewed for their perceptions; data from the registers were noted.

Section 4 looks at the teacher cadre and at the functioning of the school including actual

teacher and student attendance, and the profile of teachers in terms of qualifications, training,

and salary scales. This was based on interviews with the head-teacher, and the class 3 and class

7 teachers in the sample of government schools. Section 5 looks at the Act’s guidelines for

teachers, in terms of how they are to transact the curriculum. This again was based on the

sample of government schools surveyed in detail where these issues were discussed and

activities were observed both inside specified classrooms and outside. Section 6 looks at issues

of accountability in the schooling system – particularly at the role of the head teacher, and of

the School Management Committees. This was based primarily on what is reported by the

head-teachers, and those members interviewed from the panchayat and the SMCs. Written

records were looked at to note the systems in place. For the UP report, Section 7 deals with

private schools, while this has been incorporated into Section 1 in the Bihar report. The final

section is the concluding section which raises a number of key issues based on the study and

makes suggestions for action in each State.

11

This included 136 schools in Bihar and 164 schools in UP. 12

This consisted of 34 primary schools, 61 composite upper primary schools, and 1 upper primary school in Bihar;

and 101 primary schools and 59 upper primary schools in UP.

31

Champaran

(w)

Darbhanga

SitamarhiChamparan

(e)

Lakhisarai

Begusarai

Saran

Bhojpur

NawadaGaya

Ma

dh

ep

ura

Bhagalpur

Purnia

Kishanganj

Kaimur

(Bhabua)

Sample Districts in

Sample Districts in UP

32

PART A. BIHAR

SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Bihar is the third most populous state in India with 103.8 million inhabitants in an area of

94,163 sq kms according to the 2011 census estimates. According to the 2001 Census, Muslims

formed 16.5% and Scheduled Castes 15.7% of the total population in the state. Out of the 38

districts the state is divided into, districts with high Muslim population are Kishanganj (67.6%),

Kathiar (42.5%) and Araria (41.4%) and those with high concentration of SC population are Gaya

(29.64%), Nawada (24%) and Aurangabad (23.49%). The total Scheduled Tribe population in the

state was low (0.9%).

The Bihar plain is divided into two by the river Ganga which flows through the middle from west

to east. Owing to the Ganga and its tributaries Kosi, Gandak and Bhagmati, the state has rich,

fertile plains. Thus agriculture and trading are the main livelihood options in Bihar with 85%

population living in rural areas.

Bihar, however, continues to be one of the most underdeveloped states in the country. Its per

capita state domestic product is the lowest among major states, only one third of the national

level. Bihar suffered a major setback in terms of industrial development with the separation of

the mineral rich districts to Jharkhand in 2000. The state is was virtually devoid of an industrial

sector and was left with the smallest industrial base in the country, contributing only about 12%

towards the state’s gross state domestic product and employing less than 10% of its workforce

(Rorabacher, 2008). Agriculture, the backbone of employment in Bihar, has its own set of

problems. It generates only 40% of the state’s GDP. According to a World Bank Report (2007),

the agricultural output in Bihar has been highly volatile due to shocks from both drought and

periodic flooding during monsoons. Additional factors such as low investment rates, poor water

management and weak transport and marketing infrastructure have all contributed to the

economic backwardness of the state.

The persistent poverty has led to frequent out migration from the state. Manual laborers

migrate to states such as Punjab, Haryana and Maharashtra in search of employment

opportunities. The extreme poverty in the state manifests itself in inadequate nutrition among

children. The NFHS-III report observed that among all Indian states, this problem is most

pronounced in Bihar, along with Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand. Undernourishment among

women is also a crucial indicator of deprivation and undernourished women are also much

more likely than other women to have children who are undernourished. Bihar has the highest

proportion of women who are undernourished (45%).

However, in recent times this seems to be changing with some of the government initiatives

showing success. Reportedly, MNREGS and development work in the state have led to

33

reduction of out migration by nearly 26%. (The Hindu, March 18, 2012). Another important

initiative in this context has been the Bihar Rural Livelihoods Project that has been initiated by

the Government of Bihar to promote and improve social and economic development of rural

poor and women in the state. It also incorporates the Panchayati Raj Institutions in the

implementation of schemes such as PDS, ICDS and MNREGA. In addition, this project aims at

providing opportunities for primary and secondary education and to improve access to

preventive and reproductive health care.

The literacy rate in Bihar, according to the 2011 census is 63.8%, with 73% literate males and

53% literate females. Purnea is the district with the lowest literacy rate (52.5%). Some other

districts with relatively low literacy are Katihar (53.6%), Araria (55%) and Kishanganj (57%), all

three of which also have a high concentration of minority population.

The 2011 literacy rates for various social groups are not available yet. According to the 2001

census, the literacy rates are very low at 36% for Muslims and around 28% for SCs13

and STs

compared to the state average of 47.5%. However, these rates are likely to have improved now.

Bihar also accounts for a substantial proportion of out of school children – the 2009 out of

school survey conducted by SRI-IMRB found 7.3% of 6 to 13 year old children (1.3 mn children)

in Bihar were out of school – as compared to the national average of 4.3%.

The Bihar Government has made several initiatives to encourage school enrolment and

regularity. The schemes initiated by the Government14

include: Mukhyamantri Akshar Anchal

Yojana, Mukhyamantri Kanya Suraksha Yojana, Mukhyamantri (Balika) Cycle Yojana,15

Shaishnik

Paribraman Yojana16

and Mukhyamantri Balika Poshak Yojana,17

many of which specifically

target girls. In 2011, Bihar won the national award in literacy for making an overall jump in the

literacy rate, especially among women.

1.2 Notifications by Government of Bihar related to RTE

The Government of Bihar formulated the Draft Rules for RTE implementation on 12 May 2011.

Most of the orders included in the Draft Rules were published in the Dainik Jagaran on 29

January 2012.

13

There is considerable variation among the Scheduled Castes. Among the major castes included in the SCs, Dhobi

have the highest proportion of matriculates (19.7%), whereas Musahar and Bhuiya have the lowest proportion of

matriculates (6% each). 14

http://www.biharonline.gov.in 15

Each girl who takes admission in class IX is provided with a sum of Rs 2000/- for purchasing a cycle, in order to

encourage her to continue with further education. 16

This covers educational tours for children. 17

Each girl child who is a student of upper primary section (class VI-VIII) is provided with Rs 700/- for purchasing

two sets of school dresses, one pair of shoes and stationary items.

34

The Draft Rules contain some provisions with regard to which government orders have been

issued earlier. This includes certain provisions to reduce costs of schooling for all children.

Students studying in government-run primary and upper primary schools are to be given funds

to purchase two sets of school uniforms, a pair of shoes, and various items of stationery18

.

Students in Classes I-VIII are also provided with all books, free of cost for each academic

session.

In addition, the setting up of neighborhood schools19

and the school certification of

recognition20

are other examples of orders issued in May 2010, and part of the 2011 Draft

Rules. The Bihar government has also pursued the constitution of SCPCR to monitor the

children’s right to education with a notification issued on 19 August 2010.

In addition to the requirement that private schools with upper primary grades must seek

recognition before they will be allowed to function, the RTE Act requires the reservation of

seats in private schools for children of economically weaker sections. On 20 December 2010 a

first notification was issued, and it was notified again on 28 March 2011. The feature of the

notification includes 25% seats in private schools to be reserved for children from economically

weaker sections (ST/SC/EBC/BC/minority children), and out of this 50% of the seats shall be

reserved for girls.

The March notification followed a notification dated 24 February 2011 on RTE-related issues,

sent from the Bihar HRD Ministry to all the local authorities. Some provisions were notified as

early as 11 May 2010, and then again on 24 February 2011. These include the no denial of

admission due to lack of age proof documents; prohibition of retaining children in the same

class and prohibition of expulsion, though annual examinations can be held in every school; and

the prohibition of physical punishment and mental harassment. Teachers were not to be given

non-teaching activities with some exceptions. Other provisions included in the 24 February

2011 notification for teachers are the need for disciplinary action against teachers who do not

abide by the requirements of the RTE Act including the prohibition of private tuitions. There

were also more regulatory provisions for private schools. No capitation fee or screening test

was to be allowed at the time of admission.

The Bihar government has also issued a notification on 12 March 2012 regarding the

implementation of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation and the making of “pupil

cumulative record” for each child.21

Orders were issued on 22 June 2012 about minimum

working days for schools and hours for teachers. “A minimum of 200 working days and 800

instruction hours shall be required for Classes I-V, and 220 days and 1000 hours for Classes VI-

18

The funds, paid out by the Village Education Committee (VEC), amount to Rs. 400/500/700 for students in

Classes III-V. This is part of the Mukhyamantri Poshak Yojana. 19

The definition of a neighborhood school within 1 and 3 kilometers has to be decided by the Head Teacher and

the “District Education Publicity (Prasar) Officer”. See circular 11.05.2010 – 8v3 157/2003. 20

No school with class I-VIII can be established prior to recognition from the State. 21

Section 18(1) of the Bihar Rules states that a “chhatra sanchayee abhilekh” is to be maintained in pursuance of

section 29(2)(h) of the RTE Act.

35

VIII. Teachers should spend 45 hours a week in teaching and preparing materials, and the Head

Teacher should determine the weekly routine for the teaching-learning activities.”

Notifications issued by Government of Bihar

Neighborhood definition Notification issued on 11-05-

2010

Certificate for recognition Notification issued on 11-05-

2010 and 15-02-11

Constitution of SCPCR Notification issued on 19-08-

2010

25% reservation of seats in private schools for children

from EWS

Notification issued on 20-12-

2010 and 28-03-2011

Notification of State Rules Notification issued on 12-05-

2011

No denial of admission Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

Prohibition of holding back and expulsion Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

No corporal punishment Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

No capitation fee Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

Banning private tuition Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

Prohibition of non-academic activities done by teachers Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

Disciplinary actions against teachers who do not abide by

orders

Notification issued on 24-02-

2011

Implementation of CCE Notification issued on 12-03-

2012

Minimum instructional hours Notification issued on 22-06-

2012

The RTE Draft Rules for Bihar also encompass the formation of ad hoc committees for each

primary and middle school as part of the Bihar Elementary School Education Committee Act

(2011). It consists of 6-7 members, including parents, the elected ward member of the Gram

Panchayat/Nagar Nikay, as well as the Head Teacher/Head Master of the school. The functions

of these committees have also been specified. In 2011, the government of Bihar also sent a

notification to all local authorities asking them to implement the RTE rules.

The State Rules also include specific norms for persons with disabilities. Sections 4(7) and 4(8)

and 5(1) state that appropriate and safe transportation shall be arranged for children with

disabilities in order to attend and complete the elementary education cycle. Besides free

36

textbooks and uniforms, disabled children should also be provided with free Special Classes,

support material and equipments. It encompasses residential bridge courses for Children with

Special Needs (CWSN) in order to prepare them for school, and hence improve the quality of

inclusion.

Details on eligibility and working conditions of teachers – qualifications including clearing the

Bihar Teacher Eligibility Test (TET), grade, salaries, retirement and transfer policies -- were also

put out in 2012. A critical requirement for RTE compliance was providing training facilities for

teachers. The government of Bihar had proposed training by SCERT, training through Nalanda

Open University, and training through IGNOU.

Recruitment of teachers is based on the Bihar Panchayat Elementary Teacher Rules, 2012 which

stipulates three teacher grades -- Basic Grade22

for primary and upper primary teachers;

Graduate Grade23

for upper primary teachers, and Head teachers Grade24

. There was also a

provision to recruit Instructors for Rs. 4,000 per month. Regular teachers recruited prior to the

Panchayat Teacher Rules are paid according to the specifications of the Pay Commission.

Regarding teachers’ qualifications, a test (TET) was held in 2012 and in case teachers did not

clear the exam, they could train for two years before re-appearing for the exam. Teachers were

also to be provided with training facilities proposed by the SCERT and approved by the NCTE.

1.3 Sample villages

As mentioned in the introduction to the report, 89 villages were visited in Bihar between

November 2011 and February 2012. The villages varied widely in size. The number of

households per village varied from a minimum of 77 households to a maximum of 1921.

Median number of households was 377.

Nearly all the sample villages in Bihar could be reached by motorable road. The road was

metalled in the case of over two fifths of the villages (42.1%). One third of the villages had

paved roads, in the sense of being paved by stones. One fourth of villages had unpaved roads,

of particular consequence since Bihar has a heavy monsoon and much of it is flood prone. The

type of housing also indicates that families are likely to face problems in the monsoon and the

winters. More than two thirds of the villages (68.2%) had a mix of pakka and kachha housing;

over one fifth (20.5%) of the villages had mostly kaccha houses, and only a little over one tenth

(11.4%) had mostly pakka housing.

The availability of drinking water in the sample villages was particularly important for this study

in the light of the fact that the RTE Act requires schools to provide children with safe and

22

Trained Teacher – Rs. 7,000 per month; Untrained Teachers – Rs. 6,000 per month. 23

Trained Teacher – Rs. 8,000; Untrained Teachers – Rs. 7,500 per month. 24

Head Teacher (trained and for upper primary level) – Rs. 14,000 per month.

37

adequate drinking water. The main source of drinking water in Bihar’s sample villages was

hand-pumps. Only 10.1% of the villages reported getting piped water.


In terms of government provision, all 89 sample villages had access to primary schooling;25

63

villages had access to upper primary schooling.26

Twenty three villages had a government

upper primary school within a distance of 3 kms, as required by the Bihar Government Rules for

implementation of RTE. There were only 2 villages which had an upper primary school at a

distance of more than 3 kms.

As many as 71 government primary schools (mostly with grades 1-527

), 64 government upper

primary schools (all but one were composite schools), and 1 government secondary school

(with grades 1-10) were surveyed. In addition the there were 7 private schools -- 6 had only

primary grades (with either pre-primary to grade 5 or grade 1 to grade 5) and 1 was a

secondary school (with pre-primary to grade 10). There were 7 madarsas. The private schools

and madarsas will be discussed in greater detail later on in this section.

Table 1.1 Profile of Schools in Bihar’s Sample Villages

Type of Schools Government

Schools

Private Schools

Primary schools 71 6

Upper primary schools with primary grades 63 1

Schools with upper primary grades only 1 0

Schools with primary, upper primary and secondary

grades 1* 0

Total 136 7

*The school has classes 1 to 9.

Source: CORD Survey 2011-12


The number of students enrolled is of particular importance when we are looking at the issue of

compliance with RTE. The Pupil Teacher Ratio specified and the need for a head-teacher varies

for schools with enrolment less than 150 and more than 150 in primary grades. The bulk of

primary schools (40 out of 69) in Bihar had less than 200 children enrolled.

25

This included all schools with primary grades i.e. schools with grades 1-3, 1-5, 1-6, 1-7, 1-8 and 1-10 schools 26

This included schools with grades 1-6, 1-7, 1-8, 6-8, and 1-10. 27

Some also had grades 1-2, 1-3, or 1-4.

38

Table 1.2 Distribution of Government Primary Schools by Enrolment in Bihar

Total Enrolment

No. of schools Proportion of schools

(%)

Less than or equal to 100 13 18.9

More than 100 but less than or equal to 200 27 39.1



More than 400 1 1.5

Total 69 100

Note: Enrolment data was not available for 2 primary schools.


Table 1.3 Distribution of Government Upper Primary Schools* by Enrolment in Bihar

Total Enrolment No. of Schools Proportion of schools

More than 100 but less than or equal

to 300 8 13.1


to 400 19 31.1


to 500 14 23.0


to 700 9 14.8


to 900 11 18.0

Total 61 100

*All but one of these schools had primary cum upper-primary grades.

Note Enrolment data was not available for 2 of the schools with grades 1-8.


While most of these schools were up to class 8, a few recently upgraded schools had classes 1

to 6 or 1 to 7. Only one school had classes 6 to 8. They showed considerable variation in size. A

small proportion (13%) had less than 300 enrolled. The majority had between 300 and 500

enrolled (54%). Close to one third of the upper primary schools had more than 500 students

enrolled.

The average enrolment (see Table 1.4) in the government schools in the sample villages was

markedly higher in the upper primary schools. Enrolment in both the primary and upper

primary sections was high in the upper primary schools. Enrolment in the primary schools was

185, enrolment in the primary grades in the upper primary schools was 257.

Based on all government schools in sample villages


1.6 Enrolment in government schools

Table 1.5 gives the proportions of children from disadvantaged groups enrolled in primary and

upper primary schools.

Primary stage: High proportions of SCs and Muslims:

proportion of children from SC communities is

of these children is much higher than their average population in the state as per the 2011

Census (15.7%). The enrolment figure for children

slightly lower than their representation in the average population in the state as per the 2011

Census (0.9%). Finally, there are

population in the state is 16.5%. Taking all disadvantaged groups together, children from these

groups constitute around 37% of the enrolment in the primary

Table 1.5 Enrolment of Children from Disadvantaged Groups in Government Schools in

Proportion enrolled in

Primary stage (class 1 to 5)

Upper primary stage (class 6 to 8)

Both stages (classes 1 to 8)

Primary schools

Upper primary schools



184.6

0

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Primary Schools

En

rolm

en

tFigure 1.4: Average Enrolment in Government Schools

39


in government schools of children from disadvantaged communities

the proportions of children from disadvantaged groups enrolled in primary and

: High proportions of SCs and Muslims: It can be seen from Table 1.5

proportion of children from SC communities is 17.2% in the primary classes. The representation


Census (15.7%). The enrolment figure for children from ST groups is 0.8% in the primary

than their representation in the average population in the state as per the 2011

Census (0.9%). Finally, there are 18.7% Muslim children in primary classes. The average Muslim

state is 16.5%. Taking all disadvantaged groups together, children from these

% of the enrolment in the primary section in the sample villages.

Table 1.5 Enrolment of Children from Disadvantaged Groups in Government Schools in

% SC % ST

17.2 0.8

stage (class 6 to 8) 11.6 0.3

15.9 0.7

20.1 1.4

14.1 0.4


335.1

163.9

Primary Schools Upper Primary Schools

Figure 1.4: Average Enrolment in Government Schools

in Bihar

Upper

Primary Sections

of children from disadvantaged communities

the proportions of children from disadvantaged groups enrolled in primary and

Table 1.5 that the

. The representation


% in the primary classes,

than their representation in the average population in the state as per the 2011

. The average Muslim

state is 16.5%. Taking all disadvantaged groups together, children from these

in the sample villages.

Table 1.5 Enrolment of Children from Disadvantaged Groups in Government Schools in Bihar

% Muslims

18.7

18.0

18.5

20.4

17.8

Figure 1.4: Average Enrolment in Government Schools

Upper-primary Sections

Primary Sections

Upper primary stage: fewer SCs and STs:

upper primary stage is much lower (1

demographic characteristics of the villages within which the upper primary schools are located

but more likely it reflects that school participation of disadvantaged groups drop

upwards in the school system. The

0.3% in the upper primary classes

enrolment in upper primary classes show

Enrolment of disadvantaged groups is much higher

Table 1.5. These schools have been established in more recent years and probably reflect

government policy of improving access to schools for the disadvantaged sections.

schools had low enrolment on average (particularly compared to the upper primary schools)

indicating that they are not highly in demand

could be catering primarily to disadvantaged groups. The primary schools had

recruited teachers; close to half of the teachers in these schools had had no professional

teacher education. In contrast, the upper primary schools had a higher proportion of regular

teachers (29%), a better qualified and trained teacher cadre.

more poorly resourced. 28


Figure 1.6 shows that proportion of girls enrolled were quite high for both primary and upper

primary stages in the government schools


Based on all government schools in sampl

28

Based on her work in a village in Jharkhand, Nitya Rao (2009) found that new schools set up under SSA to solve

the problem of accessibility to schooling for childr

For example, these schools (known as New Primary Schools) were entitled to recruit only lower

trained local teachers. The recently opened primary schools in Bihar seem to be simil

0

Primary Stage

Upper Primary Stage

Figure 1.6: Enrolment (%) by Gender in Government

40

fewer SCs and STs: The proportion of children from SC communities in the

is much lower (11.6%) than in the earlier stage. This could partly reflect the


but more likely it reflects that school participation of disadvantaged groups drop

The enrolment figures for children from ST groups

classes. The situation is more positive for the Muslim children as the

enrolment in upper primary classes shows only a small decline at 18%.

oups is much higher in primary schools as seen in the last row of


government policy of improving access to schools for the disadvantaged sections.

had low enrolment on average (particularly compared to the upper primary schools)

indicating that they are not highly in demand – they could be in more remote areas, or they

could be catering primarily to disadvantaged groups. The primary schools had



, a better qualified and trained teacher cadre. The primary schools appear to be

Gender wise enrolment in government schools

1.6 shows that proportion of girls enrolled were quite high for both primary and upper

primary stages in the government schools – a very slight decline is noted in the

Based on all government schools in sample villages.


the problem of accessibility to schooling for children of marginalized groups were very poorly resourced schools.

For example, these schools (known as New Primary Schools) were entitled to recruit only lower

trained local teachers. The recently opened primary schools in Bihar seem to be similar.

51

52

49

48


Schools in Bihar

% Boys % Girls

The proportion of children from SC communities in the

This could partly reflect the


but more likely it reflects that school participation of disadvantaged groups drops as one moves

enrolment figures for children from ST groups also drop to

situation is more positive for the Muslim children as the

as seen in the last row of


government policy of improving access to schools for the disadvantaged sections. The primary

had low enrolment on average (particularly compared to the upper primary schools)

they could be in more remote areas, or they

could be catering primarily to disadvantaged groups. The primary schools had 86% locally



primary schools appear to be

1.6 shows that proportion of girls enrolled were quite high for both primary and upper

the higher classes.


en of marginalized groups were very poorly resourced schools.

For example, these schools (known as New Primary Schools) were entitled to recruit only lower-paid and less-

100


41

1.8 Characteristics of private schools

Private schooling in Bihar is largely an urban phenomenon. In the sample villages, the number

of private schools in the 89 selected villages was reported to be only 7 in number. These

schools are all primary schools with the exception of one secondary school. Only in one case

was the school reported to be recognised and aided by the government, a primary school with

300 Muslim children reportedly set up more than 40 years ago. The land on which this school

was functioning had been provided by the government. No fees were charged. Recognition did

not appear to be based on infrastructural norms as this school did not have a playground.

Enrolment in the private schools varied from 37 students to 300. Schools with enrolment of

more than 200 were the 3 schools which charged no fees (see discussion below).

There was no pattern in terms of fees charged in these few private schools.

• Scholarships given to children: A small NGO-run school for child labourers had been set

up recently and had only 50 children enrolled. The school had 1 classroom and 4

teachers. Children were not only charged no fees but were given Rs 100 by the NGO. It

appears to be part of a scheme to promote education among children who might

otherwise be part of the labour force.

• No fees for all: This was true for the single aided school mentioned above and for two

other schools, all three of which had only Muslim children enrolled.

• No fees for some: In one school, the students included 13 orphans who were not

charged fees as well as being given free textbooks and uniforms. The others were

charged Rs 100-150 per month.

• Monthly fees of Rs 50: This was a new school which was comparatively large with 179

children in the pre-primary section and 38 children enrolled in the primary grades. The

school had 10 classrooms and 9 teachers. It was reported to be in the process of getting

recognition.

• Monthly fees of Rs 100-125: One unrecognized school was being run by a large

organisation, reported to have a district office in Gaya, and the head office in Kolkata. It

had 5 teachers for 150 children from nursery to Class 3. In another, the numbers

enrolled was as low as 37 children.

• Monthly fees of Rs 200: This was the highest fee being charged – Saraswati Shishu Vidya

Mandir had 8 teachers for 131 children. Infrastructure and facilities were comparatively

better. The majority of those enrolled were boys.

The physical infrastructure in these 7 schools was also quite variable -- the number of

classrooms reported to be in use varied from 1 to 10. A hand-pump for drinking water was

generally available. Most schools had a playground, though its smallness was reported to be a

problem in a few cases. The schools generally had some sports equipment, some charts, and

some indoor games such as ludo and carom.

42

Screening at the time of admission was being done through an entrance test in 3 of the 7

private schools. All the schools reported that they have a structured system of assessment, with

regular examinations held half yearly and quarterly.

1.9 Madarsas

There were 7 madarsas in the sample villages in Bihar in 6 of which children are studying only in

primary grades. The madarsa with the largest number of children had 400 children in primary

and 425 children in upper primary grades. In two cases, the schools were residential but only

for girls in one case. Enrolment tended to vary – the lowest was 50, the highest 825. In between

these two extremes, were madarsas which reported between 150-250 children enrolled.

The madarsas generally had poor physical infrastructure. Most did not have a playground.

Charts and other TLM materials were not found.

Most of the madarsas had a tubewell as a source of drinking water. The madarsa which was a

residential school for girls had comparatively good infrastructure. It had a boundary wall which

was plastered, an office room with one table, 2 chairs and a cupboard, 2 handpumps, and a

toilet in good condition. The team also found a globe and a map, as well as clay utensils and a

stove in the kitchen. The 4 madarsas which had been set up before 2000 had better provision of

teachers and classrooms, compared to the 3 which had been set up later.

The system of assessment tended to vary. In one case, classes 1-3 has only oral tests, whereas

students from classes 4-8 had to take written tests; in another case the system consisted of oral

tests for Arbi-Koran and written ones for Urdu, English and Hindi.

1.10 Anganwadis

Bihar’s sample villages revealed a considerable shortage of anganwadis. Of these 89 sample

villages, 9% had no anganwadis at all. These villages without anganwadis were large – they had

330 households on average and should have had at least one anganwadi. While the remaining

had anganwadis, in several cases more than one, the village population was quite high and the

number of anganwadis was often less than what was required. As given in Table 1.7, the

majority (82%) of sample villages had between one and three anganwadis. A small proportion

of villages had between 4-6 anganwadis.


No. of anganwadis in a

village

No. of villages with

specified number of

anganwadis

Percentage of villages with specified

number of anganwadis

0 8 9.0

1 36 40.4

2 to 3 37 41.6

43

4 to 6 8 9.0

Total 89 100.0


One Anganwadi Centre (AWC) from each of the sample villages was visited. The following

discussion is based on this. Most centres were reported to be open from 10 am to 2 pm. The

enrolment was quite uniform. More than 80% had an enrolment of 40, and the remaining had

around 80. Girls’ enrolment was quite high and in 60% of cases they constituted more than half

of the children reported to be enrolled.

There were no children present in 3 AWCs. On average, 60% of the AWCs had more than half

the children present. In several cases attendance was seen to be more than enrolment. This

was apparently because the Bihar government specified that an AWC should have a maximum

enrolment of 40 per centre.29

So while the Anganwadi Worker (AWW) kept official enrolment at

40, additional children were allowed to attend the centre and share in the cooked meal. This

was especially when there was only one centre in the village.


Number of children observed Proportion (%) of anganwadis

None 3.8

10 or less 10.3

11 to 20 24.5

More than 20 61.5


In 7 centres (in the 81 villages which had an anganwadi), the AWW was not present – 2 of them

were on leave and the others had gone either for training or to the block office for a meeting.

The team talked to the Anganwadi Helper in those cases. In one case, the AWW has left her job

and shifted from the village, but no new worker had been appointed for the last 4 years.

Infrastructure was a problem for many centres. In some cases there was no building. In one

case, the classes were run at the anganwadi worker’s house, and in another in a panchayat

building. In others the team found that activities were carried out either in a verandah, hut or in

an open space. In one case a new building had been constructed, but the contractor refused to

hand it over as he had not received his dues. Other buildings reportedly had leaking roofs.

Another problem area for anganwadis was also irregularity of funds – several AWCs reported

that the cooked meal could not be distributed for the previous 3 to 4 months.

Observation of teaching activities in anganwadis: While attendance was low in half the AWCs,

most showed evidence of some teaching activities. The most popular activities carried out in

the centres included the teaching of hindi letters, poems, stories, and counting. There was also

29

Government of Bihar’s guidelines for anganwadi centres are available at icdsbih.gov.in

44

the use of charts, pictures, and toys for recognition of alphabets, fruit, flowers, animals, birds.

In some cases, activities also included play-way methods of teaching and other creative

activities such as the bal geet method, games, recognition of birds, fruits, and colours with the

use of TLMs. In few anganwadis, children were being taught how to sit and talk.

SECTION 2. INFRASTRUCTURE AND FACILITIES

The Act sets out certain norms and standards for schools, seven in number. They deal with the

provision of teachers, of physical infrastructure such as classrooms and boundary walls, of

facilities such as drinking water and toilets, and of other provisions to aid learning such as

teaching learning equipment and libraries. In this section, we focus on these requirements to

look at both to what extent they are met by all schools in the 89 sample villages and the size of

the challenges that remain. In some cases, the information from all schools is supplemented by

detailed observations made in a sample of 96 schools.30


The RTE Act requires that even the smallest school should have at least 2 teachers. A significant

proportion (13%) of the schools were single teacher schools.

Bihar has had a history of teacher shortage. “No teachers were appointed in Bihar from 1999

onwards. In 2003-04, there was a need to recruit more than 85,000 teachers. However, no new

teachers could be recruited. When the government attempted to recruit teachers in 2003,

based on the Bihar Elementary Teacher Appointment Rules 2003, a case was filed and won in

the Bihar High Court to quash these Rules. The State government was directed to appoint only

trained teachers against vacancies, with untrained teachers to be considered only if there were

no trained teachers. In 2004, when the State government attempted subsequently to recruit

para-teachers, they were unable to because of assembly elections, and the imposition of the

Election Model Code of Conduct. The target for teacher recruitment was over 98,000 by the

end of 2004-05.” 31

It has undertaken massive teacher recruitment. “In 2005, more than 68,000 para-teachers

called Panchayat Shiksha Mitras (PSMs) were appointed. No regular teachers were appointed.

The newly recruited teachers popularly known as Panchayat Teachers are also paid their salary

by the Gram Panchayats.”32

Subsequently 1,50,000 teachers were recruited and then another

36,000 (based on reports from the government).

30

The sample of schools was selected in the following way: if there was more than one government primary school

in a village, the larger one was selected. If there was a government primary and upper primary school with grades

1-8, the upper primary school was selected as it had both the primary and the upper primary stage of schooling. 31

Excerpted from Samson and Gupta (2012). 32

Op. cit.

45

The previous decades have also seen a continuous rise in enrolment in elementary education,

leaving the situation with respect to Pupil Teacher Ratio very grave. In the table, we present

figures for the proportion of schools in the sample villages in Bihar with a specified PTR to give

an idea of the extent of teacher shortage in the state. Ninety per cent of these schools had a

PTR>30. A PTR of 40 is the maximum permitted by the RTE Act whatever the size of school and

whatever the stage of schooling, and a PTR more than 40 was reported by nearly three fourths

of all schools.

Table 2.1 Pupil Teacher Ratios in Government Schools in Bihar

Primary schools Upper primary schools All schools

Average PTR 49.2 70.5 62.4

(per cent)

Proportion of schools

with PTR>30 81.2 100.0 89.9


with PTR>35 78.3 95.0 86.0


with PTR>40 63.8 86.7 74.4



The primary schools in the sample were a mix of small schools and large. Number of teachers

required depends on the size of the school – schools with enrolment below 150 required

teachers satisfying the given PTR norms. But more than half (56.5%) the schools had an

enrolment of more than 150 children. These large schools are required to have teachers

satisfying the given PTR norms in addition to a head-teacher. Only two thirds of these larger

schools had a head-teacher (see Table 2.3 below)33

. The study found that when large and small

schools are considered together only 14 of the 69 primary schools (20.3%) in the sample

villages had a PTR which satisfied RTE requirements (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 Primary Schools which meet RTE norms for PTRs34

in Bihar

Enrolment in primary

schools

Number of schools Number of schools

which meet RTE requirements for PTR

Upto 150 30 7

151-200 10 3

More than 200 29 4

All schools 69 14

33

For schools without a head-teacher, it was presumed that one of the teachers would be an acting head-teacher.

All schools with enrolment of more than 150 were thus presumed to require at least 6 teachers (including a head

teacher, if appointed). 34

RTE specification for teachers: (i) At least 2 teachers; PTR to be less than 30 for schools with less than 150

enrolled. (ii) Five teachers plus head teacher for all schools with more than 150 enrolled; PTR (excluding the head

teacher) to be less than 40 for schools with more than 200 enrolled.

46

Note: Enrolment data is not available for 2 primary schools.

Based on all government primary schools in sample villages


PTRs in the upper primary schools with primary grades (i.e. schools with grades 1-8, 1-7, 1-6)

cannot be compared against RTE norms as the norms are specified for primary and upper

primary grades separately, while three-fourths of teachers (210 out of 280) in these schools

reported teaching children across both the stages. When both the stages are considered, The

RTE Act requires that the PTR be less than 40 whatever the number of children enrolled. The

average PTR across the upper primary schools was as high as 70.5. All the upper primary

schools had a PTR greater than 30. Eighty seven per cent of them had a PTR greater than 40!

Clearly the teacher shortage is even more acute in the upper primary schools.

The situation is more positive in terms of head-teacher appointments, as two thirds of schools

which required head teachers had head-teachers appointed, and this was true for both primary

and upper primary schools.

Table 2.3 Government Schools which meet RTE norms for Head Teacher in Bihar.

Type of schools: Number of schools

where Head-teacher

should be appointed

No. of schools

which meet RTE

requirements for Head-

teacher

Primary schools with more than

150 enrolled 39 26 (66.7%)

Upper primary schools with more

than 150 enrolled in primary

section and/or more than 100

enrolled in upper primary section

60 40 (66.7%)

All schools 99 66 (66.7%)



Subject teachers in upper primary schools: Details about subjects being taught by the teachers

in upper primary schools were obtained from the sample government schools. These included

58 upper primary schools (57 with primary sections and one which was a standalone upper

primary school). Twenty schools had an enrolment in grades 6-8 less than or equal to 100, and

38 had an enrolment of more than 100. The RTE requirements for these schools were different.

• Fourteen of the 20 schools with less than 100 enrolled met the RTE requirements of at

least 3 subject teachers.

• Of the 38 schools with more than 100 enrolled in grades 6-8, only 10 met the RTE

requirements of a head teacher, at least 3 subject teachers, and part time teachers for

art, PE and work education.

47

Unfortunately, 95% of these upper primary schools had a PTR greater than 35 which is the

maximum permitted by the RTE Act. The shortage of teachers at primary level is further

aggravated at upper primary level by the shortage of subject teachers and teachers for art,

music and physical education. Knowing the full extent of teacher shortage at upper primary

level is limited by the difficulty in separating teachers into those teaching primary and upper

primary grades.

2.2 All weather building35

The Act has set certain norms in place for the infrastructure in a school. Infrastructure was

better in the upper primary schools in comparison to the primary schools. Most of the upper

primary schools had been set up before 198036

as primary schools. Many were upgraded to

upper primary schools between 2000 and 2011. It is possible that as schools are upgraded from

primary to upper primary schools, certain investments are made in improving the

infrastructure. The primary schools in the sample villages were relatively new. It is likely that

these primary schools are in more remote areas and / or in hamlets of historically

disadvantaged groups.

The Act requires that schools run in an all-weather building. There were nine primary schools

with no classrooms. Enrolment varied from 63to 298 in these schools. One of these schools is

run under an asbestos sheet with walls on three sides and water enters it during the monsoon.

Another has no building at all and functions in a villager’s home during the rains. In a third case,

the school runs in a community hall.

2.3 At least one classroom for every teacher and an office-cum-store-cum-Head teacher’s

room37

Schools with less than two classrooms: RTE requires that even the smallest school should have

at least 2 teachers and hence at least 2 classrooms (since it requires one classroom per

teacher). There was a two-room primary school in which all five classes were running in one

room. This room also served as the Head Teacher’s office and the store; the second room

housed the anganwadis. There were 6 other schools which were functioning only with one

classroom.

Shortage of classrooms as reflected in the Teacher Classroom Ratio more acute in the primary

schools: In both the primary and upper primary schools of Bihar, the average teacher classroom

ratio is significantly greater than 1, which indicates that there is a shortage of classrooms by

RTE specifications. The proportion of schools which did not have at least one classroom for

each teacher was as high as 66%.

35

Norms and standards 2. 36

Investigations into the year of establishment of the 96 sample schools found that 60 per cent of them have been

established between 1941 and 1980, 17 percent even before that and only 10.5 per cent in the year 2000 or later. 37

Norms and standards 2 (i).

48

Table 2.4 Teacher Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in Bihar

Indicators Primary schools Upper primary

schools*

All

Average no. of teachers^ 3.8 7.0 5.3

Average no. of classrooms** 2.3 5.0 3.6

Average Teacher Classroom Ratio 1.7 1.4 1.5

Percentage of schools* with at

least one classroom for each

teacher (TCR<=1)

35.0 32.8 33.9

*It excludes the single upper primary school with only grades 6-8 which had 3 teachers. **Includes 4

primary schools which have no classrooms. ^Includes head-teachers where appointed.



The requirement of classrooms based on the Teacher Classroom Ratio is focused on the ratio of

the number of teachers to classrooms rather than the absolute number of teachers and

classrooms. The acute shortage of teachers can be seen from the high PTRs in both primary and

upper primary schools i.e. 49.2 and 70.5, respectively (Table 2.1). This indicates that the

shortage of classrooms is much more acute than the Teacher Classroom ratio indicates.

This shortage of classrooms is also indicated by other indicators. The average number of

classrooms in primary schools is 2.3 (for 5 grades), and the average number of classrooms in

the 1-8 upper primary schools is 5.0, which indicates that the availability of separate classrooms

for individual grades is more acute in the primary schools. The average student classroom ratio

(SCR) is 93 in the case of all schools indicating a high degree of overcrowding in the classrooms.

The overcrowding is worse in the upper primary schools – the SCR is 99 compared to 81 in the

primary schools.

Table 2.5 Student Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in Bihar

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All

Average Student Classroom Ratio 81.2* 99.1 93.1

*In Average SCR, we have not considered 9 schools at primary level which have no classrooms.



Availability of room for use as office cum store cum Head teacher’s room: RTE requires that

schools have a room which could be used as office cum store cum HT room. 57% of schools

surveyed had a separate office cum head teacher room. A higher proportion (75%) of the upper

primary schools had a separate office cum head teacher room compared to the primary schools

for whom the figure was less than half (40%) (Table 2.6). These rooms could be used as

storerooms if required, and some were being used for this purpose. There were 15 schools

49

which had a store room38

but no office or HT room. We have included these schools among

those which do not meet RTE norms for a non teaching room which could be used as an office

cum store cum Head Teacher’s room. Putting together the requirement for classrooms and a

non teaching room, we find that this was available for only a small proportion of the schools in

the Bihar sample (21.2%). The 1-8 schools were slightly better off – 26.2% met the RTE

requirement; in the case of the 1-5 schools it was only 16.4%.


Government schools in Bihar (per cent)

Proportion of schools with

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All

with office cum store cum HT room 40.0 75.4 57.0

with at least one classroom for each teacher

and an office cum store cum Head Teacher’s

room

16.4 26.2 21.2



Schools with unused rooms and rooms used for other purposes: Detailed observations were

made in a sample of 96 schools. In 10 schools there were 1-5 unused rooms. At times rooms

were underused due to low attendance, too few teachers appointed or present in the school or

ongoing construction. At other times no reason was given.

In 15 schools it was observed that rooms were being used for a wide range of other purposes

including as a staffroom for teachers, a room for Special Classes for children to be enrolled in

age appropriate classes, for anganwadis, for administrative purposes (CRCC room). But rooms

were also being used as meeting rooms for the villagers (mahila kutir meetings, village level

meetings); to provide accommodation for the teacher and accommodation for labourers doing

construction work in the school.

In 23% of the sample schools between one and four rooms were under repair or in need of

repair and hence unusable (a total of 46 rooms).

Provision of more rooms and facilities on the way: In 15% of the 96 sample schools, 2 to 9

rooms were found to be under construction when the team arrived. At times these were a

whole set of rooms in a separate one or two storey building with a Head Teacher room, kitchen

and toilet being constructed. At other times rooms were being added. For instance in one

school two rooms were being made. The old building was leaking and the roof was dilapidated.

In another school 9 rooms were being made over two floors.

38

In one school, a room was being used for storing filtered water; in another, for construction material.

50

2.4 Separate toilets for boys and girls39

The RTE under its norms and standards for a school specifies that all schools should have

‘separate toilets for both boys and girls’. The study found that a small proportion (29.6%) of

schools had separate toilets for boys and girls which were in a usable condition. Another 21% of

schools had separate toilets but these were not in a usable condition. The researchers observed

that many of the toilets were very dirty, some were full of garbage, and others had their doors

broken, which made them unavailable for use. In a few schools, toilets were available but found

locked.

Table 2.7 Availability of Toilet Facilities in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of schools with: Primary

schools

Upper

Primary

schools

All schools

Separate toilets for boys and girls available

and usable 23.9 35.9 29.6


but not usable 18.3 23.4 20.7

Only common toilet available 9.8 29.7 19.2

No toilet available 47.9 10.9 30.4

Total 100 100 100



Primary schools were worse off than upper primary schools -- nearly half (47.9%) had no toilets

at all. The corresponding proportion was low (10.9%) for upper primary schools.

2.5 Safe and adequate drinking water facility for all children40

Under the norms and standards that a school has to maintain, the RTE act specifies that safe

and adequate drinking water facilities for children should be made available. In accordance with

that, the research team looked at the availability of water in all schools. Head-teachers were

asked if it was safe.


Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of schools with

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All

safe and adequate drinking water facility 77.8 78.1 78.0

39

Norms and standards 2 (iii). 40

Norms and standards 2 (iv).

51



Safe drinking water: Details about the safety of drinking water were discussed with the head-

teachers in the sample schools. In an overwhelming majority of the cases it was reported that

the hand pump is the source of water. In 4 primary schools there was a hand pump in the

school which they had to share with the villagers. In one case a hand pump was under

construction.

The study found that 78% reported availability of safe drinking water facilities. In 5 schools, the

head teachers reported that they have put a filter in the drinking water in order to ensure that

it can be fit for drinking. Out of these 5 head teachers, one of them reported that the drinking

water earlier had arsenic in it.

The issue of why drinking water was considered safe or unsafe was explored with the head-

teachers in the sample schools. Fifteen out of the 96 head teachers said that they felt water

was safe because it was checked by a person from the Physical Health Department, block level

team, or during a swachchta abhiyaan. Most heads (46%) said that they can tell that the water

is potable because it look clean or tastes good, or simply justified their claim by saying that the

teachers or even the villagers drink the same water. A few other respondents (6%) said that

water is drawn from the hand pump and hence is safe since the source of the water is deep

(180 to 200 feet).

Drinking water not safe in all schools - in 9 schools, head teachers reported that iron is found in

the drinking water in the schools. In 2 schools, arsenic and fluoride had been found in the water

but nothing had been done about it.

Drinking water not adequate: Insufficiency of drinking water, when reported, was primarily due

to the inadequacy of water in the summer months, and because of scarcity of drinking water

sources in relation to the number of students. Most schools had only one hand pump, even

when enrolment was high. Based on a single visit to the school, it was difficult for researchers

to get a reliable picture of adequacy of drinking water.

2.6 Availability of a Kitchen where the Midday Meal is Cooked in the School41

Midday meals are required to be cooked in the school and hence the RTE Act mentions that the

all weather building in all schools should have a kitchen where the meal can be made. Fifty six

per cent of the schools had kitchens that were available and usable. A small proportion (7.5%)

of schools had kitchens available which were not usable. More than one third (36.5%) of

schools did not have a kitchen at all. There was a substantial difference between the primary

and upper primary schools in this case – while 57% of primary schools did not have a kitchen,

this was true for only 15% of the upper primary schools in the sample. This is in keeping with

the fact that the upper primary schools are the schools which had been established earlier.

41

Norms and standards 2 (v).



2.7 Playground42



42

Norms and standards 2 (vi).

20

1

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.10: Availability of Playgrounds in


Available and usable

39

4

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.9: Availability of Kitchen in Government


52


Based on all government schools in sample villages.

59

39

5

3

Upper-Primary Schools All Schools

Figure 2.10: Availability of Playgrounds in


Available and usable Available but not usable

74

56

11

7


Figure 2.9: Availability of Kitchen in Government

Schools in Bihar


The RTE Act mentions that all schools should have a playground. The 1

more poorly equipped than the 1

reported that they had no playground. This was true for 36.5% of the upper

primarily 1-8 schools.

2.8 Boundary walls and fencing43

The RTE Act mentions that all schools should have arrangements for securing the school

building by a boundary wall or fencing. Only

fewer among the primary (22.5%) and more among the upper primary (57.8%). Seven per cent

of all schools had boundary walls/fencing which

all schools had no boundary wall or fencing available.




There were only a few primary schools which had no teaching learning material whatsoever.

The most commonly found teaching and learning aids in both the

primary schools were charts and pictures (in 92% of schools), and maps and globes (in 94% of

schools). Other teaching aids such as hand

puzzle games, microscopes, clay, geometry inst

being used.

43

Norms and standards 2 (vii). 44

Norms and standards 5.

23

6

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.11: Presence of Boundary Wall or

Fencing in Government Schools in Bihar

Present and functional

53

The RTE Act mentions that all schools should have a playground. The 1-5 schools were much

more poorly equipped than the 1-8 schools. Close to four fifths of the 1-5 schools (78.3%)

reported that they had no playground. This was true for 36.5% of the upper

43


building by a boundary wall or fencing. Only 40% of all schools had such a functional provisio


of all schools had boundary walls/fencing which was not functional. More than half (53.3%) of

all schools had no boundary wall or fencing available.

l government schools in sample villages

Teaching learning equipment44

a few primary schools which had no teaching learning material whatsoever.

The most commonly found teaching and learning aids in both the primary and the upper


ther teaching aids such as handmade models, wall paintings, maths and science kits,

puzzle games, microscopes, clay, geometry instruments, and the atlas were also reported as

58

39

9

7


Figure 2.11: Presence of Boundary Wall or

Fencing in Government Schools in Bihar

Present and functional Present but not functional

5 schools were much

5 schools (78.3%)

reported that they had no playground. This was true for 36.5% of the upper primary schools,


of all schools had such a functional provision –


not functional. More than half (53.3%) of

a few primary schools which had no teaching learning material whatsoever.

primary and the upper


made models, wall paintings, maths and science kits,

ruments, and the atlas were also reported as

54

Table 2.12 Availability of Teaching Learning Materials in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of schools with: Primary schools Upper primary schools All

Charts / Pictures 91.2 91.9 91.7

Maps / Globe 88.2 96.8 93.8

Flash Cards 73.5 85.5 81.3

Other 35.3 64.5 54.2

None of the above 8.8 0.0 3.1



A large number of head teachers reported availability of a wide variety of teaching aids for

students. Specifically for Class 1, it was reported that charts and pictures depicting alphabets

and numbers were used as teaching aids. In 69.2 percent of schools, TLMs were observed in

class 1. In one school, a teacher was observed using half moon shapes to teach geometrical

shapes in class five, but none of the other classes seemed to be using these aids. In one case,

the teaching aid has actually been made by the children and the head teacher reported that

these methods positively influenced learning outcomes. Charts, pictures and flash cards were

seen to be particularly useful aids in teaching.

2.10 Library45

Only half the primary schools reported that they had libraries, while this was true for three

fourths of the upper primary schools. Most of the books in these libraries were story books.

Table 2.13 Availability of Library Facilities in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of Schools with Primary schools Upper primary schools All

Library available 50.0 75.4 65.6



2.11 Play material, games and sports equipment46

The RTE Act says that each class will be provided with play material, sports equipment and

games, as per their requirements. Close to 60% of the schools had some equipment available

and usable, the most common being the carrom board and other indoor games like Ludo and

Chess. Many schools also had cricket equipment and a football/volleyball. Less common but

also found were badminton racquets, skipping ropes, rings and occasionally swings or slides. A

couple of schools had dholki, jhankar or harmoniums. A small proportion of the schools had

45

Norms and standards 6. 46

Norms and standards 7.

games and sports equipment but in such a state that it was not usable (6%). Over one third of

the schools did not have any provision of games, play material and sports equipment. This

included more than half of the prima

primary schools (17.2%).



A summary figure below shows Bihar’s lack of readiness w

buildings (see Figure 2.15a). It can be seen that the

primary schools in Bihar is much better than in the primary schools, whether it is kitchens (in

74% of upper primary schools compar

upper primary schools compared to 20% of primary schools) or boundary wall (in 58% of upper

primary schools compared to 23% of primary schools). The infrastructure in the primary schools

on the whole is shockingly poor.

figures for infrastructural availability in the primary schools are below 40%.

Worst off is the availability of classrooms in both primary and upper primary schools.

Grievances against infrastructure and facilities were commonly mentioned by teachers

building in poor state, shortage of classrooms, non functional toilet etc. In a sc

district, a teacher stated that students of classes 1, 2 and 3 had been sitting together for the

past 5 years in a cowshed and this greatly hindered teaching. RTE specifically mentions the

setting up of adequate classrooms and proper infr

42

6

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.14: Availability of Games and Sports

Equipment in Government Schools in Bihar


55



primary schools (51.5%), and a smaller proportion of


below shows Bihar’s lack of readiness with requirements of RTE for school

. It can be seen that the infrastructural provision


74% of upper primary schools compared to 39% of primary schools), or playgrounds (in 59% of



is shockingly poor. With the exception of availability of safe drinking water, all

figures for infrastructural availability in the primary schools are below 40%.


Grievances against infrastructure and facilities were commonly mentioned by teachers

building in poor state, shortage of classrooms, non functional toilet etc. In a school in Bhagalpur



setting up of adequate classrooms and proper infrastructure for all schools.

77

59

6

6



Equipment in Government Schools in Bihar




ry schools (51.5%), and a smaller proportion of the upper

requirements of RTE for school

infrastructural provision in the upper


ed to 39% of primary schools), or playgrounds (in 59% of



With the exception of availability of safe drinking water, all


Grievances against infrastructure and facilities were commonly mentioned by teachers –

hool in Bhagalpur



All Schools



Apart from drinking water, the other positive for primary schools was availability of TLMs.

TLMs, library and games and sports equipment were

primary schools (see Table 2.15b)

Table 2.15b Availability of Specified

*Includes one school with only upper primary grades.



Proportion of schools with the following

available:

Teaching learning equipment

Library

Games and sports equipment

16.423.926.2

0

25

50

75

100

At least 1

classroom per

teacher & an

office/store/HT

room

Separate toilets

for boys and

girls

Pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.15a: Government Schools (%) in Bihar which

had Specified Infrastructure and Facilities Available

Primary Schools

56


he other positive for primary schools was availability of TLMs.

TLMs, library and games and sports equipment were also available in a majority of upper

(see Table 2.15b).

Specified Facilities in Government Schools in Bihar

*Includes one school with only upper primary grades.


Proportion of schools with the following Primary

Schools

(1-5)

Upper Primary

Schools

(1-8)*

91.2 100

50.0 75.4

48.5 82.9

23.9

77.8

39.1

20.3

35.9

78.1 73.8

58.7

Separate toilets

for boys and

girls

Safe drinking

water facility

Kitchen Playground



and Usable


he other positive for primary schools was availability of TLMs.

also available in a majority of upper

(per cent)

Upper Primary All

96.9

65.6

65.4

22.5

57.8

Boundary wall



57

SECTION 3. FACILITATING ADMISSION AND RETENTION OF ALL CHILDREN, PARTICULARLY THOSE

ON THE MARGIN47

The RTE Act puts a compulsion on the state “to provide free and compulsory elementary

education to every child in the age group 6-14 years” (Chapter III, Section 8a) requiring that the

state ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education for

each of these children. In this section, we will discuss the extent of compliance with school

policies related to admission, assessment, retention and so on, that the Act sets out to ensure

that the goal of providing elementary education for every child in the age group of 6-14 years is

met. We begin by placing the findings in the context of what awareness and training on the RTE

Act existed among the teachers.

3.1 Awareness and training on RTE among teachers

The study found (in January 2012) little awareness of the RTE Act among teachers in the sample

villages. Only a few head-teachers and teachers said they had received RTE related training. The

head-teachers reported that there had been some discussion of the provisions of the RTE Act at

the Cluster Resource Centres. Those who hadn’t received training said that this would most

definitely be useful and would enable them to teach better and also implement the Act more

efficiently. They stated that they would like to receive RTE training as it would make them

aware of their rights as well as the students’ rights.

Table 3.1 RTE Awareness among Teachers and Head teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Number of teachers who received Teachers Head Teachers

RTE related training 6 7

Reading material on RTE Act 3 6

Based on interviews with Class 3 and Class 7 teachers and the head teachers in sample schools.


Many teachers reported that they had been trained in a range of aspects related to “quality

education”. This included training in child-friendly teaching, using activities, focusing on all

round development of the child and so on, all specified under RTE. Some of these trainings on

“quality education” were reported to be for 21 days, some for 51 days. Some teachers had

received 30 days training on how to use Teaching Learning Material. Lastly, a few teachers

mentioned Ujala 1 training for 15 days, as the source where they were trained on the concepts

of “ensuring all round development of the child” and “making children learn through activities,

discovery and exploration in a child friendly and child centred way”. A few teachers reported

getting the Samjho-Seekho note from the education department. In fact this was seen put up in

several schools during the interview.

47

The findings in this section are based on a comprehensive survey of a sample of schools in the selected villages.

The methodology included interviews with the head teacher on school policy and practice, and the collection of

data from registers in the school.

58


Admission policy has been revised in the RTE Act to ensure enrolment of all children in the 6 to

14 age group, in age appropriate grades. The compliance with regard to different provisions are

discussed here.

Admission not to be denied for lack of age proof: The RTE Act, Section 14 (1) mandates that for

the purposes of admission to elementary education, the age of a child shall be determined on

the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of the Births, Deaths,

and Marriages Registration Act, 1886 or on the basis of such other document, as may be

prescribed. Section 14 (2) states that no child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of

age proof. A notification for the same was passed by Bihar government as early as 11.5.2010.

Another reminder was sent to all District Level officers on 24.2.2011.

A majority of primary schools (61.8%) reported that they ask for no documents when enrolling

a child, while in the upper primary schools, this was true for a minority of schools (29.5%).

Several schools reported that while they do not ask for birth certificates, they accept

declarations from parents about the age of the child. A few schools admit children after taking

permission to do so from the BEO. The situation sometimes varied by grade. A few schools

reported that they do not take documents for admission to class 1; in some cases, to classes 1

and 2,.

A few schools (about 13 cases) take documents only for class 6-8. A substantial proportion

(48%) of upper primary schools reported that they ask for Transfer Certificates, as opposed to

only 9% of primary schools. Teachers report that TCs are useful to help them to decide which

class the child should be enrolled in, as are report cards. The Act is concerned that the lack of a

Transfer Certificate not be cause to deny admission.

Table 3.2 Documents Required for Admission in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of schools which Primary schools Upper primary schools All schools

Do not refuse admission even if

there are no documents 61.8 29.5 41.1

Ask for the following

documents at time of

admission:

Age proof (Birth Certificate) 8.8 18.0 14.7

Any other (including affidavit /

declaration from parents) 20.6 24.6 23.2

Transfer Certificate 8.8 47.5 33.7

Documents for selected classes 5.9 23.0 16.8

Options were not mutually exclusive.

59

Based on survey of sample schools.


Admission Granted for Extended Period as Prescribed: The RTE Act requires that children be

admitted for an extended period as prescribed by the state (Chapter IV, Section 15). The study

found that 61% of schools reported that they give admission even after 30th

September.

Enrolment records showed that this was actually implemented in only 33% of schools.

Table 3.3 Government Schools in Bihar that Grant Admission for Extended Periods as Prescribed

Proportion of schools which took new admissions after 30th

September Per cent

As reported by HT 61.1

As found from enrolment records 33.3



Admit in age appropriate class: Age appropriate enrolment is not a policy which can be

implemented easily since it requires that the schools would need to run Special Classes to

mainstream these children. Only a small proportion (18.3%) of schools reported that they

would admit a 9 year old child who has never been enrolled to the class which is associated

with his/her age.

Table 3.4 Criteria for Selecting Grade when Admitting 9 year old Never Enrolled Child in

Government schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of respondents who said, when a never

enrolled 9 year old child comes for admission, that

they

Primary

Schools

Upper

Primary

Schools

All

Schools

Admit the child to age appropriate class 12.1 21.7 18.3

Admit the child to class 1 15.2 8.3 10.8

Give a written test before deciding 72.7 73.3 73.1

Any other (includes oral tests, combination of

options) 0.0 1.7 1.1

Options are not mutually exclusive.



A few schools (10.8%) reported that they would put all never enrolled children into Class 1.

Most schools (73.1%) reported that they would conduct a written test for such a never enrolled

child, to decide which grade the child should be admitted in. This may be the regular procedure

for any older child seeking admission.

Run Special Classes to mainstream children who have never attended school / dropped out of

school: According to the RTE, special classes have to be held for new admissions who have

never attended school / for children who have dropped out of school. Eleven schools reported

60

receiving orders about running special classes to facilitate age appropriate enrolment.

However, only 3 schools reported conducting special classes for age appropriate admissions.

However, none of the three schools could answer the frequency with which such classes were

held in a week, which may be indicative of the fact that the classes were not being held. Some

schools in Bihar received the orders from the BRC in meetings held in 2010 and 2011.

The problem of running Special Classes to mainstream children who have been out of school is

particularly difficult in the context that Bihar is reported to have lakhs of children who are out

of school.

3.3 Ensure participation of children from weaker sections and disadvantaged social groups

The Act specifies that children from weaker sections and disadvantaged groups should not be

discriminated against and prevented from pursuing and completing elementary education on

any grounds – Section 8c.

Such an issue is difficult to observe or capture during a single visit to a school. Only 3 teachers

reported any form of discrimination within the school. A teacher in Begusarai district said that

there is discrimination among children of different castes in sitting next to each other: Rajput ke

bacche chhoti jaati (Chamar, Dom, Mali) ke bacchon ke baste uthakar phek dete hain, unhe

paas nahin baithne dete"(children of Rajput families do not let children of lower castes like

Chamar, Dom and Mali sit near them and they throw their school bags ). A teacher in Bhojpur

also spoke of some discrimination at the time of drinking water and eating together between

Rajputs and Chamars. A teacher in Nawada spoke of discrimination between children from

Muslim and SC families.


The RTE Act, in chapter II, part Section 3 (2) mentions that the right to free and compulsory

education shall be extended to children suffering from disability. Bihar State rules sections 4(7)

and 4(8) and 5(1) further state that appropriate and safe transportation arrangements shall be

made for them [children with disability] to attend school and complete elementary education.

It further adds that children with disability shall be provided with free special learning, support

material and equipments apart from free textbooks and uniforms.

The study found that children with different forms of disability are given admission, as reported

by the head teachers and as observed by the investigators. As noted earlier, the majority of

these children had physical disabilities.

61

Table 3.5 Children with Disability (CWD) Reported to be Enrolled in Government Schools in

Bihar

Type of Disability Number of CWD in primary schools Number of CWD in upper

primary schools

Physical / Locomotor 20 83

Mental / learning disability 11 45

Visual 7 37

Speech 13 15

Hearing 5 18

Multiple 4 18

All types 60 216



A sizeable proportion of the CWD are those with speech impairment and with ‘mental

disability’. The latter remains a problematic term. The line dividing ‘weak’ students (students

who are not quick to understand) and those with mental disabilities is not clear to many

teachers. The word mandbuddhi used for such students is indicative of this. Overall, the

number of CWD observed was much lower than the number of CWD reported, which suggests

that these children are irregular or even nominally enrolled. The majority of CWD that were in

school were observed to be sitting together with the class and interacting with other children in

the school.

Completion of Class 5 was rare among children with disabilities: Head Teachers were also asked

about the number of CWD who had completed the 5th

grade in 2010-2011. In most cases it was

not more than 1 child per school who had cleared class 5. This figure gives some idea of the

negligible school completion rates among these children.



Barrier-free access:48

Ramps become extremely important to ensure that students with

physical/locomotor disability are able to move about in school. It was found that 58.3% of these

schools had been provided with ramps, but only 47.9% had r

of schools it was observed that the ramps had been damaged or there were ramps which had

no railings at the side. Again provision was better in upper primary schools.

Provision of equipment for the physically disabled

HTs, 3 schools in Bihar reported using special equipment for CWSN, which

aids. As to transport facilities for disabled children, 9 schools reported giving tricycle

wheelchairs to children with a p

were given these cycles. The researchers observed that 2 CW

using teaching aids.

Table 3.7 Training in Special Education among

Teachers with following types of training

on teaching CWDs

Diploma / degree in special education

Short duration course (2 to 30 days)



48

Norms and standards 2 (ii)

38

3

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 3.6: Availability of Ramps in Selected



62

schools.



schools had been provided with ramps, but only 47.9% had ramps which were usable


. Again provision was better in upper primary schools.

Provision of equipment for the physically disabled: From the information gathered

HTs, 3 schools in Bihar reported using special equipment for CWSN, which consist


wheelchairs to children with a physical handicap. Only 1 or 2 students in each of these schools

were given these cycles. The researchers observed that 2 CWD in the schools in Bihar were

ducation among Teachers in Government Schools in

types of training Number of teachers

Diploma / degree in special education 22 ( in 9 schools)

Short duration course (2 to 30 days) 62 ( in 29 schools)

sample schools.

53

15

Primary Schools Upper-Primary Schools All Schools

Figure 3.6: Availability of Ramps in Selected





amps which were usable -- in 10%


From the information gathered from the

consisted of hearing


hysical handicap. Only 1 or 2 students in each of these schools

in the schools in Bihar were


Number of teachers

62 ( in 29 schools)

48

10

All Schools

63

Training among teachers: There were 9 schools in Bihar, who have teachers with a

diploma/degree in special education to teach disabled children. Twenty nine schools had

teachers with short duration training, ranging from duration of 2 days to 30 days, as reported

by the Head Teachers. A couple of schools reported that a special teacher comes from the BRC

once a week. It appears that the availability of teachers with training to handle CWD is quite

inadequate. Only 36% of schools had even 1 teacher with some training in special education.



Proportion of schools with Per cent

Any children with disability 77.9

At least one teacher with some training on teaching CWD 35.5



3.5 Participation of children of migrant families

Children of migrant families are susceptible to dropping out because they are not stationed in

their native village. The RTE Act is concerned that such children are able to access schooling

wherever they may be based. Not many schools in Bihar reported that they had any children

who were in-migrants to the village. The large upper primary schools were more likely to have

such children than the primary schools. However, a very high proportion of schools (94%) did

report that children who went away to other places returned to the village and to the school

after a gap. Most respondents had no idea if children attend school at the site to which they

migrate.

Table 3.9 Schooling of Migrant Children in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of Head teachers who report that: per cent

their school has enrolled children from families who

have lived there only for a few months in the year (in-

migrants)

13.9

their school has children who had migrated to other

places and then returned to the school 94.1




The Act specifies that no fees should be charged -- Chapter II, Part Section 3 (2). All schools

reported that no fees are charged on any count.

Textbooks were being given to all children in 88% of all schools; Uniforms were given to all

children in 15% and to some children in 70% of schools and transport facilities were being given

to any child in 10% of schools.

64

Table 3.10 Schemes to Reduce Costs of Schooling for Children in Bihar

Proportion of schools which reported: per cent

Textbooks given to all students 88.4

Uniforms given to all children 14.7

Uniforms given to some children 70

Transport facility to any student 9.6



A complaint on the part of teachers was that parents were uncooperative, especially at the

time of distribution of uniforms and books.

3.7 Children not to be kept back in any class or expelled from school till elementary education is

completed

The Act states that no child admitted in a school shall be held back in any class or expelled from

school till the completion of elementary education. A notification for the same was passed by

Bihar government as early as 11.5.2010. Another reminder was sent to all District Level officers

on 24.2.2011.

Despite this order, the no retention policy was being applied in only 43% of the schools in our

sample. Children were still being kept back because they were irregular / had not learnt enough

/ had not sat for the final examinations. These reasons for children being retained in school

were not mutually exclusive. Children were kept back mainly because they had not cleared the

annual examinations.

Table 3.11 Retention of Students in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of head-teachers who said they per cent

do not retain any child in the same class 43.2

retain a child is retained in the same class when

the child has not learnt enough / academically weak 22.1

the child is very irregular 5.3

other reasons (includes does not clear the annual

examinations) 46.3




Irregular attendance in the past was considered an important reason why children’s names

should be cut off the register. This was meant to act as a deterrent for parents and children,

since regular attendance is critical for learning to take place. The majority of head teachers

reported that they do cut off children’s names when they are absent for a prolonged period of

65

time though the cutoff varied -- 33% of head teachers reported that they cut off names of

students who have not attended classes for two months or more; there were also a substantial

proportion (25.5% of head teachers who stated that they cut off students’ names if they were

absent continuously for a much shorter period of time (a month or less). The issue of striking

off names was reported to be a topical one in Bihar at the time of the survey, as the

government was making efforts to reduce double enrolment.

Table 3.12 Striking Off Names of Students for Prolonged Absence in Government Schools in

Bihar

Proportion of head-teachers who report that a child’s name is struck off if absent

continuously for Per cent

More than 2 months 33.0

More than 1 month 20.2

A month or less 25.5

Proportion of head-teachers who report that a child’s name is not struck off even

for a prolonged absence 21.3



3.8 Languages used by teachers to teach / explain

The RTE Act specifies that instruction should be in the child’s mother tongue as far as possible.

The study found that teaching was primarily in Hindi, rather than the child’s mother tongue.

However, there were a proportion of schools (43.2%) where local languages were used to

explain to children, and a few reported teaching in Urdu (16.8%). The proportion of schools

where local languages are used to explain to children is likely to have increased with the

increased recruitment of local teachers.

Of those schools who reported the use of local languages, half the schools (21 out of 41)

reported use of Bhojpuri, the rest a number of local dialects including Maithili, Bajjika, Angika,

Brajkathi, Surjapuri, Khota, Kulhaiya and Magahi. Children in these schools are likely to be

benefiting from explanation in their mother tongue. However, for some children these local

dialects may not be their mother-tongue: if, for example, they are from tribal communities, or

from social groups which speak dialects different from those used to teach in school. Children

from ST communities were reported to be enrolled in 9 of the sample schools. These were

mostly Santhals. These 9 schools have not reported any tribal language used by teachers in

school. Similarly, there are no reports of the use of Bengali in teaching, versions49

of which

were reported to be used by Muslim groups in Purnea and Kishanganj in eastern Bihar.

49

These are known in some places as Kishanganji or Rajbanshi (see Nashya Sheikh’s on Wikipedia; Ethnologue; see

http://currentnews.in/?p=13033 ).

66

Table 3.13 Languages Used to Teach/Explain in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of head teachers who reported that the following

languages are used to teach/explain to their students

Per cent

Hindi 100.0

Bhojpuri (and other local dialects) 43.2

Urdu 16.8



Recent appointment of language teachers – Urdu and other languages

In the context of language teaching, we note that Hindi and Urdu are the official languages of

the State of Bihar. Urdu was declared the second official language after the Bihar Official

Language (Amendment) Act 1980 for “specified areas and purposes”. Urdu is recognized as

second official language in 15 districts of Bihar (see http://www.ciil-

ebooks.net/html/langUse/policy.html).

In May 2005, Bihar had 8,059 Urdu teachers in elementary schools and 2,255 in secondary

schools. In early 2010 the Bihar Chief Minister announced the recruitment of 34,540 assistant

teachers for elementary schools, of which 12,862 were to be Urdu teachers. The government

had also proposed that they will appoint an Urdu teacher in each primary and middle school.

In July 2010, the CM declared immediate appointment of an additional 27,000 Urdu teachers

(also 20,000 Sanskrit teachers for 28,000 middle schools, and 250 Bengali teachers). In March

2012, the government was again to appoint 34,000 Urdu teachers.

SECTION 4. TEACHERS AND SCHOOL FUNCTIONING50

4.1 Working days for schools and working hours for teachers

Minimum number of working days in an academic year: The schools reported that their

academic year was from April to March. Most schools with primary grades reported that they

exceed the working day requirements of the RTE Act i.e. 200 working days for Classes 1-5. All

primary schools reported that they work more than 200 days. Nearly all (93%) of upper primary

schools with primary grades also reported the same. Working days for upper primary grades fell

short in 23% of the upper primary schools: these schools reported working for less than 220

days.

50

This section is based on semi-structured interviews with head-teachers in 96 schools, Class 3 teachers in 95

schools with primary grades and Class 7 teachers in 62 schools with upper primary grades.

67


Proportion of schools which worked more than 200 days Percent

Primary schools 100

Upper primary schools 93.4

All schools with primary grades 95.7

Note: Based on survey of sample schools



Proportion of schools which worked more than 220 days Percent

Upper primary school 100

Upper primary schools 77.0

All schools with upper primary grades 77.4



Most schools reported sudden closure due to excessive cold / excessive heat / floods. A very

high proportion of schools (89.6%) reported that the schools had to be closed for different

reasons in the previous year. In Bihar, this is determined at state level and applies to districts all

over the state.

Table 4.3 Distribution of Government schools in Bihar by the number of days schools were closed

unexpectedly*

Number of days closed in school

year 2010-11

Reported by

Number of schools Proportion of schools

Not closed 10 10.4

5 to 9 days 15 15.6

10 to 14 days 43 44.8

15 to 19 days 17 17.7

20 days or more 7 7.3

Total responses 92 100

*Reasons included extreme weather conditions like floods, cold wave, heat wave.



Minimum number of working hours per week for the teacher: The RTE Act specifies 45 hours a

week as mandatory time for teachers to prepare and to teach. The average school day was

reported to be five hours in summer and six hours in winter (including the midday meal) on

average. The average duration of the midday meal was reported to be 42 minutes. Saturdays

were a shorter day. Teachers were not keeping any record of time they might spend on work

outside of school hours.

68

4.2 Teachers’ attendance in school

Section 24 (1a) of the Act declares that teachers must maintain regularity and punctuality in

attending school. Teachers said that they keep a record of their attendance in a file or a

register.

The study found that less than one third (32%) of the schools in Bihar had all teachers present.

The smaller primary schools were more likely to have all teachers present.

Table 4.4 Teacher Absenteeism in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of schools where per cent

All teachers were present 32.3

One teacher absent 31.3

More than one teacher absent 36.4

Only 1 teacher present

(functioning as single teacher) 10.4

Note: Based on survey of all schools in sample villages.


On an average 22% of all teachers in the sample schools were found to be absent on the day of

the survey. The trends were more or less similar for primary and upper primary schools. Of

those who were absent some proportion were absent because of school related duties (9%). A

very small proportion were absent because of non school related duties. These have been

markedly reduced after the RTE Act. About 12 % were absent for personal reasons.

Table 4.5 Reasons for Teachers’ Absence on Day of Survey in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of teachers who were absent due to Per cent

Non-school related duty 0.6

School related duty 8.8

Personal reasons 11.2

Reasons not known 1.0

All reasons 21.6



The study did find that in 88% of schools teaching continued within an hour after the MDM

break was over. However, the picture of school functioning in Bihar is far from rosy because of

low proportions of children present, both before and after the midday meal.

4.3 Students’ Attendance

The study found that there appears to be little effort to ensure attendance of all children

enrolled. Attendance rates reported from the attendance register were

Attendance rates among girls were marginal

Table 4.6: Student Attendance on the Day of the Survey in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion (%) of students attending

on the day of survey

Primary schools


All schools



The observed attendance rates were

of the investigators on the day of the survey

the midday meal. At its highest point, 40.6% of children were in school,

terms of observed attendance rates as well, girls’ attendance was better than that of the boys.

Attendance rates dropped in the higher grades (see Table

observed among boys in Class 8 where less

It is possible that boys were more likely to be enrolled in private schools or going to private

tuition.

Based on survey of sample schools


46.943.3

0

25

50

75

100

Primary schools

Pe

rce

nt

Figure 4.7: Student Attendance Before and After

Mid-day Meal in Government Schools in Bihar

69


enrolled. Attendance rates reported from the attendance register were

Attendance rates among girls were marginally higher than among boys.

ttendance on the Day of the Survey in Government Schools in Bihar

tudents attending According to attendance register Observed by survey

All Boys Girls All

53.4 53.0 53.8 46.9

47.3 46.2 48.3 39.3

47.8 46.2 49.4 40.6


The observed attendance rates were even lower. These were calculated from the observations

of the investigators on the day of the survey and were the attendance rates observed before

At its highest point, 40.6% of children were in school, a truly dismal figure.


Attendance rates dropped in the higher grades (see Table 4.8). Lowest attendance levels were

observed among boys in Class 8 where less than 30% of those enrolled were present in school.


39.3

31.8


Figure 4.7: Student Attendance Before and After

day Meal in Government Schools in Bihar

Pre midday meal

Post midday meal


enrolled. Attendance rates reported from the attendance register were as low as …%.

ttendance on the Day of the Survey in Government Schools in Bihar

Observed by survey

team

Boys Girls

46.9 45.9 47.9

39.3 37.0 41.6

40.6 37.6 42.7

calculated from the observations

attendance rates observed before

a truly dismal figure. In


). Lowest attendance levels were

than 30% of those enrolled were present in school.


Pre midday meal

Post midday meal

70

To find out whether children were there for the duration of the school day, the number of

children present was also observed after the midday meal. This was found to fall to an even

more dismal figure of 33.5%.

Attendance slightly better in the primary schools: Attendance rates in the primary schools

(46.9%) were slightly better than in the upper primary schools (39.3%). At no point in the school

day, did the attendance figure cross 50% in the case of the primary schools, and 40% in the case

of upper primary schools.

Table 4.8 Attendance Rates in Selected Classes in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of

students attending

According to attendance register Observed by survey team

In primary schools

Grade 1 58.7 52.4

Grade 5 50.9 42.9

In upper primary schools

Grade 1 52.4 45.5

Grade 5 48.2 38.9

Grade 8 46.6 35.0



Attendance more irregular in higher grades: Grade-wise attendance rates are useful to see how

observed attendance in grade 5 (42.9%) was below observed attendance in grade 1 (52.4%),

indicating a higher degree of irregular attendance among the older children in primary schools.

This trend was also seen in the upper primary schools. Grade 8 had the lowest proportion of

enrolled children observed present (35%), grade 5 had a slightly higher proportion (38.9%)

present, and grade 1 had the highest proportion (45.5%) present.

Clearly the right of every enrolled child in Bihar to complete eight years of elementary

education does not appear to be anywhere within reach.


It must be noted that Bihar, in its state rules (May 2011) has chosen not to stipulate that

teachers of similar qualifications, experience and work will be paid at par. This allows them to

continue recruiting teachers at fixed and low pay. Teachers in Bihar increasingly include

teachers recruited under the Panchayat Teacher Rules 2012 – at specified pay scales which are

much lower than those specified by the Pay Commission. Teachers are reported to be recruited

at Panchayat level for primary schools, and at block level for upper primary schools. When a

school gets upgraded, the teacher moves out of the

comes under the Panchayat Samiti.

Table 4.9a Profile of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar:

Proportion of teachers

appointed who are:

Distribution by gender

Male

Permanent / regular 20.4

Panchayat appointees 40.2

All 60.6

Based on details of all teachers in sample schools


The study found that only one fourth

teachers (see Table 4.9a). A very high proportion (75%)

there were more male teachers (60.4%) than female teachers.

nearly all local teachers. The upper primary schools had regular teachers but these were a low

proportion (29%) of all teachers in these schools

Panchayat

teachers

75%

Figure 4.9b: Profile of Teachers in Government

Schools in Bihar: Type of Service

71

school gets upgraded, the teacher moves out of the authority of the Gram Panchayat and

comes under the Panchayat Samiti.

Profile of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar: Type of Service and Gender

Distribution by gender All

Male Female

20.4 5.1 25.5

40.2 34.3 74.5

60.6 39.4 100


The study found that only one fourth of all teachers appointed were permanent or

. A very high proportion (75%) was panchayat appointees.

there were more male teachers (60.4%) than female teachers. The smaller primary schools had


proportion (29%) of all teachers in these schools (see Figures 4.9b and 4.9c).

Regular

teachers

25%

Figure 4.9b: Profile of Teachers in Government

Schools in Bihar: Type of Service

authority of the Gram Panchayat and

ype of Service and Gender

were permanent or regular

panchayat appointees. Overall,

The smaller primary schools had


Based on details of all teachers in sampl


Teacher qualifications and training among teachers in the 1

requires that an academic authority authorized by the central government

minimum qualifications of teachers

(29th

July 2011) stipulate that teachers need to have studied at least up to class 12 to teach

primary grades. It can be seen that

meet this requirement. The upper primary schools (which included only one 6

much lower proportion of teachers who had

that all teachers teaching primary



Panchayat teachers

in upper primary

schools

54%

Figure 4.9c: Profile of Teachers in Primary / Upper Primary Schools in

26.3

15.5

0

Primary schools


Figure 4.10: Educational Qualifications of Teachers (%)

in Government Schools in Bihar

Less than class 12

72


and training among teachers in the 1-5 and 1-8 schools

cademic authority authorized by the central government

minimum qualifications of teachers – Section 23 (1). The NCTE Rules on teacher qualifications


primary grades. It can be seen that 26% of the teachers in the primary schools in Bihar did not

The upper primary schools (which included only one 6

much lower proportion of teachers who had not passed class 12 (16%). The RTE Act requires

that all teachers teaching primary grades should have passed Class 12.


Regular teachers in

upper primary

schools

22%

Regular teachers in

primary schools

3%

Panchayat teachers

in primary schools

21%

Panchayat teachers

in upper primary


Bihar

26.3 43.1

40.6 43.9

% teachers


in Government Schools in Bihar

Less than class 12 Class 12 Graduate and above

8 schools: The RTE Act

cademic authority authorized by the central government will decide on

. The NCTE Rules on teacher qualifications


chools in Bihar did not

The upper primary schools (which included only one 6-8 school) had a

The RTE Act requires


30.7

43.9

100


NCTE rules also stipulate that teachers who teach upper primary grades must be graduates

(except those who have done a 4 year B.El.Ed.).

Bihar reported teaching both primary and upper primary classes, no comment can be made on

the qualifications of teachers teaching upper primary grades.

them as teachers of a specific subject as many were teaching multiple subjects.

cent of teachers in upper primary schools were graduates

since schools had very high PTRs it is unlikely that there were sufficient teachers for t

primary grades who were qualified.



Looking at professional teacher

variation between the primary and upper primary schools. A

teachers in the primary schools had no training compared to 31% of the teachers in the upper

primary schools.

Teacher qualifications and training

educational qualifications and training among the regular teachers and locally appointed

teachers, we see that the regular teacher cadre in

were graduates. But it also included 19% who had only passed Class 12 and 21% who had not

passed Class 12. The newly recruited local teachers had

Approximately half (49%) had only completed Class 12, and 17% have not passed Class

very small proportion (12%) of regular teachers had no training. This wa

teachers. Overall, 35% of teachers in Bihar had no training.

0

Primary schools


Figure 4.11: Teachers (%) with Professional Teacher

Education in Government Schools in Bihar

Diploma (JBT, CPED, DPE)

73


(except those who have done a 4 year B.El.Ed.). Since most teachers in upper primary schools in


the qualifications of teachers teaching upper primary grades. It was also difficult to identify

specific subject as many were teaching multiple subjects.

cent of teachers in upper primary schools were graduates, a substantial proportion

since schools had very high PTRs it is unlikely that there were sufficient teachers for t

primary grades who were qualified.


Looking at professional teacher training among teachers in the 96 sample schools, we see a big

variation between the primary and upper primary schools. Approximately half (49%) the


raining among regular and locally appointed teachers


teachers, we see that the regular teacher cadre in the sample schools in Bihar had 59% who

es. But it also included 19% who had only passed Class 12 and 21% who had not

wly recruited local teachers had a lower proportion of graduates (34%

only completed Class 12, and 17% have not passed Class

very small proportion (12%) of regular teachers had no training. This was true for 43% of local

Overall, 35% of teachers in Bihar had no training.

46.3

64

4.4

5.3

49.3

% teachers with


Education in Government Schools in Bihar

Diploma (JBT, CPED, DPE) B. Ed. No training


Since most teachers in upper primary schools in


It was also difficult to identify

specific subject as many were teaching multiple subjects. Forty four per

, a substantial proportion. However,

since schools had very high PTRs it is unlikely that there were sufficient teachers for the upper

sample schools, we see a big

pproximately half (49%) the


among regular and locally appointed teachers: Comparing


Bihar had 59% who

es. But it also included 19% who had only passed Class 12 and 21% who had not

a lower proportion of graduates (34%).

only completed Class 12, and 17% have not passed Class 12. A

s true for 43% of local

30.7

100


74

Table 4.12 Education Levels and Training Among Regular Teachers and Locally Appointed

Teachers

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who are

educated

Regular

teachers

Locally appointed

teachers

All

Teachers

Less than class 12 21.4 17.0 18.1

Class 12 19.3 48.8 41.3

Graduate and above 59.3 34.2 40.6

All 100.0 100.0 100.0

Proportion of teachers who have

received following training

Diploma (JBT, CPED, DPE etc) 79.2 53.1 59.7

B. Ed. 9.0 3.8 5.1

None 11.8 43.1 35.2

All 100.0 100.0 100.0



There was a difference in qualifications of female teachers as opposed to males. The majority of

female teachers were those who had passed Class 12 at most (74.1%) compared to 49.7% of

the male teachers. Close to half (45.5%) of the female teachers had no training, as opposed to

28.4% of male teachers.

4.5 Salary scales of teachers

Teachers’ salaries varied between Rs 6000 and Rs 8000 (for details of salary scales, see Part A,

Section 1.3). According to the Panchayat Teacher Rules, no teacher should be paid less than Rs

6000 per month. From responses taken from class 3 and class 7 teachers in the sample schools,

it appears that there were two teachers who reported getting paid less than this amount (Rs

2000, and Rs 5000, respectively). The majority of regular teachers were getting over Rs 20,000 a

month, the more recent recruits reported that they were getting upto Rs 8,000 a month.

Table 4.13 Salary Scales of Teachers for Selected Classes in Government Schools in Bihar

Number of

teachers who

receive monthly

salary (Rs.)

Class 3 teachers Class 7 teachers Class 3/Class 7 teachers

Regular Locally

appointed

Regular Locally

appointed

Regular Locally

appointed

5,000 - 6,000 0 50 0 16 0 66

6,001 - 8,000 2 31 1 21 3 52

10,000 - 20,000 1 0 1 0.0 2 0

20,000+ 6 0 15 0.0 21 0

All Teachers 9 81 17 37 26 118

Based on interviews with class 3 and class 7 teachers in sample schools


75

Table 4.14 Teachers’ Satisfaction with Level and Regularity of Pay in Government Schools in

Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who

said

Regular

Teachers

Locally appointed

teachers

All teachers

their salary is low / irregular 10.7 75.6 63.5

Based on interviews with Class 3 and Class 7 teachers in sample schools


From the data gathered, it is evident that low / irregular salary was a common concern amongst

most locally recruited teachers. Some respondents said that salary was given once in 3-4

months and this caused a great deal of trouble. One respondent hadn’t received his pay in the

last seven months.

Only a small proportion of teachers had problems with being posted to rural / difficult to access

areas and issues of safety. The majority of teachers interviewed did not have these concerns

reflecting the high proportion of local teachers appointed under the Panchayat rules.

Table 4.15 Accessibility of Schools a Problem for Some Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who reported

problems with being posted:

Class 3 Class 7 Class 3/Class 7

teachers

in difficult-to-access rural areas 18.5 8.9 14.9

in areas where there are issues of safety 12.0 5.4 9.5




Teachers complained of shortage of time to complete the syllabus, particularly with regard to

covering tough topics. Using activities to teach ate up time. They also complained of a lack of

facilities – no blackboard or proper classrooms, and of the difficulty in explaining to some

children – “it is tough to explain to ('kambuddi') weaker children”.

As is evident from Table 4.16 teachers face several hurdles in completing their course on time.

64 percent of the class 3 teachers and 62 percent of the class 7 teachers interviewed said they

faced some kind of trouble finishing curriculum. Teachers state that student irregularity and

difficulty in understanding course content is one of the main reasons for non completion of

curriculum. 30% of class 3 and 27% of class 7 teachers reported that they faced such difficulties.

In addition to this, the teachers also said that being occupied with election, census and BLO

duties was also time consuming and took away teaching hours. Another difficulty that teachers

76



Proportion of teachers: Class 3 Class 7 Class 3/Class 7

teachers

who reported they face problems in

completing the curriculum on time

64.0

61.8

61.9

Who cited the following difficulties in completing the curriculum on time:*

Student irregularity / students do not

understand 30.4 26.8 29.3

Late arrival of textbooks 27.2 21.4 25.2

Poor infrastructure, insufficient teaching

staff, non teaching duties 27.2 41.1 32.7

School closed due to extreme weather

conditions/natural calamities 19.6 16.1 18.4

*Options not mutually exclusive



faced was lack of proper infrastructure in schools. One teacher in Gaya stated that all classes in

the school sit together, thereby making teaching very difficult. Teachers also said that

insufficient teaching staff was a problem in the timely completion of the curriculum. Schools

being closed because of extreme weather conditions was reported as a problem by 18% of

teachers interviewed.


Regarding teachers’ involvement in activities like Census, election etc., Section 27 of the Act

states that no teacher shall be deployed for any non educational purposes other than the

decennial population census, disaster relief duties or duties relating to elections to the local

authority or the State Legislatures or Parliament. A notification regarding the same was also

passed by the Bihar Government on January 4, 2011.

Table 4.17 Non-Teaching Duties of Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of teachers who were involved in

following activities during the previous academic

year 2010-11

Class 3 Class 7 Class 3/Class 7

teachers

Election 30.4 69.6 45.3

Census 38.0 66.1 48.7

Polio 2.2 1.8 2.0

Others (Board examination duty, TET evaluations,

Sakshar Bharat scheme)

6.5 12.5 8.8



77

As mentioned, on the day of the survey very few teachers were found absent for non-school

related duties (less than 1%) However teachers reported that during the previous academic

year, most (38%) of class 3 teachers were deployed for census duties while close to 70% of class

7 teachers were deployed for election duties. Election duty was reported during September-

October and May-June. Census duty was reported in June. Apart from election, census, disaster

relief and polio duties, some teachers said they have BLO51

duty “round the year”. A couple of

teachers had also been sent for board examination duty, TET evaluations and participation in

the 'sakshar bharat’ scheme.

SECTION 5. GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS FOR TRANSACTING THE CURRICULUM

5.1 How teachers understand the RTE guidelines for transacting the curriculum

The provisions specified in the RTE Act are quite complex and the study sought to understand

how teachers understood these provisions. Teachers are to transact the curriculum in

conformity with Constitutional values; all round development of the child; building up child’s

knowledge, potential and talents; development of physical and mental abilities to the fullest

extent; learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a child friendly and child

centred manner; making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety and helping the child to

express their views freely. We discuss the findings of the study in the context of each of these

provisions.

(a) Conformity with Constitutional values: A teacher acting in conformity with Constitutional

values would act in a way to ensure that all children are able to access their right to

education. The study found that no teacher talks of the rights of children. When they talk

about being friendly or supportive, it is more as an initiative of the teacher rather than

something the child is entitled to. It is notable that two teachers mentioned the ‘removal of

untouchability’ and ‘keeping children away from discrimination’ as part of all round

development. However, apart from this no teacher talks about active inclusion, except for

‘weaker children’. No one raises the issue that children of certain communities, Special

Needs, or gender may need particular support in the school.

(b) All round development of the child: The most common responses for ensuring all round

development was using physical activities such as sports / PT / parade, and other activities

like singing, dancing, and acting. Sports is not specified as a formal period or activity by

most teachers. Many say that they have play time as a last period of the day or on

Saturdays. This is sometimes along with other cultural activities or bal sabha pointing to

limited formal sports periods. Also, it is not clear whether everyone is encouraged to

participate in art, dance or singing. For instance a teacher said that they encourage children

51

Booth Level Officer.

78

according to what they are good at. Another said that they “encourage children who are

good at studies to also try and be good in sport”. One teacher from Kishanganj however

gave a somewhat questionable response that “children who are weak in either studies or

sport, we make them study or play together so that their confidence increases”.

Teachers also felt that they contributed to a child’s all round development by telling them

about cleanliness and hygiene, encouraging them to conduct themselves well, and teaching

them about things around them, their heritage, telling them stories about renowned people

and exposing them through excursions. Their responses appear to be related also to the

next two requirements – see (c) and (d) below.

(c) Building up child’s knowledge, potential and talents: Teachers’ statements that they tell

children stories of great people, educate them about cleanliness or hygiene or even take

the help of ‘brighter children’ or of TLM to help explain to ‘weaker children’ need to be

noted. This may be useful to build up the child’s knowledge and so on but it does little to

ensure that the child’s physical and mental abilities are being built up to the fullest extent

(see d below) of that the child learns through activities, discovery and exploration (see e

below). It corroborates what is observed by the NCF 2005 that “frequently the notions of

‘good student’ that are promoted emphasise obedience to the teacher, moral character and

acceptance of the teacher’s words as ‘authoritative’ knowledge”.

What is also a matter of concern is that some teachers say that they involve children in the

cleanliness of the school to sensitize them to the issue. Field studies suggest that such work

tends to be given to girls from lower caste groups, indicating a negative fallout on gender

and social equity in the school rather than a positive learning.

(d) Development of physical and mental abilities to the fullest extent: The study did find that

there were efforts to make children learn through activities, through stories, and through

explanations keeping the child’s learning levels in mind (see e below). All these were

sensitive to the learning needs of children. Overall, though, teaching in general was not

geared to the realisation of the child’s full potential.

The concept of ‘weaker’ and ‘brighter’ children remains prevalent. It may be a genuine

problem for teachers to teach children of widely varying capacities but the fact that there is

little mention of different learning styles and abilities shows that many teachers continue to

see their students on a vertical, progressive line of ‘levels’ of ability rather than horizontal

line of ‘differences’ in abilities.

(e) Learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a child friendly and child centred

manner: The most common responses for teaching “through activities, discovery and

exploration” included teaching through objects from the environment or by going out into

the ‘environment’; teaching through TLMs (objects, pictures, shapes); and by teaching

through craft, playway methods, and activities such as standing in a line and learning

counting. Such responses are a very positive trend particularly in the light of the RTE Act. It

79

is also positive to find some mention of the use of question-answers and group discussions

as a means of teaching, activities that encourage critical thinking and higher order cognitive

skills. Some teachers have also said that they make children frame questions and find

answers to them. More of this is needed.

However, teachers often talk of activities such as a song or poem to get the attention of

children, after which they can then get down to the business of teaching reflecting how

some teachers don’t consider activities as teaching methods in themselves. A teacher from

Gaya reported, “First I try and attract children through stories and poems and then begin to

teach through textbooks.”

Teaching “in a child-friendly and child-centred manner” included the stress on TLMs and

playway methods, and, in addition, explaining through examples and stories; explaining

repeatedly to those who do not understand / explaining in a way in which the child

understands / explaining according to the mental level of a child. It appears that teachers

would explain in a style suitable to the child’s needs. Sometimes it appeared that TLMs are

seen as a means of explaining to ‘weaker’ children, as a secondary step in explanation. For

instance, “for children who don’t understand, we use TLM or explain with examples’.

“Child friendly” teaching methods also meant being friendly / removing fear / not scolding /

teaching with love / mingling with the children / encouraging them. It overlapped with the

concerns expressed in (g), see below. “Child centred teaching” also included teaching

according to children’s interests. This could be interpreted as teaching according to what

attracts the class or excites them on that day.

Although most answers to what constitutes child-centered teaching are sensitive to the

child, they continue to display a teacher-centric, adult-helping-child approach, indicating

that there is still room to recognize the child’s agency. One teacher seemed to be

interpreting child-centered teaching with making the child ‘focus’ on studying or associate it

with a spatial concept of a circle with a center. She said that she sits in the center of the

circle with children around her.

Discussion with teachers reflects some exposure to these concepts: Bihar teachers’ reported

understanding of the various ways they are to transact the child friendly and child centered

teaching curriculum shows that despite no large scale RTE specific trainings like ‘Samvad’ in

Uttar Pradesh, teachers do have some degree of understanding.

A small proportion of teachers reported that they had had trainings to enable them to

incorporate a different perspective of the child and of education into their teaching, although

they were not necessarily related to the provisions of the RTE Act itself. Just one fifth of class 3

and class 7 teachers reported that they had received such training. This could reflect earlier

initiatives of the government.52

52

“In-service training programmes are managed by BEP (Bihar Education Project). By 2010, BEP had developed a

new module (“Bodhi Samvad”) in collaboration with SCERT, Bihar and Vidya Bhavan Education Resource Centre

80


Education

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who had training to Class 3 Class 7 All teachers

interviewed

Ensure all-round development of the child /

Make children learn through activities,

discovery and exploration in a child friendly

and child-centred way

21.7 21.4 21.6



More training would necessarily result in greater clarity on concepts among a larger proportion

of teachers, rather than some understanding of concepts being limited to a smaller proportion

of teachers.

5.2 Teaching activities reported by teachers

It is helpful to look at the responses of the teachers vis-à-vis the specific teaching methods they

use, and how they deal with problems and issues in class. Most Class 3 teachers reported that

making children read, making them recite the alphabet or numbers, poems or rhymes or

making them copy from the board or from textbooks were common teaching activities they did

with children. Apart from these, many teachers added that they use TLMs and playway

methods. Such as “I use TLM and teach - colour chart, alphabet chart, map, goli, matchsticks”, “

I begin with playway methods”. Other approaches that class 3 teachers mentioned were:

teaching through a story, question-answers, with examples, by making groups of the students,

using objects from the natural environment. Some said they first introduce the topic before

teaching. Three others said that they make children do sums on the board or give them

something to memorise and then listen to it.

Most Class 7 teachers said that they make children read, ask them to copy from the board or

the textbook. Fewer teachers said they make children do writing exercises, paragraph writing.

And very few said that they have class discussions or question-answer sessions. Meanwhile a

number of teachers reported some other teaching approaches which included use of TLMs or

artefacts such as triangles, quadrilaterals, or use of examples. A few others included introducing

or discussing the topic before teaching, explaining through question-answers, using different

ways to explain, teaching through a competition or ‘make children repeat the lesson, and give

them information on morals and historical heritage’.

(VBERC). The new training module reportedly attempts to ‘engage teachers in thinking, exploring and reflection’

(VBERC (n.d.).” Excerpted from Samson and Gupta (2012).

81

This mostly tallies with the kind and variety of responses given by teachers in Class 3, indicating

that even upper primary students are taught with methods which are used among primary class

students, rather than something that may be more suitable for their age. The common terms

teachers use everywhere also indicate the possibility that these are terms and methods they

have learnt in training sessions. It remains to be seen how much is actually implemented in

school.

When children do not understand: Apart from their teaching methods teachers were also asked

how they deal with a range of situations. If a child does not understand something the teacher

has taught what does he or she do? Of the options given most teachers (92-93 percent) said

that they explain to the child again, with examples or simply repeatedly or sometimes

individually/later. “Explain through science/math kits, break the sentence into small parts and

explain, teach the same lesson for 4-5 days, explain till they do understand, try and find out the

weak point/the root where the child has not understood and explain that, teach once again on

the blackboard, call the child near the teacher and explain,” are some examples.

Two other common responses were: telling the child to read from the textbook or ask the child

to take the help of another child. In these approaches class 3 and class 7 teachers were mostly

in agreement, though a few more Class 7 teachers chose these approaches. Teachers also said

they use the more child centered method of ‘asking related questions from the same child’ to

help them to understand. This was much more preferred by upper primary teachers (51.8%

against 36% for primary). This seems logical as class 7 children would respond to this approach

better.

While the use of TLMs, playway methods, songs, stories were common, a significant number

gave other answers as well: give the children homework, make them write in their notebooks

or solve questions on the board and try and see where the problem is, or simply make them say

the answer repeatedly. Very few teachers reported scolding the child in such a circumstance.

These too were mostly qualified as “mild scolding”.

5.3 Teaching activities observed

An attempt was made to validate responses of teachers by a one period observation of the

groups where class 3 and class 7 were studying. Few other aspects of the functioning of the

school were also noted. The observations do not give a very positive picture of teaching

practices, though there were some encouraging examples.

Teaching in all schools with class 3 could not be observed as in 17% of cases there were no

teaching activities for Class 3 students the entire day because too few students or too few

teachers were present – this was seen on the days after Saraswati Puja, around 26 January, and

in isolated cases where scholarships were being distributed and the single teacher could not

cope. In a few schools the teachers made the children recite alphabet or numbers (13%), or

recite rhymes (22%), or tables (8%). The more common practices observed (in 80% of cases)

included teachers reading from the textbook for language teaching, writing on the blackboard

82

and then explaining for Maths class. A substantial proportion of teachers asked questions orally

(58%). In a couple of cases the students were asked to solve problems on the blackboard, or

copy problems from the blackboard to solve, and only in one class did a teacher use a teaching

aid. In one school, the teacher was working with a few students on preparing for a debate (to

be held on 26 January), There were several instances where, during observation, teachers did

no active teaching – but had given written or oral work to the students, while they corrected

copies or did other work.

Class 7 teachers were observed mainly to read from the text or write on the blackboard and

explain orally. More than 80% were seen to ask questions. A variety of subjects were being

taught – Science, Geography, Geometry, English, in addition to Hindi and Maths.

Some positives: In 5 of the schools observed, the Class 7 teachers used teaching aids. Several

innovative methods were observed – like setting the maths problems with the use of a cricket

score board, additions through using fruits, or breaking numbers into parts, using charts to

teach science, and in some classes use of role plays and acting to explain concepts.

There was evidence of many teachers being inclusive – in a large number of cases in both class

3 and class 7, all children were actively participating in their class. Teachers in general talked to

all children and not to a selected few, and interacted with them, using their names.

Table 5.2 Organized Activities in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of schools Per cent

Where any organized activity, sports, games, music, dance was observed 18.7



Observation of sports / games / music / dance: In 18.7% schools some form of sports / games /

music or dance was observed during the day of the survey. Given the kind of responses

teachers gave one would have expected it to be higher. In most cases except three, these

involved sports like kabaddi, kho-kho, cricket. In one case each it was carom, volleyball. For

instance, in one school Class 5-7 students were playing kabaddi and class 3-4 were playing rope

skipping and racing. In another, Class 6-8 children were playing Kabaddi and girls were playing

with ropes, class 4 and 5 children were playing "Patna Chithi" game. In a third school, girls of

class 5-8 were were playing kabbaddi. 20 class two children were playing cricket n another

school.

In one school a rehearsal for the national anthem was going on after the MDM (for Republic

Day). A Dance and cultural (music) programme was held for 30 minutes in which all children

participated, in a school in Champaran West. Class 1-3 students were involved in a story session

in another. In Bhabua, students were asked to perform on the themes of the village

environment and social condition it was conducted by the teacher.

83

5.4 Methods of controlling / disciplining children reported and observed

The Act prohibits corporal punishment / mental harassment. In this context teachers were

asked what methods they used to control children or to discipline them. The overwhelming

majority of teachers reported that they explain to children lovingly or try and get their attention

in some way. Sometimes they prefer to give an activity to the children, some way for them to

vent their energy, like making them stand up and down a few times, telling a story, making

them sing and so on. One teacher said that he sends the children out to play for a while, if they

are too restless. One teacher said he tries ‘not to leave gaps in which disturbance can be

created’! Other teachers said that they explain the ‘value of good behavior’, the ‘benefits of

keeping silent’, ‘the value of learning’, ‘that they must respect their teachers (gurujan)’ and so

on. Others tell them inspiring stories about great people (mahan log), people with great

knowledge, about moral values and encourage them.

Some teachers also said that they somehow pacify and tempt children into paying attention

(“bahala-phusla ke padhate hain”). As can be gleaned from a few other responses, teachers

have stages of dealing with children’s behaviour. For instance, one teacher says, “first I try and

make them understand by saying some good words; if they do not settle down, I give them

some free time to play. After this if they don't behave then I consider beating them”.

Teachers seem to use a scale of discipline – if they can’t get children to cooperate, they

consider shouting at them / scolding them. Many teachers clarified that they scold mildly, only

when the need arises; sometimes they make the child stand in her place. One teacher from

Begusarai said, “I scold them mildly – I tell the class monitor to write down the names of the

undisciplined children. Then give these children some questions to do and scold them if they

are not able to do them”. If scolding does not work, teachers said they may threaten them that

they will cut off their names / will call their parents. If threatening doesn’t work, they consider

beating them.


in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who said they use the

following measures to control/ discipline

students

Class 3 Class 7 All

Shout at them 37 30.4 34.5

Threaten them 16.3 10.7 14.2

Beat them/Hit them 5.4 1.8 4.1

Others (Persuade them to be cooperative /

motivate them)

84.8 80.4 83.1



84

Observed: Only a low proportion of teachers reported that they threaten or beat the children.

This was quite different from what was observed by the team, during their observations over

the course of one period in class 3 and class 7. Despite the team being present, there were

some teachers who were found reprimanding children abusively or even physically

punishing/beating them. It is likely that on a normal day the situation is worse.

Table 5.4 Methods Used to Discipline Students as Observed in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers observed to use the

following methods to discipline students:

Class 3 Class 7

Teacher corrects non-abusively 70.0 85.4

Reprimands abusively 11.3 8.3

Physical forms like kneeling / holding ear / murga 0 0

Beating/caning students 6.3 4.2




Notably there is not much difference in the reasons for disciplining children mildly or strongly.

In both cases it is mostly when children either do not understand or are making a noise or

creating trouble in some way or just not paying attention. At most it looks like teachers beat the

child if he/she continues to do something repeatedly even when asked to stop.

Fewer number of class 7 teachers were found resorting to beating or other types of physical

punishment as methods of dealing with indiscipline. Only 4 such cases were observed. 4

teachers were found to be abusing children verbally. This was not only when students were

making a noise but even if the child was unable to answer. A teacher in Nawada for instance,

slapped a student because he could not answer a question in a Sanskrit class. In most other

cases teachers would only reprimand mildly or explain gently if a child was undisciplined or was

not understanding/unable to answer something or was not paying attention.

In general, teachers say they teach with love, though according to one teacher this was the

“official version”. Attempting to change methods of disciplining children to improve learning /

improve attendance requires teachers to be convinced of the rationale and receive training on

how to do it differently.

5.5 Assessment: Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

All schools reported that they conduct examinations. These may be quarterly, half yearly or

annual exams. Different teachers gave different time periods. Final exams are held in March but

half yearly tests were reported mostly in September or December and in few other cases in

August, October and November. A good number of teachers also said the schools conduct

quarterly exams. They are held in July or August, then between September-December and then

in March. 68.5% of class 3 teachers and 76.8% of class 7 teachers reported giving unit tests,

85

either written or oral. These vary from written tests once or twice a month to questions given

on the blackboard to oral tests. One teacher said they conduct General Knowledge

competitions every month and give out prizes. Other teachers reported conducting weekly

tests, either oral or written, daily assessments in the last ten minutes of the class or conducting

tests after a particular topic is completed. What must be kept in mind is that orders to

implement CCE and make pupil cumulative records had not been issued to district level officials

yet. Such orders were released on 12th

March 2012(8/V-3-27/2012), when the fieldwork was

over. However as the Act was already applicable it is possible teachers had heard about CCE,

and a small proportion of Class 3 and Class 7 teachers did report that they were doing CCE.

Table 5.6 Assessment of Children’s Progress by Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who take the following

assessments into account to assess the

children’s overall progress

Class 3 Class 7 All

Examinations (half yearly/final) and quarterly 98.9 98.2 99.3

Unit tests – written or oral – monthly, weekly,

daily 68.5 76.8 72.1

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation

CCE – tests and other methods 23.9 30.4 26.5


Source: Cord Survey 2011-12

However, it can safely be assumed that a large number of teachers aren’t fully informed about

CCE. In addition to this, in many instances, frequent oral or written tests may also be

considered as a part of CCE. Most teachers said that they take monthly or daily tests. However

a few have also given other methods. “I ask questions based on daily teaching. If they don’t

understand then try and explain again”, says one teacher in Sitamarhi, “do everyday while

teaching”, “do it throughout the child’s time in school”, “do CCE after teaching every topic”,

“after teaching 2-3 lessons ask them oral questions about it”, “call children in a group with their

copies”, “teach and evaluate”, “at any point I can teach a topic and ask questions” were some

such answers.


Number of teachers who Class 3

teachers

Class 7

Teachers

Class 3/Class

7 teachers

Maintain a file to record the performance of each

pupil 2 7 9

Show the pupil file to the parents 2 3 5

Have received any government order about

maintenance of Pupil Files 9 13 22



86

The State Rules for RTE in Bihar state in section 18(1) that a ‘chhatra sanchayee abhilekh’ is to

be maintained, in pursuance of section 29(2)(h) of the Act that requires ‘continuous and

comprehensive evaluation of child’s understanding of knowledge and his or her ability to apply

the same’. A small minority of class 3 and class 7 teachers reported that they keep Pupil Files.

While some teachers did report that they had received government orders to maintain such a

file, not many adhered to it.

5.6 Some problems expressed by teachers about implementing RTE guidelines

A number of teachers expressed difficultly in teaching through activity, discovery and

exploration. Different types of problems were brought up. One said, “Children in small classes

do not understand all this, so I do not do it”; another said, “Activities waste the time of children

in bigger classes, so I do very few.” Another issue brought out by a teacher in Nawada was that

“too much use of activities bores children and some of them get involved in playing itself”. The

need to expose teachers to activities for all ages and to do so with the sort of time constraints

they have, emerges from these answers. The fact that few activities that encourage higher

order critical thinking were reported shows that teachers may be at a loss on how to teach

upper primary school children through activity, discovery and exploration that is appropriate to

their age and their syllabus.

The few teachers who say they scold or beat the children say they do it very ‘mildly’. Teachers

complained that they have trouble managing naughty children during sports activities. Having

to teach children without beating or scolding them they found tough. These tools were used by

their teachers to instill fear into children and motivate them to behave. Teachers reported that

they abide by the new notifications, but they do not agree with them. The cane was not seen to

be used a lot, but it was visible.

SECTION 6. ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM

The Act envisages a system of decentralized planning, a process in which head teachers and a

parent based education committee will play a major role. The Act also envisages a role for a

member of the local body to play a role in monitoring school attendance of all children (under

the age of 14 years) in the village, to ensure that none are out of school and that those who are

in school attend regularly. In this section, we focus on the role of the head-teachers and the

SMCs. The sarpanch as representatives of the locally elected bodies were reportedly not active

in keeping records of all the children in the village and ensuring that they were in school.


We asked heads what they do in cases where teachers default on any matter. A high proportion

of them reported that they simply speak with the teachers concerned. A small proportion

choose to complain to higher authorities. Hardly any head teachers reported that they take

disciplinary action under service rules. The SMCs also appear to play no role.

87


Bihar

(per cent)

When asked about the disciplinary action taken

against errant teachers, the proportions of head

teachers who reported they:

Primary

schools

Upper

primary

schools

All schools

Speak to the teachers concerned 60.0 81.8 74.1

Complain to the higher authorities 20.0 14.6 16.5

Take action under service rules 3.3 3.6 3.5

Take up the issue with the SMC 3.3 3.6 3.5

Take no action 20.0 3.6 9.4

Based on survey in sample schools.


We got a similar response when we asked heads of schools, how they ensure that teachers

come on time. The RTE entrusts the duty of monitoring teachers punctuality and regularity to

the School’s Education Committee and further to the local authority. The daily management of

this issue however, is still a concern for the Head teacher.

Some respondents simply said that the need to ensure regularity has not arisen implying that

teachers are themselves regular. Some heads said that they prefer to simply set a standard by

themselves coming on time. The largest group said that they verbally ask teachers to come on

time. A few make the teachers sign a register and barely anyone spoke of complaining to the

education authorities. This indicates that hardly any formal steps are taken by heads to ensure

teacher regularity.

These findings about disciplinary action taken by head-teachers has to be understood in the

light of the fact that in Bihar there are no clear established lines of authority in all the schools.

As discussed earlier, according to the Act, the smaller schools need not have a separate head

teacher. It is understood that the duties of the head teacher will be discharged by the teacher

in charge. We found that head teachers were appointed only in 60% of schools. Upper primary

schools were more likely to have a head teacher appointed than primary schools.

Table 6.2 Appointment of Head Teachers in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion (%) of schools in Bihar in which All schools

HT appointed 59.4

HT appointed and present 36.5

HT appointed and not present 22.9

Teacher in charge present; HT not appointed 37.5

No teacher in charge; HT not appointed 3.1

All schools 100 (96)



88

In several schools, there was no head-teachers post, and in several it was lying vacant. Even

among the schools where head teachers were appointed, the team was unable to meet the

head teachers in these schools as in 23% of the sample schools, the appointed head teacher

was not present in school. The HT was reported to be absent for various reasons – on leave, on

school related duty and a few other cases. In 2 cases the heads had gone for ‘counsel’ -- their

post/salary was being revised. One head teacher had handed over the work to someone else as

he does not keep well, another had been on medical leave for a year. In yet another, the head

had been suspended. In a few schools there was neither a head teacher nor a teacher in charge.

6.2 Role of Education Committee (Tadarth Shiksha Samiti)

The RTE Act requires the setting up School Management Committees – Chapter IV, Section 21.

The SMC shall perform the following functions: monitor the working of the school; prepare and

recommend school development plan; and monitor the utilization of the grants received from

the appropriate Government or the local authority or any other source.

According to the Bihar Elementary School Education Committee Act, 2011, an ad hoc

committee (Tadarth Shiksha Samiti) for each primary and middle school consisting of 6-7

members shall be constituted. These would include parents, the elected ward member of the

Gram Panchayat/ Nagar Nikay, as well as the Head Teacher/ Head Master of the school. Such a

Committee shall remain in existence till a committee is constituted in keeping with RTE

guidelines and rules.

This TSS is to perform the following functions: it shall ensure the presence of teachers on time;

it shall monitor construction of school building and supply of midday meals and carry out all

necessary activities for implementation of provisions of RTE 2009; it shall ensure compliance of

orders / directions given by the Government from time to time. Being an ad-hoc committee, it

is not vested with many powers and functions. This Committee is to meet every month with at

least 4 members present. It is also a temporary committee till a Vidhyalaya Shiksha Samiti is put

in place. The Bihar Elementary School Education Committee Act, 2011 states that eventually, a

VSS shall be constituted, in keeping with the Bihar State Rules.53

The Bihar Government has issued no notification for the setting up of new Vidhyalaya Shiksha

Samitis which appear to be the Bihar Government’s name for the SMCs required to be set up

under the RTE Act. It has simply passed an Act which requires an ad-hoc committee to perform

a few functions till the time VSS members are elected. These committees were found to be

formed in 2011. When Head teachers in sample schools were asked about the education

53

The VSS shall be constituted of 14 members, out of which 12 shall be elected among parents and 2 shall be ex-

officio. The functions of this Committee are as laid down in the State Rules. They are as follows: to ensure

enrolment of all students between ages 6-14 from the catchment area; to ensure and monitor the regularity of

teachers; supervision of school construction and mid day meals; to bear in mind that teachers are not enrolled in

any non-educational activities; the School Development Plan is to be prepared 2 months before the opening of the

new academic session under the direction of the Block Education Officer; the Committee may be given more duties

from time to time if the need so arises.

89

committees in their school, only in 74% cases was a Tadarth Shiksha Samiti found to be formed.

In more than 13% of cases the earlier VSS was found to be continuing, and in the remaining

cases no education committee existed but according to the head teacher in some of these

schools the TSS was in the process of being formed.

Table 6.3 Setting up of Education Committees in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of schools where All schools

SMC was formed 0.0

Tadarth committee was formed 74.0

VSS/ VEC was still there 13.5

No committee/no response 12.5

Total 100.0



Members of 71 committees could be interviewed, but not all could respond to the questions.

The following discussions are based on these interviews. As mentioned earlier, the composition

of these committees is very different from what the RTE mandates. The number of members

varied from 3 to 7, and one or two members were non-parents, and the rest were parent

members. Nearly all had at least 50% women.

Though the respondents were largely the President or the Secretary of the committee, they had

very limited information about it. In most cases the committees were formed only on paper.

Several of them did not know the number of members in the committee and asked the head

teacher about it. In 9 to 10 cases the respondent said they did not know about their

responsibilities and merely signed in registers when asked to. In some cases the respondents

were not aware when they had been made a member or even an office bearer of the

committee. A few of them who had also been members of the earlier education committee,

said there were no differences in the meetings and activities of these committees.

One of the functions that the ad-hoc committee is required to do is monitor teacher regularity

and punctuality. Less than a third reported that they do so and largely through informal

methods (Table 6.4). The study was looking to see what formal systems might be put in place to

enable this to happen in an effective manner.

The ad-hoc committee was not functioning as part of a mechanism for redressal of grievances.

Since it doesn’t have many powers or responsibilities, it is not surprising that 81% reported that

they have not received any complaints from parents or children. However, 11% did say that

they have received complaints regarding schools not giving uniforms/ textbooks/ writing

material to the child.

90

An important function is to ensure the enrolment of all children between ages 6-14 from the

catchment area. While in nearly 31% of cases they said the village still has children in the 6 to

14 age group out of school, in only around 18% of the committees did they say that that they

motivate parents of never enrolled children to get them enrolled.

The committees are also to promote the regularity of already enrolled students. However, only

22% said they do so (Table 6.4). The little attention paid to monitoring student attendance is in

keeping with the poor attendance that was observed in the Bihar schools.

In very few schools were the respondents involved in monitoring school expenditure or in

developing School Development Plans – 19%. However most of these committees were not set

up to do this.

Table 6.4 Functioning of Education Committees in Government Schools in Bihar

Proportion of Education Committee members who said that they per cent

have received a government document defining roles and responsibilities 16.2

Have met once a month 39.0

Monitor provision of infrastructure, equipment, MDM and textbooks 50.0

Informally monitor teacher regularity and punctuality 32.4

Informally monitor children’s attendance 22.1

Ensure admission of out of school children and CWSN 17.6

Monitor school expenditure 19.1

Are involved in developing SDPs 19.1


Based on interviews with members of Education Committees


When head teachers were asked whether SMCs support their work in any way, the responses

were relatively positive – only around one-third said they did not (Table 6.5). The largest

proportion (72%) said that SMCs have supported them by providing infrastructure and

equipment. A significant portion (70%) said that they help in ensuring children’s regularity, and

38% said that the SMC support them when parents do not cooperate. HTs clearly see them as

the group which liases between them and the village community including other parents and

children.

91



When asked of the ways in which the SMCs/TSS support their work,

proportion of head teachers54

who said

per cent

Does not support in any way 32.9

Receive support from SMCs in the following way:

Provision of infrastructure and equipment 71.9

Ensures children’s regularity 70.2

Support in the case of non-cooperation by any parent 38.6

Responses are not mutually exclusive.



When asked about the ways in which the SMCs help monitor the school functioning, 40% of HTs

said that the SMCs do not monitor the school in any way. Among the rest most of them (78%)

said that the SMC members note the regularity and punctuality of teachers. A similar

proportion said that the SMC members help monitor the distribution of entitlements like

textbooks.

Table 6.6 Monitoring by Education Committees as Reported by Head Teachers in Government

Schools in Bihar

When asked of the ways in which the SMC / TSS monitors school

functioning, proportion of head teachers who said

per cent

Does not monitor in any way 40.0

Monitors in the following way

Notes denial of admission 21.6

Ensures that there is no discrimination in the school (against CWD / SC / ST

/ BPL) 17.6

Ensures that no child faces mental harassment or corporal punishment in

the school 15.7

Responses are not mutually exclusive.



Summing up the findings on education committees in Bihar, we note that SMCS were not

formed in any school but most had the Tadarth Shikhsha Samiti. Its composition is largely as

given in the Act passed by the state government. Most TSS members interviewed indicated that

they had not much information about their roles and responsibilities, they signed when they

54

Includes respondents who were not head-teachers, in schools where head-teachers were absent or not

appointed.

92

were asked to do so. The committee was largely run by the HT. According to the interviews

with the head-teacher and the members of the TSS, their role is most important in providing

infrastructure and distribution of entitlements.

More than two thirds of the head teachers said that the education committees support them in

their work and 60% said they do some monitoring. According to them the role of the education

committees was highest in provision of infrastructure and distribution of entitlements.

Monitoring student and teacher attendance is also an important role. Given the high student

and teacher absenteeism, and the comments made by the respondent, it is clear that these

Committees were doing little in this area. SMC involvement was very low in monitoring school

expenditures and in formulation of the School Development Plan (SDP). There was also very

little involvement in identifying out of school children and bringing them back to school.


Registers are required to maintain records of activities which can be used internally and

externally to monitor performance. Schools were asked whether they maintained registers on a

range of activities. Most schools had registers on a range of information. Fewer schools had

information on parent meetings. A complaints register was available in 10% of schools.

Table 6.7 Registers Maintained in Government Schools in Bihar

(per cent)

Proportion of schools which

maintain

Primary schools Upper primary schools All schools

Teacher attendance register 100.0 100.0 100.0

Admission register 100.0 96.7 97.9

Student attendance register 100.0 100.0 100.0

Incentive register 97.0 91.8 93.6

Mid day meal register 97.0 96.7 96.8

Fund register 69.7 68.9 69.1

SMC meeting register 60.6 68.9 66.0

Parent meeting register 24.2 31.1 28.7

Complaint register 9.1 9.8 9.6



93

SECTION 7. CONCLUSION

The context in Bihar within which RTE has to be implemented is very challenging. It is densely

populated and much of it is flood prone, which has implications for the cost of providing

adequate infrastructure and facilities in schools. The state has substantial proportions of

disadvantaged groups with very low literacy levels. According to the 2001 Census,55

Muslims

formed 16.5% and Scheduled Castes 15.7% of the State’s population, and the literacy rates

were as low as 36% and 28.5% for Muslims and SCs, respectively.56

The literacy rate for the

state as a whole in 2001 was 47%. The gaps between the literacy rates among disadvantaged

groups and the average for the State as a whole were enormous: 11% for Muslims and 19% for

SCs. By 2011, the literacy rate for the state as a whole had risen dramatically to 64%, and it is

likely that literacy rates among disadvantaged groups have also risen substantially.

Nevertheless it is clear that ensuring that all children are able to access their right to

elementary education is a formidable task.

7.1 Only limited progress on the road towards RTE

The state has made some progress on the road towards RTE. Draft Rules have been notified and

government orders issued on a number of aspects.

There have been sustained efforts to make education “free” in the sense of providing cash

towards purchase of uniforms and stationery, and textbooks for all students enrolled in primary

and upper primary grades. However, efforts to provide “free education” did not go beyond this.

The study found that there was no mention in any school of transport costs being covered for

any child, except for equipment given to some children with disability. Also that there was no

mention of any requirement on the school or the SMC or the panchayat to find out which

children were attending irregularly or not at all, and to ensure that if there was some financial

barrier to their coming to school, that it would be noted and action taken.

No large scale trainings on RTE have been organized, and no detailed materials have been

prepared for teachers to increase their understanding of the Act. As a result, teachers tended to

be uncertain about most of the Act’s specifications. This was reflected in the fact that only small

proportions of schools reported that they were admitting children without documents of proof

of age / admitting children for an extended period as determined by the state / not retaining

children in the same class at the end of the year on any count, all provisions of the RTE Act.

Admitting children to the age-appropriate class and running Special Classes for them so they

can catch up with the rest of the class did not appear to be happening. While a few schools

reported that they were doing this, they were unable to provide any details on where these

classes were held and when. Enabling the running of Special Classes will require a new system

to be set in place, in which teachers and physical space and an appropriate curriculum will have

55

2011 figures for literacy of specific social groups is not available. 56

The all-India literacy rate among SCs was 55% in 2001.

94

to be assigned just for this task. This is particularly important for Bihar as it is reported to have

lakhs of children out of school who will need to be mainstreamed into their age-appropriate

class.

Similarly, changing the system of assessing children also requires a major investment.

Supplementing or replacing the earlier system of tests and annual examinations by a new

system which requires the teacher to evaluate the child’s performance on a regular basis and

maintain detailed records for each individual child is an enormous change which can happen

only with considerable guidance and monitoring.

Certain provisions appear to be less difficult to put into practice – not using corporal

punishment to control children; not cutting off children’s names if they are irregular or do not

clear the annual examinations. However, they take away tools used by the teacher to make the

system function, tools which were used by their teachers to instill fear into children and

motivate them to behave. Teachers reported that they abide by the new notifications, but they

do not agree with them. The cane was not seen to be used a lot, but it was visible. Teachers say

they teach with love, though according to one teacher this was the “official version”.

Attempting to change methods of disciplining children to improve learning / improve

attendance requires teachers to be convinced of the rationale and receive training on how to

do it differently.

Teachers were conscious of the rights of disabled children to be in school. However, providing

meaningful services to children with disability has been a problem prior to the RTE Act, and

continues to be so now. While disabled children were being enrolled, and schools were being

provided with ramps, the numbers of disabled children seen in school were much less than

those enrolled, and the proportion of schools with at least one teacher with training on

disability was low.

• Access and quality of schools remains an issue

The schooling system in Bihar is more of a common schooling system. The Bihar government

has not encouraged the growth of private schools by easing norms for recognition. The sample

villages had only 11 private schools, all but one of which were reported to be unrecognized.

Instead there are indications that children depend on a system of private tuition in large

groups, somewhat similar to unrecognized private schools.

The government has set up a large number of primary schools in the last decade and upgraded

a large number of primary schools to upper primary schools, apparently without sufficient

investment in infrastructure and facilities. The high enrolment in the upper primary schools

relative to the provision of teachers and classrooms indicates that the supply of schooling

needs to be urgently expanded. Enrolment is extremely high both for primary and upper

primary grades, indicating that expansion is needed for both stages of schooling. The shortfall

of classrooms and other facilities in the primary schools is also acute. The student classroom

ratio was as high as 81 and 99 in the primary and upper primary schools. More classrooms were

seen to be in the process of being constructed in both the primary and upper primary schools.

95

While there has been significant improvement in the availability of drinking water and a kitchen

shed to cook the midday meal, there was variable access to other facilities such as separate

toilets for boys and girls, a functioning boundary wall, a playground, games and sports

equipment, a library, and teaching learning materials.

• Need for more teachers and more trained teachers

The government has been concentrating on reducing the huge gaps in provision of teachers. In

spite of the huge shortage of teachers still apparent, the government was reported to have

recruited a large number of teachers so as to reduce the high PTRs. One of the challenges facing

the Bihar government is the need to appoint teachers who have to clear a teacher eligibility

test. In spite of criticism that the Bihar TET has been set very low, only a small proportion of

applicants were reported to have cleared it.

The study found an enormous shortage of teachers. Four fifths of primary schools and an even

higher proportion of upper primary schools did not have the PTRs required by RTE. The very

high PTRs means both teachers and children have to function in very difficult conditions.

Bihar has chosen to lean heavily on a teacher cadre, who were largely recruited locally, at very

low salaries. A very high proportion (75%) of teachers in the study were panchayat appointees.

The majority of all teachers had passed Class 12 at most. About one third did not have any

professional teacher training. Most locally appointed teachers interviewed in the study

reported that they were getting upto Rs 8,000 a month. Teachers recruited earlier were being

paid more than Rs 20,000 a month. Reducing the salary scales of teachers has implications for

the type of individuals who might be willing to join the teaching profession, lower the incentive

for them to stay in the profession, and perhaps reduce their motivation to perform to their full

potential.

It is important to ensure that teachers have the opportunity to be professionally trained. It is

also important that teachers who teach upper primary grades in the composite upper primary

schools are graduates as required by the NCTE.

• Implications for equity

The government schools that children are able to access at both primary and upper primary

levels have severe teacher and infrastructural shortages as described above. The situation is

also poor with regard to access to pre-school education. The functioning of the schools in terms

of presence of teachers and children, as we discuss below, also leaves much to be desired.

Children on the margin, who may have parents who have never been to school, are most likely

to suffer in such a situation as they will need special attention to feel included in classroom

transactions, and are also most likely to be among those at the back of the class or outside the

class, interacting relatively little with the teacher. Such children are also vulnerable to be

irregular on a day to day basis because schooling is not a norm in their homes, and because of

96

possible work pressures on them in a family struggling to make both ends meet. Government

schools are playing a critical role in drawing all children into school. It must invest in giving

children schools which will actually provide them with an education.

• Too little accountability in the government system

The study found schools closed unexpectedly because of extreme weather conditions. The

study also found that while teachers were largely in school, there were indications that they

came late and left early. The most troubling finding was that large proportions of children were

not in school. Attendance rates even in the register were extremely low (48%). Observed

attendance rates were even lower (41%). Attendance rates observed post the midday meal

were still lower (34%).

Numerous stakeholders are supposed to be involved in monitoring teacher and student

attendance. In particular, SMCs as envisaged in the RTE Act have this role. Head teachers also

share in this role as part of the SMCs. All teachers are required to be punctual and work as

much as 45 hours a week (at school and in preparation at home).

The SMCs in Bihar at the time of the survey in 2011-12 were ad hoc committees, formed with

very limited scope. They were to function till elections to the SMCs could be held after a year.

These ad hoc committees or Tadarth Shiksha Samitis had primarily to look after school

construction, midday meals, and other schemes such as provision of uniforms, textbooks and

scholarships. Its monitoring role was extremely limited.

The study also indicates that there was no clear line of accountability in Bihar’s schools. In a

sample of 96 schools surveyed in detail, head teachers were not appointed in 41% of schools

and absent in a further 23% of schools. Head teachers also reported that they play a limited

supervisory role in monitoring the attendance of other teachers.

The local bodies were not keeping any records of children in the village whether they were in

school or out of school. They were also not part of the education committees.


RTE Act requires schools to change their way of functioning. All children must be enabled to

access their right to education. Village leaders are to be involved in actively identifying out of

school children. Teachers and SMCs are to ensure that all children are enrolled and given the

opportunity to complete 8 years of education.

• Invest in infrastructure and facilities

97

There are a few positives but overall the gaps in infrastructure and facilities are acute. There is

an urgent need to invest in every aspect of infrastructure and facilities specified under the

norms for a school by the RTE Act. This requires a major investment.

• Recruit more teachers and those most suitable for the job

More teachers need to be recruited. Teachers recruited need to have the qualifications and

training specified by the NCTE. This is an enormous challenge for the state.

Raising salary scales of teachers will attract more qualified candidates and retain them.

Recruiting teachers at a very low rate gives them the message that their work is considered

unimportant, and that the system places no value on trying to retain them.

There is a need to increase transparency in system of recruitment of teachers at local level. The

team was told that while a merit list is used to shortlist candidates at district and block level,

the final list of teachers who are appointed is done at village level and depends on the

candidate’s connections with the sarpanch and / or their willingness to pay the selection

committee. Such an arrangement which is not based on choosing the candidate most suitable

for the job of teaching young children and disregards the equal rights of all teachers to be

selected, strikes directly at undermining the accountability of newly recruited teachers to their

work.

• Build capacity of all stakeholders to understand the RTE Act better and their role in

implementing it

The RTE Act suggests roles for various stakeholders. Fulfilling these roles is beyond the capacity

of most unless there is sustained effort in building that capacity in the persons involved, both

within and outside the education department. All stakeholders need to understand the RTE Act

better and their role in implementing it (head-teacher and teachers, SMC, sarpanch).

Children are required to experience non discriminatory behaviour. It is important that head-

teachers, teachers and SMC members learn more about the rationale of having a rights based

approach in dealing with all children. At present, there are negative feelings among the middle

castes against those from lower castes because of reservations for them in government

employment.

It is also extremely difficult for teachers to transact curriculum as required by RTE in the sense

of building the capacity of a child as envisioned by the RTE Act. Teachers need to learn and

experience these concepts before they can implement them.

The SMC and head-teacher and teachers all need to play a role in monitoring teacher

attendance, children’s attendance and school functioning in general. The sarpanch is required

to take note of any child who is out of school. It is important to put in place a system of records

to ensure that RTE will be implemented.

98

PART B. UTTAR PRADESH

SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The state of Uttar Pradesh is a culturally and socially diverse state with many communities.

According to the 2001 Census, 80.6 %of the State population was Hindu. Muslims formed 18.5

% of the population. The remaining 0.9 % of the population consisted of other religious

minorities like Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and Christians. Scheduled Castes formed 21.2% of the

State’s population. There are 66 Scheduled Castes in the State; the prominent ones being

Chamar, Kori, Dhobi and Balmiki. The proportion of Scheduled Tribes residing in the State is

negligible at 0.01%. There are only five ST groups in the State.

Uttar Pradesh is the most populous State in India (199.9 million, Census 2011). It covers a land

area of 240,928 sq km. Scholars have argued that because of its historical importance and sheer

size, Uttar Pradesh has always been a key state within the Indian union. The languages of state

administration are Hindi, established by the Uttar Pradesh Official Language Act, 1951,

and Urdu,57

established by the Amendment to the same in 1989.

Uttar Pradesh continues to be one of India’s most economically backward states with a high

rate of illiteracy, more so among females especially in the rural areas. In 1981, the literacy rate

in UP was 28% and it increased to 42% in 1991 (male literacy was 56% and female literacy 25%).

By 2001 it had risen to 56.3% after which it rose to 69.7% in 2011. The gap in literacy levels

between urban and rural areas has been declining. It was 17.9% in 2001 and 9.5% in 2011. With

regard to SCs, the 200158

literacy rate in U.P. was 46.3% with 30.5% literacy among women.

Literacy rate among STs in 2001 was 35.1% with 20.7% literacy among ST women. Muslims have

the lowest literacy rate among the religious minorities, that is, 47.79% in 2001. Within the

Muslim community, the female literacy rate (37.4%) is very much lower than the male literacy

rate (57.3%).

Agriculture is the main source of employment in U.P. However, weather restricts year round

cultivation, resulting in fewer days of work, compared to farmers in Punjab and Haryana. The

magnitude of both drought prone and flood prone areas in the state is highest among all major

57

According to Ather Farouqui, “Urdu is taught in some schools as an optional subject either from sixth class

onwards or, in certain schools from first to 10th class. There is a provision for teaching Urdu as an optional subject

from sixth to eighth class at a few places in UP. There are some schools where Urdu, besides being taught as

optional subject from 1st to 10th class, is also the medium of instruction. In some schools, the regional language is

also taught as an optional subject from third or fourth class onwards.”(Farouqui, 1994). He goes on to say that

even in Urdu medium schools, subjects like science and math are generally taught either in English or in the

regional language, sometimes even in Hindi. “The main reason for this is lack of adequate scientific vocabulary in

Urdu. Urdu is the medium of instruction only for social science subjects, like history and geography, etc.”(op. cit.) 58

Caste wise literacy data is not available from the 2011 Census.

99

states. There is mostly outmigration from the state. According to the 2001 Census, total

migrant inflow to U.P. was 1.8% while total outmigration was 6.1%. Nearly 80% of the

population in U.P. continues to live in rural areas. There has been a shift of only 1% in the

population from rural to urban areas in the State over the decade (1990-2000). The pace of

urbanization has been extremely slow.

Strong gender disparities exist in the state. The NFHS III survey finds that in U.P. 53% of the

respondent women between the ages of 20-24 were married by the age of 18. Employment

opportunities seem to be much lower for women in U.P., which restricts their economic

empowerment. As per 2001 Census, work participation rate was very low for females at 16.5 %

as compared to 46.8 % for males. Only 19.0 % of rural women and 6.8 % of urban women in

U.P. were found to be economically active.

With the aim of providing education to all till the age of 14, a World Bank assisted project called

Basic Education Project was undertaken in 1993. The goal was universal enrollment in and

completion of basic education and improvement of its quality. It consisted of three

components: building institutional capacity, improving quality of education and improving

access to basic education. The project covered 17 districts. The project was completed in 2000.

The District Primary Education Programme-II was started in 1997 in 22 districts of the state and

ended in 2003. DPEP-III was started in 32 districts of the state in 2000 and ended on 31 March,

2006.

According to a World Bank report (2002), UP spends as little as 1.8% of its GSDP (Gross State

Domestic Product) on elementary education. Enrolment is lowest among SCs and Muslims

compared to other social groups, while children belonging to high caste groups enjoy nearly

universal access to education. On the other hand, and quite surprisingly, UP is said to have one

of the highest rates of enrolment in private schools - one-fourth of all rural students and 70% of

their urban counterparts. In this way, it is quite different from Bihar.

Teachers enjoy a privileged position in politics, in that they are guaranteed representation in

the Upper House of the state legislatures, granted by the Constitution of India. Furthermore, as

opposed to other professions, teachers are regarded as holding an office of no profit, allowing

them to contest elections for local bodies as well as representation in both Houses of the State.

They “do so on a very large scale and thus politicize the entire educational environment.”

(Kingdon and Muzammil, 2008). Teachers have continually been an integral part of the State

machinery and continue to wield considerable power. Politicians are reluctant to bring reforms

that would enable accountability of teachers for fear of upsetting their support base. “Teacher

and non-teacher politicians use their considerable influence and ministerial connections etc. to

shelter erring teachers or otherwise help teachers, in order to be seen as friends by the

influential teacher voter bloc.” (Kingdon and Muzammil, 2010)

100

1.2 Notifications by Government of UP related to RTE

The Government of UP formulated the State Rules for Implementation of RTE on 27 July 2011.

The Rules clearly mention that they will remain in force on condition of funds being made

available by the central government.

A series of provisions had been issued before the Draft was approved. With reference to

Section 16, Chapter IV of the RTE Act, the Uttar Pradesh government had as early as on 16th

January, 2010 sent a notification for prohibiting the retention and expulsion of students as well

as the no Board level examination up to the elementary level. The no capitation fee or

screening procedure for admission in private schools was notified on 15th

July 2010, and on 19th

August 2010 the prohibition of corporal punishment and mental harassment was notified.

Concerning the infrastructure and facilities in schools, the setting up of libraries was approved

for the academic year 2010-11. Close to fifty thousand additional classrooms were under

construction during the year 2011-12 and boundary walls provided in 19,600 schools, with

remaining requirements for both classroom and boundary walls to be included in the next

Annual Work Plan.

The formation of SMCs was notified on 28th

June 2011, with the first orientation of the

members to be held in November 2011. The U.P. State Rules mandates that the Committee

shall meet once a month and make the records public. It is also stated that SMCs shall be

constituted in all schools, and 11 out of 15 members shall be parents from SC, ST, OBC, and

other weaker sections. The remaining members will be the Head teacher, one Lekhpal

nominated by the District Magistrate, one member from the ANM cadre to be nominated by

the teachers of the school, and one local authority member. The chair person shall be elected

from parent members. Besides the functions mentioned in the RTE Act, the Uttar Pradesh State

Rules provide the SMC with a mandate which includes: ensuring regularity of teachers and

punctuality in attending school, holding regular meetings; ensuring enrolment and continued

attendance of all children from neighborhood area; monitor the identification, enrolment and

facilities for disabled children; prepare and implement a plan for special training for children

not admitted to school for his/her appropriate age learning level.

The government of Uttar Pradesh on 27th

July 2011 banned the giving of private tuition classes

by government school teachers, and specified the minimum number of working days and

instructional hours for a school. In particular, on 26th

April 2012 there was a notification which

specified that for the primary and upper primary levels, the instructional hours in summer shall

be from 7 a.m. till noon, with a break from 9.30 am to10 am; whereas in winter, school shall be

from 10 a.m. till 4 a.m., with a break between 1 pm and 1.30 p.m.

Other notifications include the construction of separate toilets for boys and girls, as notified on

11th

April 2012. The U.P. State Rules for RTE permits the construction of a new school in the

neighborhood at a distance of more than 1 km for classes I-V and with a minimum population

of 300, and a distance of more than 3 km for classes VI – VIII and with a minimum population of

800. In 2011-12 about 10,366 new primary schools have been approved in the eligible unserved

101

habitations and 121 multistorey composite schools (classes I-VIII) have been approved in urban

areas. Further requirements will be met in the year 2012-13. With reference to the admission

policies, the State Rules for Uttar Pradesh admit as for age proof the village register of births

and deaths, apart from ANM records, anganwadis records, and declaration through affidavit

from the guardian.

Section 19(e) of the U.P. State Rules mandates that teachers should maintain pupil cumulative

records for every child with reference to CCE in order to check his/her understanding of

knowledge and ability to apply the same. With respect to teaching qualifications, the Teachers

Eligibility test was organized in November 2011 by the UP Board, and the recruitment of

teachers followed the declaration of test results in December 2011. In addition to this, 80,000

posts of teachers for primary schools and 17,000 for upper primary schools have already been

sanctioned. Moreover, training facilities for teachers comprise a two-year training programme

through Distance Mode approved by the National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE).

Trainings have started in August 2011 with a first batch of 62,000 untrained teachers (Shiksha

Mitras), and a second group is expected to start in July, 2012 and the training completed by

June 2015. The Academic Authority for the curriculum has been notified on 27th

July 2011.

Notifications of State Rules of Uttar Pradesh

Banning screening procedure and capitation

fees

Notification issued on 15-07-2010

No Board examination up to elementary

level


Prohibition of holding back and expulsion Notification issued on 16-01-2010

No detention Notification issued on 16-01-2010

No corporal punishment Notification issued on 19-08-2010

Notification of State rules Notification issued on 27-07-2011

Notification of academic authority Notification issued on 27-07-2011

Orientation for SMCs members schedule in

November 2011


Minimum instructional hours Notification issued on 26-04-2012

Constitution of SCPCR/REPA In process

Policy on eight years of elementary

education

Already in place

Defining Disadvantaged Groups & Weaker

Sections for admission to 25% seats in

private unaided schools

Proposal being processed. Suggestions have

been invited from the public. Wide publicity

given.

1.3 Sample villages and its educational facilities till Class 8

The study was based on 102 sample villages. The villages varied widely in size, from a minimum

of 40 households to a maximum of 3500. Median number of households was around 200.

102

Nearly all the sample villages in UP could be reached by motorable road. The road was metalled

in the case of over half of the villages (52.9%). Close to one third (31.4%) of the villages had

roads paved with stones. One sixth (15.7%) of villages had unpaved roads. The reasonably good

roads to the sample villages in UP has wider implications including the ability of teachers from

outside the village to reach the school inside the village on a regular basis, and the ability of

children to access an upper primary school in another village if they need to. The type of

housing was mostly a mix of pakka and kachha housing (77.5% of the villages). Small

proportions of the villages had mostly kaccha houses (11.8%) and mostly pakka housing

(10.8%).

The availability of drinking water in the sample villages was particularly important for this study

in the light of the fact that the RTE Act requires schools to provide children with safe and

adequate drinking water. The main source of drinking water in UP’s sample villages was hand-

pumps. Only 7.8% of the villages reported getting piped water. A few villages reported having

wells as their main source of drinking water. Quite a large number of villages (41.2%) reported

that they face problems with being able to access drinking water.

All 102 villages had a government primary school but only 58 villages had a government upper

primary school. Of the remaining, 35 villages had a government upper primary school within a

distance of 3 kms and 9 villages had such a facility at a distance of more than 3 kms. RTE norms

for access to upper primary schooling are not satisfied for 9 out of 102 villages.


The villages contained as many as 164 government schools -- 106 primary schools, 58 upper

primary schools (one of these was a school with grades 1-8, the rest had only grades 6-8), and 1

secondary school. In addition the sample villages had 55 private schools – 24 primary, 24 upper

primary, and 7 secondary schools.

Table 1.1 Profile of Schools in Sample Villages in UP

Type of Schools

Government

Schools

Private Schools

Primary schools 106 24

Upper primary schools with primary grades 0 24

Schools with upper primary grades only 58 0

Schools with primary, upper primary and secondary

grades 0 7

Total 164 55

Source CORD survey 2011-12

Private schools will be discussed in Section 7. A few observations will also be made on the

madarsas in the sample villages in UP. In the rest of this section, and sections 2

be on government schools.


Data is being presented on all the government schools in the sam

106 primary schools with grades 1

The primary and upper primary schools were

the primary schools is 124 and in the upper primary schools is 79. Looking at class size, the

numbers enrolled in upper primary schools appears to be insufficient. The class sizes in both

the primary and upper primary schools are quite similar

schools and they take in students from more than 1 school, a larger class size in upper primary

schools would be expected. But this is not so.

Based on all government schools in sample


Few of the government primary schools in the sample villages have been established in the past

decade, while this is the time private schools have come up in a big way. However most of the

government upper primary scho

access to upper primary schooling. DISE 2010

of all primary schools and a large proportion (57%) of all upper primary schools in UP have been

set up since 2002.

124.1

0

25

50

75

100

125

Primary schools (1

En

rolm

en

t

Figure 1.2: Average Enrolment in


103


madarsas in the sample villages in UP. In the rest of this section, and sections 2

Size of government schools

Data is being presented on all the government schools in the sample villages. These included

ades 1-5 and 58 schools with grades 6-8.

The primary and upper primary schools were comparatively small. The average enrolment in



primary schools are quite similar – as there are fewer upper primary


schools would be expected. But this is not so.




government upper primary schools have been established recently – this means improved

access to upper primary schooling. DISE 2010-11 data also reveals that a small proportion (23%)


79.1

Primary schools (1-5) Upper primary schools (6-8)

Figure 1.2: Average Enrolment in



madarsas in the sample villages in UP. In the rest of this section, and sections 2-6, the focus will

ple villages. These included

comparatively small. The average enrolment in



as there are fewer upper primary




this means improved

11 data also reveals that a small proportion (23%)







Figure 1.4 gives the figures for the proportions of children from disadvantaged groups who are

enrolled in school. Enrolment of SCs in the primary schools is 36.2% and the corresponding

figure for the upper primary schools is 33.3%. These are greater than the average popu

SCs in UP (21.2% in 2001). For the ST populations the figures are 0.5% for the primary schools

9.1

0 10

Primary schools


Figure 1.3: Distribution of Government Schools by Year

Before 1990

36

33

0 10

Primary Schools

Upper-Primary Schools

Figure 1.4: Enrolment of Children by Social Group

in Government Schools in UP

104


Enrolment in government schools of children from disadvantaged communities


the figures for the proportions of children from disadvantaged groups who are


figure for the upper primary schools is 33.3%. These are greater than the average popu


49.5 35.6

18.2 72.7

20 30 40 50 60 70 80

% schools set up


of Establishment in UP

Before 1990 Between 1990 and 1999 2000 and later

36

33

1

0

13

9

50

57

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Children



Enrolment in government schools of children from disadvantaged communities

the figures for the proportions of children from disadvantaged groups who are


figure for the upper primary schools is 33.3%. These are greater than the average population of


14.9

80 90 100



% SC

% ST

% Muslims

% Other Hindus

and 0.4% in the upper primary schools, which too are higher than the state average population

of STs (0.01%). However for Muslim children, the total en

and only 9% in upper primary schools. Both these figures are lower than the state average of

18.5%. A significant number of Muslim children

at primary level, but some may b

proportion out of school is likely to be quite high.

The dependence of children from SC (and Muslim to some extent) families on government

schools underscores the need to improve access and quality o

applicable to girls – see section 1.7


Looking at gender distribution of enrolment

the primary and upper primary schools.

schools. It also reflects the increased availability of government primary and upper primary

schools in the sample villages since girls from marginalized groups are particularly vulnerable to

being taken out of school if these facilities are not available in the village.



1.8 Anganwadis

UP sample villages indicated that most villages had the required number of anganwadis. The

sample villages were comparatively small

102 sample villages, 8% had no anganwadis at all. These villages were smaller

153 households on average.

anganwadis. Villages with one anganwadi had 191 households on average. Villages with two

0 10

Primary schools


Figure 1.5: Enrolment by Gender in


105


of STs (0.01%). However for Muslim children, the total enrolment in primary schools is 13.2%


of Muslim children are enrolled in madrasas and in private schools

at primary level, but some may be out of school altogether. At upper primary level, the

proportion out of school is likely to be quite high.


schools underscores the need to improve access and quality of these schools. This is also

1.7 below.

Gender wise enrolment in government schools

Looking at gender distribution of enrolment (see Figure 1.5), there were more girls than boys in

the primary and upper primary schools. This reflects greater enrolment of boys in private



out of school if these facilities are not available in the village.



sample villages were comparatively small – the average (median) was 200 households. Of these

102 sample villages, 8% had no anganwadis at all. These villages were smaller

The majority (78.4%) of sample villages had


48

44

52

56

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Figure 1.5: Enrolment by Gender in


% Boys % Girls


rolment in primary schools is 13.2%


are enrolled in madrasas and in private schools

e out of school altogether. At upper primary level, the


f these schools. This is also

, there were more girls than boys in

This reflects greater enrolment of boys in private




the average (median) was 200 households. Of these

102 sample villages, 8% had no anganwadis at all. These villages were smaller – they had had

The majority (78.4%) of sample villages had one or two


100

106

anganwadis were much larger with 340 households on average. A small proportion of villages

had 3 anganwadis. These villages had 515 households on average. Villages with more than 3

anganwadis had as many as 943 households on average.


No. of anganwadis

in a village

Percentage of villages

with specified number of

anganwadis

Average no. of households in villages

with specified number of anganwadis

0 7.8 153.4

1 49.0 191.0

2 29.4 340.0

3 6.9 515.0

4 to 6 6.9 942.7

Total 100.0 200.0


Most villages in UP had 1 or more Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) -- but not all AWCs were set up to

hold preprimary classes – there are mini AWCs which run only the supplementary nutrition

programme. In 4 of the sample villages, the AWCs were reported to not provide preschool

education. Thus, 12 villages in the sample did not have preschool facilities available through

anganwadis.

One Anganwadi Centre from each of the sample villages was visited. The following discussion is

based on this. There appears to be no fixed rule about the time the Centre was kept open. The

respondents reported variations where the centre opened at some time between 8 am to 10

am, and closed any time between 12 pm and 3 pm. The centres usually had their own building

or were in a community building. In many villages the AWCs were located within the school

campus – sometimes there was more than 1 AWC in the same school. In some cases, the

children were found to be sitting with class 1, and sharing in the school’s midday meal. There

are cases of double enrolment as well, with the names of the same children figured in the

registers of the AWC and the school. The enrolment varied widely from 37 to 160, with an

average of 76. There does not appear to be any norm of enrolment per Anganwadi Worker

(AWW) or AWC. In 80% of the centres, girls made up less than half the enrolment.

More important, the attendance was very very low. While several centres had no child present,

the maximum number present was 48, and on an average 12 or 13 were present. The following

table shows that while in 13% of schools, no child was present, in nearly 40% of schools, there

were 10 or less children. In 5 schools, the children could not be counted because either the

children were sitting with class 1, or were roaming around while the AWW was busy helping the

ANM while she was vaccinating children.

107


Number of children observed Proportion (%) of anganwadis

None 12.8

10 or less 38.5

11 to 20 30.8

More than 20 17.9


In 20 centres (in the 94 villages which had an anganwadi), the Anganwadi Worker was not

present – several had gone to the block for meetings or other official work. Between the limited

attendance of the AWW and the low attendance of children, few educational activities could be

observed. While the commonest situation was alphabets or numbers being recited, there were

cases in which the AWW was telling stories or teaching using teaching aids.

In the following sections (Sections 2-5), we will be unpacking the provisions of the Act (how the

state is to provide free and compulsory elementary education to every child) and the extent to

which these requirements have been met.

SECTION 2. INFRASTRUCTURE AND FACILITIES

There is a compulsion on the state to provide access to schooling of grades 1-8. Certain norms

and standards have been set up for schools.


RTE requires that even the smallest school should have at least 2 teachers. While only 2 primary

schools were single teacher schools, this applied to one fourth (24.6%) of the upper primary

schools. Of these 14 upper primary single-teacher schools, 12 had less than 100 children

enrolled, 2 had more than 100 children enrolled.

Table 2.1 Schools which meet RTE norms for PTRs in UP

Enrolment Number of

schools

No. of schools which RTE requirements

for PTR

All primary schools 106 44 (41.5%)

Up to 150 76 42

151-200 17 2

>200 13 0

All upper primary schools 56 34 (60.7%)

Up to 100 42 31

More than 100 14 3

All schools 162 78 (48.1%)

Note: Enrolment data is not available for 2 upper primary schools.



108

RTE specification in primary schools is for PTR to be less than 30 for schools with less than 150

enrolled.The primary schools in the sample villages were small. Most of them (71.2%) had

enrolment of less than 150 children.59

Only 30 schools had more than 150 children. The latter

are required to have at least 5 teachers and a head-teacher. The study found that 41.5% of the

primary schools had a PTR which satisfied RTE requirements. The shortage is most acute in

primary schools with more than 150 children enrolled.60

The upper primary schools were much

better off. Sixty one per cent had a PTR which was less than 35 (the maximum specified by the

RTE Act). It is seen that among both primary and upper primary schools, RTE compliance is

greater among the schools with lower enrolment.

Table 2.2 Government Schools which meet RTE Norms for Head Teacher Appointments in UP

Type of schools: No. of schools where

Head-teachers

should be appointed

No. of schools which meet

RTE requirements for Head-

teachers

Primary schools with more than 150

enrolled 30 24

Upper primary schools with more

than 100 enrolled 14 13

All schools 44 37



The schools did much better in terms of head-teacher appointments. Twenty four of the 30

primary schools which required head teachers (schools with enrolment more than 150) had

head-teachers. Thirteen of the 14 upper primary schools which required head-teachers satisfied

RTE requirements for head teachers.

Table 2.3 Pupil Teacher Ratios in Government Schools in UP

Primary schools Upper primary

schools

All schools

Average Pupil Teacher Ratio 36.1 30.8 34.6

Per cent

Proportion of schools with PTR>30 59.4 55.4 58.0





59

According to RTE, the pupil teacher ratio should be less than 30 for primary grades for schools with

enrolment<150 in Classes 1-5. 60

Schools with enrolment greater than 200 are required to have a PTR less than 40 (the Act specifies that the

head-teacher is to be excluded from this computation).

109

We present figures for the proportion of schools in UP with a specified PTR to give an idea of

the extent of teacher shortage in UP. Close to three fifths of all schools (58%) had a PTR greater

than 30. Thirty seven per cent had a PTR greater than 40. There was also a small proportion

(13%) of the schools which had a PTR greater than 60. Overall the deficiencies were greater in

the case of the primary schools.

Meeting requirements for teachers including subject teachers in upper primary schools: Details

about subjects being taught by the teachers in upper primary schools were asked in a sample of

government schools. In these 56 schools, 42 had an enrolment in grades 6-8 less than or equal

to 100, while 14 had an enrolment of more than 100. The RTE requirements for these schools

were different.

• Eighteen of the 42 schools with less than 100 enrolled met the RTE requirements of at

least 3 subject teachers. The majority of these schools (28 out of 42) also had a PTR less

than or equal to 35, and were not single teacher schools. The combination of having a

PTR below 35 and at least 3 subject teachers means that these 18 schools satisfied the

conditions related to provision of teachers under the RTE Act.

• Of the 14 schools with more than 100 enrolled in grades 6-8, 13 schools had a head

teacher appointed, 9 schools had at least 3 subject teachers, and 7 schools even had

part time teachers for art, PE and work education. However, only 3 schools had a PTR

less than 35. None of these schools met the RTE requirements for provision of teachers

on all criteria.

• Together only 18 out of 56 schools i.e. 32% met all the criteria.

The shortage of teachers needs to be unpacked, according to what the RTE requires for the

stage of schooling and the numbers of students enrolled. In single teacher schools the needs

are the most glaring (see below), but there are acute shortages of teachers in large proportions

of all schools.

• Single teacher schools at primary level need to get another teacher at least, apart from

attention being paid to bringing the PTR to an acceptable level. One has an enrolment of

77. It requires 3 teachers. The second has an enrolment of 108. It requires 4 teachers.

• There were 12 single teacher schools at upper primary level with enrolment of less than

100. They need to get another 2 teachers at least, apart from paying attention to the

overall PTR. There were 2 single teacher schools at upper primary level with enrolment

of more than 100. They need a head teacher, 3 subject teachers, part time teachers as

specified, and ensuring that they have a PTR less than or equal to 35.

2.2 Infrastructure requirements: At least one classroom for every teacher and an office-cum-

store-cum-Head teacher’s room:

Shortage of classrooms in primary schools as reflected in the Teacher Classroom Ratio: In the

primary schools of UP, the average teacher classroom ratio is greater than 1, which indicates

that there is a shortage of classrooms available in the light of RTE. Not so for the upper primary

110

schools, which have a TCR less than 1. The proportion of schools which did not have at least one

classroom for each teacher was 48.5% in the case of the primary schools, but only 14% in the

case of upper primary schools. The TCR indicator is not meaningful when there is a shortage of

teachers. The Student Classroom Ratio is better though it provides only a single statistic.

Table 2.4 Teacher Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in UP

Indicators

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All

Average no. of teachers 3.4 2.6 3.1

Average no. of classrooms 3.0 3.0 3.0

Average Teacher Classroom Ratio 1.2 0.8 1.1

% of schools with at least one classroom

for each teacher (TCR<=1) 55.3 87.5 66.7

Note: Includes head-teachers where appointed.



The average student classroom ratio (SCR) is 38. The primary schools are much more crowded

than the upper primary schools, with an SCR of 45 in the case of the former and 26 in the case

of the latter. This is surprising as there are fewer upper primary schools than primary schools.

The reduced enrolment at upper primary level indicates that children are dropping out as they

transition between primary and upper primary school.

Table 2.5 Student Classroom Ratio in Government Schools in UP

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All

Average Student Classroom Ratio 41.7 26.4 36.3



Availability of room for use as office cum store cum Head teacher’s room: RTE requires that

schools have a room which could be used as office cum store cum HT room. Over 90% of

schools surveyed had a separate office cum head teacher room. A higher proportion (97%) of

the upper primary schools had a separate office cum head teacher room compared to the

primary schools for whom the figure was 88%. These rooms could be used as storerooms if

required, and some were being used for this purpose.



Proportion (%) of schools with Primary Upper primary All

office cum store cum HT room 88.1 96.6 91.2

at least one classroom for each teacher* and an

office cum store cum Head Teacher’s room 46.2 81.0 58.5

111

*Includes head-teachers where appointed.



RTE requires schools to have at least one classroom per teacher and a room for non teaching

purposes (office cum store cum Head Teacher’s room). It is not clear whether the specification

of one classroom per teacher includes the head teacher in schools where head teachers are

mandatory.


The RTE under its norms and standards for a school specifies that all schools should have

‘separate toilets for both boys’ and girls’. In the sample schools, just over half (54%) of schools,

had separate toilets for boys and girls which were in a usable condition.

This shortfall in separate toilets for boys and girls exists at a number of levels. There were 12%

of schools which had separate toilets for boys and girls but not in a usable condition. Only

common toilets were available in 28% of schools. In a small minority of schools (6%), there

were no toilets available.

Primary schools were slightly better off than upper primary schools in terms of provision of

toilets. 55% had available and usable toilets for boys and girls compared to 52% of upper

primary schools. A smaller proportion (5%) had no toilets at all while the corresponding

proportion was 9% for upper primary schools.

Table 2.7 Availability of Toilet Facilities in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools with: Primary

schools

Upper

Primary

schools

All schools


and usable 55.2 51.7 54.0


but not usable 10.5 15.5 12.3

Only common toilet available 29.5 24.1 27.6

No toilet available 4.8 8.6 6.1

Total 100 100 100



The team found that that the unusable toilets were damaged, had no doors, or that there was

garbage in some of them. In a few cases the toilets were simply locked and hence could not be

used. Researchers reported that the children were seen going outside the school premises

when they wanted to use the toilet.

112

2.4 Safe and adequate drinking water facility to all children

Under the norms and standards that a school has to maintain, the RTE Act specifies that safe

and adequate drinking water facilities for children should be made available. In accordance with

that, the research team enquired about the availability, potability and sufficiency of water.


UP

(per cent)

Schools (%) with Drinking Water

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All schools

Available 93 83.9 89.7

Potable 89.3 87.2 88.6

Sufficient 90.3 78.7 86.4

Safe and adequate 84.7 78.7 82.8



Safe drinking water: The study found that 90% of the sample schools reported availability of

drinking water facilities, and this was observed by the researchers. Most schools have reported

the use of hand pumps. A high proportion (88.6%) of all schools (i.e. 89% and 87% of the

primary and upper primary schools, respectively) reported that the drinking water provided in

their school is safe.

Criteria to judge whether drinking water could be considered safe: When asked why they

considered the water potable, most of the head teachers (HTs) reported that they find the

water is clean and sweet or that they and the villagers also drink this water so they know it is

good. A smaller number (about 20%) of the head teachers reported that the water had been

checked and hence is fit for drinking.

Drinking water not safe/not adequate in some cases: Eleven per cent of the HTs said that the

water is not fit for drinking because of iron particles, chemicals, and other impurities found in

the water. Some also reported that the water smells bad and looks dirty, whereas one HT said

that the water gets polluted during the monsoons and the children face a lot of trouble during

that time.

There were some HTs who complained about the source of water, such as hand pumps and

tube wells not being in working condition or not being enough for the number of children in the

school. Out of these HTs there was one HT who said that the hand pump runs dry during

summer and the students have to walk 200 meters to get to a tube well to collect water.

2.5 Availability of a Kitchen where the Midday Meal is Cooked in the School




all weather building in all schools should have a kitchen where the meal can be made. Eighty

five per cent of the schools had kitchens that were available and usab

had kitchens available but which were not usable. Just over one

have a kitchen at all. There was a substantial difference between the primary and upper

primary schools in this case – while close to

available and usable, this was true for only 64% of the upper primary schools in the sample.

2.6 Playground

The RTE Act specifies that all schools should have a playground. The primary schools were

slightly better equipped than the upper primary schools. Just over half (53%) reported that they

had a usable playground compared to 44% of the upper primary schools. A substantial

proportion of the 1-5 schools (39%) and the 6

playground. Some upper primary schools reported they had a playground which was not

usable. This included cases where the playground was dug up and used for storing sticks and

bricks, and where buffaloes were tied in the playground.

96

2

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.9: Availability of Kitchen in



113

Availability of a Kitchen where the Midday Meal is Cooked in the School




five per cent of the schools had kitchens that were available and usable. Very few schools (4%)

had kitchens available but which were not usable. Just over one-tenth (12%) of schools did not


while close to all primary schools (96%) had a kitchen that was



y better equipped than the upper primary schools. Just over half (53%) reported that they


5 schools (39%) and the 6-8 schools (37%) reported that they h



bricks, and where buffaloes were tied in the playground.

64

85

7

4


Figure 2.9: Availability of Kitchen in





le. Very few schools (4%)

tenth (12%) of schools did not


all primary schools (96%) had a kitchen that was



y better equipped than the upper primary schools. Just over half (53%) reported that they


8 schools (37%) reported that they had no





2.7 Boundary Walls and Fencing

The RTE Act specifies that all schools should have arrangements for securing the school building

by a boundary wall or fencing. Only half of all schools (54%)

more among the primary (61%) and less among the upper primary schools (42%). Eight per cent

of all schools had boundary walls/fencing which were not functional. Around two fifths of all

schools (38%) had no boundary wall o

boundary walls by the researchers were that they were either broken, or not built on all sides

of the school.



53

8

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.10 Availability of Playgrounds in



61

8

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.11: Presence of Boundary Wall or Fencing


Available and functional

114

overnment schools in sample villages

Boundary Walls and Fencing


by a boundary wall or fencing. Only half of all schools (54%) had such a functional provision



schools (38%) had no boundary wall or fencing available. Common observations on the



44 50

19 12


Figure 2.10 Availability of Playgrounds in



4254

98


Figure 2.11: Presence of Boundary Wall or Fencing


Available and functional Available but not functional


had such a functional provision –



r fencing available. Common observations on the


115


The teachers in Uttar Pradesh reported availability of a wide variety of teaching and learning

aids in their classes. Specifically, charts, pictures, maps and globes seem to be very popular,

with 93.7% of all schools surveyed reportedly using charts and 89.9% of the schools surveyed

reportedly using maps and globes. Other teaching and learning materials used as reported by

the teachers are science and maths kits, wall paintings, handmade models made by the children

and plastic alphabet cards.

Table 2.12 Availability of Teaching Learning Materials in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools with: Primary Upper primary All

Charts / Pictures 97.0 87.9 93.7

Maps / Globe 90.1 89.7 89.9

Flash Cards 89.1 50.0 74.8

Other 33.7 50.0 39.6

None of the above 1.0 3.4 1.9



TLMs were observed to be available in a majority of primary schools. In a large number of cases

these were a variety of wall paintings with pictures of numbers, alphabets, tables, animals,

birds, fruits and vegetables, days of the week, month names, maps, stories expressed in

pictures, human body parts, national symbols like the Indian flag or Ashok Chakra, inspirational

statements drawn on them. Many also had flash cards, plastic letters or numbers, abacus,

charts, a globe, marbles, match sticks, plastic pipes to count 1-100 or clay. However in only 11.6

percent of schools visited were TLMs seen in use in any of the classes. In the various classrooms

teachers were seen – ‘explaining additions and subtractions with matchsticks’, ‘teaching by

showing the counting chart’, ‘by showing globe and charts’, by using paper letters and using

Hindi flash cards for class 1.

2.9 Availability of Library Facilities

Table 2.13 Availability of Library Facilities in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools with: Primary schools

Upper primary

schools All

Library available 84.0 65.5 77.2

A high proportion (84%) of the primary schools had libraries, while this was true for a smaller

proportion (66%) of the upper primary schools.

2.10 Play material, Games and Sports equipment


Source Cord Survey 2011-12

The RTE Act says that each class must be provided with play material, sports equipment and

games, as per their requirements. Just over one third (3

which was usable, whereas over half (54%) of the schools did not have any games and sports

equipment. One tenth (11%) of all schools had equipment available but this was not in usable

condition. The primary schools wer

them reported no equipment in contrast to 39% of the upper primary schools. Common sports

equipment included cricket paraphernalia, footballs, skipping rope. Some schools had

equipment for volleyball and badminton, apart from ludo and carrom boards for indoor

activities.

Summing up, in terms of teacher provision, the situation is quite varied. There are still 2

primary schools and 14 upper primary schools which are single teacher schools. The PTRs ar

somewhat better in the smaller primary schools (enrolment less than 150) and the smaller

upper primary schools (enrolment less than 100). The provision of head teachers in the larger

schools is comparatively high. Upper primary schools also require at le

and, in the larger schools, part time teachers. Looking at the picture as a whole, it was found

that 18 of the 42 upper primary schools (with enrolment less than 100) met all these

requirements, but this applied to none of the larger

more than 100).

29

9

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt


Equipment in Government Schools in UP


116

ames and Sports equipment



games, as per their requirements. Just over one third (35%) of all schools had some equipment



condition. The primary schools were much worse off than the upper primary schools



and badminton, apart from ludo and carrom boards for indoor


primary schools and 14 upper primary schools which are single teacher schools. The PTRs ar



schools is comparatively high. Upper primary schools also require at least 3 subject teachers



requirements, but this applied to none of the larger upper primary schools (with enrolment

4535

16

11



Equipment in Government Schools in UP



5%) of all schools had some equipment



e much worse off than the upper primary schools – 62% of



and badminton, apart from ludo and carrom boards for indoor


primary schools and 14 upper primary schools which are single teacher schools. The PTRs are



ast 3 subject teachers



upper primary schools (with enrolment

A summary figure below shows UP’s lack of readiness wrt requirements of RTE for

infrastructure and facilities (see Figure 2.15a)

classrooms and a non teaching room is particularly poor. Drinking water facilities and kitchens

are the only facilities available in a high proportion of these schools. Many other facilities

(playgrounds, separate toilets for boys and girls, boundary walls) are available

of the primary schools. Infrastructural provision

are slightly worse than in the primary schools, with the exception of classrooms.


Source CORD Survey 2011-12

The situation with regard to some TLMs available in both primary and upper primary schools is

excellent. Library facilities have also been made available in 77% of all schools. Games and

sports equipment were available in less t

schools.

46.2

55.2

81

0

25

50

75

100

At least 1

classroom per

teacher & an

office/store/HT

room

Separate toilets

for boys and

girls

Pe

rce

nt

Figure 2.15a: Government Schools (%) in UP which had

Specified Infrastructure and Facilities Available and

Primary Schools

117

below shows UP’s lack of readiness wrt requirements of RTE for

(see Figure 2.15a). In the primary schools, the availability of usable

non teaching room is particularly poor. Drinking water facilities and kitchens


(playgrounds, separate toilets for boys and girls, boundary walls) are available

nfrastructural provision and facilities in the upper primary schools in UP





sports equipment were available in less than half of all schools, and particularly poor in primary

55.2

84.7

96.2

53.451.7

78.7

63.8

43.9

Separate toilets

for boys and

girls

Safe drinking

water facility

Kitchen Playground



Usable


below shows UP’s lack of readiness wrt requirements of RTE for

. In the primary schools, the availability of usable

non teaching room is particularly poor. Drinking water facilities and kitchens


in less than 60%

and facilities in the upper primary schools in UP




han half of all schools, and particularly poor in primary

60.6

42.1

Boundary wall



118

Table 2.15b Availability of Facilities in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)


Source CORD Survey 2011-12

SECTION 3. FACILITATING ADMISSION AND RETENTION OF ALL CHILDREN, PARTICULARLY THOSE ON THE MARGIN

The RTE Act puts a compulsion on the state “to provide free and compulsory elementary

education to every child in the age group 6-14 years” (Chapter III, Section 8a) requiring that the

state ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion of elementary education for

each of these children. In this section, we will look at school policies specified under RTE which

are aimed to bring all children into school and retain them in school for at least 8 years,

particularly children on the margin (those from socially disadvantaged groups, children with

disability), who are most at risk of dropping out due to problems at home and/or in school.

Findings are based on the schools surveyed in detail. Head teachers were interviewed; activities

observed; and registers examined to see what was recorded.

We begin by noting whether teachers had any information about the Act, in terms of training

and materials.

3.1 Awareness and training on RTE Act

Table 3.1 Awareness of RTE Act among Teachers and Head Teachers in Government Schools in

UP

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers and head-

teachers who reported that they had

received

Teachers Head Teachers

RTE related training 83.7 86.5

Reading material on RYE Act 96.9 13.5

Based on interviews with class 3 and class 7 teachers and the head teachers in sample schools

Source: CORD survey 2011-12

The study found that over four-fifths of teachers and head teachers in U.P. had received RTE

training for a duration of 4 days. The purpose of the training was reported to be essentially to

spread awareness about RTE rules and regulations including specifications of teachers’ duties.

Percentage of schools with the following

available:

Primary Schools Upper Primary

Schools

All

Teaching learning equipment 99.0 96.6 98.1

Library 84.0 65.5 77.2

Games and sports equipment 37.1 60.7 45.8

119

Training also emphasized child development, how to teach children with special

needs/disability, the need for special attention for weaker students, and the importance of

teaching in a friendly and fear free environment, without punishing or scolding the children.

Specifically four fifths of Class 3 and Class 7 teachers reported that they had had training on

how to teach in a child friendly way, in a child centred way, how to make children learn through

activities, discover and exploration, and to teach so as to ensure the all round development of

the child. Most teachers and head teachers felt however that they needed more training on

RTE.

Most teachers reported getting the Samvad module,61

as RTE training material. A majority of

them remembered the name, and others simply said they got a booklet/book. A few teachers

said they did not get it because of a shortage of copies.


No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof: The RTE Act, Section 14 (1)

mandates that for the purposes of admission to elementary education, the age of a child shall

be determined on the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of

the Births, Deaths, and Marriages Registration Act, 1886 or on the basis of such other

document, as may be prescribed. Section 14 (2) states that no child shall be denied admission in

a school for lack of age proof. The UP state rules (Section 9) stipulate that the age proof could

be provided from ANM records, anganwadis records, village register of births and deaths, or a

declaration through affidavit from the guardian.

We see that 63% of head teachers stated that they do not refuse admission if children have no

documents (for age proof or transfer certificates). Teachers reported getting these orders

(verbally) between July and December 2011 (barring 4 cases). A few teachers admit children

after taking permission to do so from the BEO. Some schools (10.4 percent) reported that they

require documents only for admission to certain classes. Class 1 is always exempt from this

requirement. In some cases documents were needed only for classes 2-5, 3-4 or 4-5 or class 6

onwards.

A small proportion (12%) of schools reported that they require Birth Certificates as age proof.

Another 7% said they take affidavits from parents. A substantial proportion (44%) of upper

primary schools reported that they ask for transfer certificates, compared to 22.7% of primary

schools. Teachers reported that Transfer Certificates are important for them to decide which

class to admit children in. The RTE Act is only concerned that the lack of a TC should not be

grounds for denying admission. 62

61

The Samvad module is reported to cost between 70 and 80 rupees. This appears to be highly subsidized as the

module is a thick volume. 62

The RTE Act requires that children who wish should be issued Transfer Certificates to facilitate their admission

into other schools, and that lack of a Transfer Certificate is not to be a ground to delay or deny admission (Chapter

II, Section 5 (3)).

120

Table 3.2 Documents Required for Admission in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools which Primary schools Upper primary

schools

All schools

Do not refuse admission even if

there are no documents 71.6 46.0 62.3

ask for the following documents at

time of admission:

Age proof (Birth Certificate) 11.4 12.0 11.6

Any other (including affidavit /

declaration from parents) 3.4 12.0 6.5

Transfer Certificate 22.7 44.0 30.4


Based on survey in sample schools


Admission for extended period as prescribed: The RTE Act requires that children be admitted

for an extended period as prescribed (Chapter IV, Section 15). A high proportion (84%) of

schools reported that they do admit children even after the earlier cut-off date for admission

(i.e. after 30 September). Enrolment records showed that only 15% of schools had done so. This

is more in keeping with the fact that 49% of head teachers reported that they have so far not

received any government order of admitting children beyond the extended period.

Table 3.3 Schools that Grant Admission for Extended Period as Prescribed

(per cent)

Proportion of schools which took new

admissions after 30th

September

Primary Upper Primary Total

As reported by HT 80.8 90.9 84.4

As found from enrolment records 13.9 17.2 15.1



Age appropriate enrolment and Special Classes to mainstream children: What was the criteria

for choosing the grade in the case of the admission of a 9 year old who has never been enrolled

before. From the table, it can be seen that 61% of the schools reported that they admit a child

to the age appropriate class. Admission into age-appropriate classes would need to go hand in

hand with Special Classes for such new admissions. The awareness and implementation of

having such classes is discussed below.

121

Table 3.4 Criteria for Selecting Grade when Admitting 9 year old Never Enrolled child in


(per cent)

Proportion of respondents who said, when a never enrolled 9 year old child

comes for admission, that they:

Percent

Admit the child to age appropriate class 61

Admit child to class 1 8

Give a written test before deciding 48

Any other (includes oral tests) 3

Note: This is not applicable to schools with only upper primary grades because age of entry for these

schools is 11 years.



A majority of schools (57%) were not doing age appropriate enrolment -- 48% reported that

they would conduct a written test for a 9 year old, who had never been enrolled, to decide

which grade the child should be admitted in. This may be the standard procedure the teachers

have always followed for new admissions. A few schools (8%) reported that they would put all

never enrolled children into Class 1. There were also a few schools who said they would decide

on the basis of oral tests or a combination of factors.

According to the RTE Act, Special Classes have to be held for new admissions who have never

attended school to enable them to catch up with other children of their age. However, only two

schools actually reported conducting such special classes for age appropriate new admissions,

despite 34 schools claiming to have received orders from the Government to conduct such

classes. Some schools reported being briefed about this rule during RTE training programmes, a

few reported receiving orders from the BRC.

3.3 Ensure participation of children from weaker sections and disadvantaged social groups

Related to ensuring school participation of children from weaker sections and disadvantaged

groups is the specification in the Act that these children are not discriminated against and

prevented from pursuing and completing elementary education on any grounds – Section 8c.

Overt discrimination against children from “weaker sections and disadvantaged groups” was

neither reported nor observed. In a few schools, discrimination against disadvantaged groups

was mentioned in the context of the midday meal. As mentioned earlier, the methodology and

tools used in this study are not suited to exploring issues of discrimination. Issues of inclusion

are discussed in section 5 which looks at how teachers are to transact the curriculum. The study

did not find much awareness of these issues among teachers (see section 5.1 which discusses

teachers’ understanding of the various ways that the RTE Act requires them to relook at the

goals of schooling and how they are to achieve them).

122


RTE requires for children with disabilities to have full participation in school, ensuring that they

are protected, and that they are on equal footing with other children. While heads of schools

did report that many children with disabilities (149) were enrolled in school, numbers observed

by researchers (with the help of the teachers) were about half of this (75).

Table 3.5 Children with Disability (CWD) Reported to be Enrolled in Government Schools in UP

Type of Disability

No. of CWD in primary schools No. of CWD in upper primary

schools

Physical / locomotor 30 17

Mental / learning disability 30 9

Visual 16 1

Speech 10 5

Hearing 5 0

Multiple 20 6

Total 111 38



Table 3.6 Training in Special Education among Teachers in Government Schools in UP

Teacher with following types of training on

teaching CEDs

Number of teachers

Diploma / degree in special education 7 (in 5 schools)

Short duration course (2 to 30 days) 62 (in 28 schools)



Coming to the teachers, there were 5 schools in UP, which had 7 teachers with a

diploma/degree in special education to teach disabled children, and 28 schools with 62

teachers having short duration training, which ranged between 1-4 days. Six schools also

reported to having teachers coming from outside the school (from NGOs, IET and Shiksha

Mitra) to teach the children with disability. Surprisingly only 47% of the schools reported that

they had children with disability enrolled, and the proportion of schools which had at least one

teacher with even short-duration special training was much lower (25%), clearly indicating how

unprepared the system is.



Proportion of schools with:

Any children with disability

At least one teacher with some

on teaching CWD

Based on interviews with the Head Teachers in the sample schools


Barrier-free access: Ramps are important to ensure that students with physical/locomotor

disability are able to move about in school. It can be seen from the table that 54.4% of all

schools had ramps that were us

Ramps had not been made in 36

indicates that just over half the schools had usable ramps to provide barrier free access for

children with disability. Further, 5.1%

usable.



62

2

0

25

50

75

100

Primary Schools

pe

rce

nt

Figure 3.8: Availability of Ramps in

Selected Government Schools in UP


123


Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

47 45.5

some training 22 29.1

Based on interviews with the Head Teachers in the sample schools

Ramps are important to ensure that students with physical/locomotor


schools had ramps that were usable (62% in primary and 41.4% in upper primary schools).

Ramps had not been made in 36% of primary schools and 48.3% of upper primar


with disability. Further, 5.1% of all the schools had ramps that were available but not

4154

10

5


Figure 3.8: Availability of Ramps in

Selected Government Schools in UP



(per cent)

All schools

46.5

24.5

Ramps are important to ensure that students with physical/locomotor


in upper primary schools).

of upper primary schools. This


of all the schools had ramps that were available but not

124

3.5 Ensure admission of children of migrant families

Children of migrant families are susceptible to dropping out because they are not stationed in

their native village. The RTE Act is concerned that such children are able to access schooling

wherever they may be based. A small proportion (17%) of schools in UP reported that they had

any children who were in-migrants to the village. This is in keeping with the limited in-migration

that is reported in UP. These were more likely to be the primary schools. Only a small

proportion of schools (18%) reported that they had children who had been enrolled, then

migrated to other places, and then returned.

Table 3.9 Schooling of Migrant Children in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of Head Teachers who report that:

Primary

schools

Upper

primary

schools

All

schools

their school has enrolled children from families who

have lived there only for a few months in the year (in-

migrants)

19.0 14.6 17.4

their school has children who had migrated to other

places and then returned to the school 20.0 14.5 18.1




RTE requires not just that children not pay fees, but also that the state will cover any costs

which may serve as a barrier to the child’s participation in school. The schools in the sample

reported that they do not charge fees. However, additional coverage of costs of education was

limited to the established schemes of providing textbooks to all children and uniforms to some

children. In a very few cases, there was coverage of the costs of some transport facilities.

Table 3.10 Schemes to Reduce Costs of Schooling for Children in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools which reported: Primary schools Upper primary schools All

Textbooks given to all students 97.0 93.1 95.6

Uniforms given to all children 12.9 15.5 13.8

Uniforms given to some children 17.8 18.9 18.2

Transport facility to any student 1.0 5.2 2.5



125

The study found that while textbooks were given to all students in nearly all schools (96%), the

same did not hold true for uniforms. Distribution of money for uniforms was occurring in some

districts at the time of the survey. In 14% of schools, uniforms were reported to have been

given to all children, while in 18% of schools they had been given to some children. In cases

where uniforms were given to only some children, this was mostly to all girls and to boys of BPL

and SC families. It was found that in many cases bags were given to girls from classes 1-5.

Students were provided transport facilities in only 2 cases. One school had given cycles for

children who live far away. In another case, wheelchair tricycles were being provided for

children with disability.

3.7 Children not to be kept back in any class / expelled from school till elementary education is

completed

The RTE Act states that no child admitted in a school shall be held back in any class or expelled

from school till the completion of elementary education (Chapter IV, Section 16). The U.P.

Government has also passed a Notification regarding the same on 16 January, 2010. The Act

also requires that there be no Board examination during elementary education – Section 30 (1).

Table 3.11 Retention of Students in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of Head Teachers who said they:

Primary Upper

Primary

All

schools

do not retain any child in the same class 93 87.3 91

Retain a child is in the same class when:

the child has not learnt enough / academically weak 3 0 1.9

the child is very irregular / absent for a long period 2 3.6 2.6

other reasons (does not clear the annual examinations ) 4 9.1 5.8



CORD survey 2011-12

The non retention policy appears to be getting implemented. Ninety three per cent of primary

schools and 87% of upper primary schools reported that they do not hold back children. There

were a few head teachers who reported holding back children due to reasons which included

irregular attendance, in case the child hadn’t learnt enough, if the child did not sit for the

examination.

The non expulsion policy is being implemented by a majority of schools -- 73% primary and 86%

upper primary schools report that they do strike off the names of children on any count.

However a small minority of head teachers report that they strike off students’ names if they

126

are absent for two months or more (8%), some who do so if they are absent for a month or

more (8%), and some who do so even if they are absent for less than a month (6%).

Table 3.12 Striking Off Names of Students for Prolonged Absence in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Primary

schools

Upper primary

schools

All

schools

Proportion of head-teachers who report that a

child’s name is struck off if absent continuously for

More than 2 months 8 9.1 8.4

More than 1 month 12 1.8 8.4

A month or less 7 3.6 5.8

Proportion of head-teachers who report that a

child’s name is not struck off even for a prolonged

absence

73 85.5 77.4




Table 3.13 Languages used in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of head teachers who reported that the

following languages are used to teach/explain to

their students

Primary

schools

Upper

primary

schools

All

schools

Hindi 99.0 98.2 98.7

Other local dialects 35.0 18.2 29.0

Urdu 1.0 0.0 0.7




In the 17 districts covered in this survey, teachers reported that Hindi or khadi boli were the

most common languages spoken by children. Nearly all schools reported using Hindi to teach

and explain in class. However, there were a proportion of head-teachers (29%) who reported

that local languages were also being used (a higher proportion of primary schools). In a small

proportion of schools (16%), teachers said that children face some trouble in understanding

Hindi. In most cases, teachers said this was a problem because they speak Bhojpuri, Awadhi or

theth bhasha at home. This was more a problem for children of class 1. “Children don’t

understand ‘pure Hindi’”, said one teacher. No one reported Urdu as a language spoken in the

127

region. No teacher reported using Urdu to explain in the class. Only one primary school

reported that it had teaching in Urdu.63

SECTION 4 TEACHERS AND SCHOOL FUNCTIONING

4.1 Working days for schools / working hours for teachers

The academic year in the UP schools was reported to run from July to May. All primary schools

and a high proportion (85%) of upper primary schools reported that they work more than the

minimum number of days specified by RTE (i.e. 200 working days for Classes 1-5 and 220

working days for Classes 6-8).

Table 4.1 Working Days for Primary and Upper Primary Government Schools in UP

Proportion of: Percent

Primary schools (1-5) which worked at least 200 days 100

Upper primary schools (6-8) which worked at least 220

days

84.6



However, the actual picture is very different. Schools are often closed at short notice because

of extreme weather conditions. Only 6% of schools that they had not been closed for such

reasons the previous year. Fifty per cent of schools said they had been closed for 10-14 days the

previous year for such reasons. The study found that extreme cold in UP in December 2011

meant that schools were closed suddenly while the survey was going on, and well before the

official closing date for the winter break. The scheduled date for schools reopening was also

uncertain. Attendance of children just before the schools closed and just after they opened was

also very thin, partly because of the cold but also because of the uncertainty about whether the

schools were functioning. Similarly, uncertainty about the functioning of schools was also a part

of the days immediately before festivals such as Saraswati Puja.

Table 4.2 Distribution of Government schools in UP by the number of days closed unexpectedly*

(per cent)

Number of days closed in

school year 2010-11

Reported by proportion of schools

Not closed 7.1

Closed but days not specified 2.6

5 to 9 days 16.8

10 to 14 days 54.8

15 to 19 days 11.6

20 days or more 7.1

100

63

See Appendix: Status of Urdu in Uttar Pradesh.

128

*Reasons include extreme weather conditions like floods, cold wave, heat wave.


Source: CORD survey 2011-12

RTE also specifies a minimum number of 45 working hours per week for the teacher for

teaching and preparation work. Self reporting by the teacher would make it difficult to get an

accurate picture of this. The average school day for the primary and upper primary schools in

UP were reported to be 6.7 and 6.1 hours (including the MDM), respectively. The average

duration of the MDM was 36 minutes in primary schools and 30 minutes in upper primary

schools. Teachers were not required to keep a record of time they spent on preparation outside

of school hours.

4.2 Teachers’ attendance in schools

Teachers are required to maintain regularity and punctuality in attending school, as specified in

Section 24 (1a) of the Act, and teachers’ presence in school on the day of the survey was noted

to get some idea of their regularity in school.

The study found that 48% of the schools in UP had all teachers present. The upper primary

schools were more likely to have all teachers present. Thirty per cent of schools had only one

teacher absent, both primary and upper primary. More than one fifth of schools had only one

teacher present. These were more likely to be upper primary schools – 46% of them were in

this situation. The mean PTR on the day of the survey was 31.

Table 4.3 Teacher Absenteeism in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools where: Primary schools Upper primary

schools

All schools

All teachers were present 43.6 55.2 48.1

One teacher absent 29.7 29.8 29.7

More than one teacher

absent

26.7 15.0 22.2

Only 1 teacher present 10.9 45.6 23.4

Note: Two upper primary schools had no teachers present.

Based on survey of all schools in sample villages


While 26% of teachers were absent in school due to different reasons, 15% of teachers were

reportedly absent because of school related duties and non school related government duties.

Unlike Bihar, absence due to non school related government duties was comparatively high – it

applied to 13% of teachers. Eleven per cent of teachers were reported to be absent for personal

or unknown reasons.

129

Table 4.4 Reasons for Teachers’ Absence on Day of Survey in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Type of schools

Proportion of teachers absent due to

non school-

related duty

school-

related duty

personal

reasons

reason not

known

All reasons

Primary schools 12.2 2 11.3 0.6 26.3

Upper primary

schools 15.9 1.4 8.3 1.4 26.7

All schools 13.1 1.8 10.3 0.8 26.4



Even among schools where teachers were present, teaching did not necessarily continue after

the midday meal. The school day came to an end with the midday meal in 14% of the schools

even though it was served in the middle of the official school day.

4.3 Student attendance in schools


enrolled. Attendance rates reported from the attendance register were as low as 55.3%.

Attendance rates among girls were higher than among boys.

Table 4.5 Student attendance on Day of Survey in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of

students attending on

the day of survey

According to attendance register Observed by survey team

All Boys Girls All Boys Girls

Primary schools 54.9 53.7 56.1 48.9 46.6 50.9

Upper primary schools 57.2 54.2 59.6 52.8 48.3 56.3

All schools 55.3 53.5 57 49.9 47 52.4



The observed attendance rates were much lower than the reported attendance rates. These

were calculated from the observations of the investigators on the day of the survey and were

the attendance rates observed before the midday meal. At its highest point, 49.9% of children

were in school, a truly dismal figure. In terms of observed attendance rates as well, girls’

attendance was better than that of the boys. It is possible that boys were simultaneously

enrolled in private schools or going to private tuition or even out of school altogether.

To find out whether children were there for the duration of the school day, the number of

children present was also observed after the midday meal. This was found to fall to 46%.



Attendance rates were low in both primary and upper primary schools. Attendance rates in the

upper primary schools were 52.8%, slightly better than in the primary schools (48.9%). (This

applied both when one looked at attendance from the register and at observed attendance.)

However, within the upper primary schools itself, it was seen that there was a sharp decline in

attendance rates between classes 6 and 8. There was not much difference noticed in

attendance rates between classes 1 and 5 in the primary schools. Improving student at

rates in primary and upper primary schools is essential if other inputs are going to make a

difference.


Proportion of students attending

Grade 1

Grade 5




Proportion of students attending

Grade 6

Grade 8



48.9

0

25

50

75

100

Primary schools

Pe

rce

nt

Figure 4.6: Student Attendance Observed Before

and After Mid-day Meal in Government Schools

Pre midday meal

130

both primary and upper primary schools. Attendance rates in the



within the upper primary schools itself, it was seen that there was a sharp decline in


attendance rates between classes 1 and 5 in the primary schools. Improving student at



Proportion of students attending Reported attendance rates

Observed attendance

rates

55.0

56.3


students attending Reported attendance rates Observed attendance rates

61.6

50.0

52.845.1 49.7

Primary schools Upper primary schools

Figure 4.6: Student Attendance Observed Before

day Meal in Government Schools

in UP

Pre midday meal Post midday meal

both primary and upper primary schools. Attendance rates in the



within the upper primary schools itself, it was seen that there was a sharp decline in


attendance rates between classes 1 and 5 in the primary schools. Improving student attendance



(per cent)

Observed attendance

rates

50.6

49.2


(per cent)

Observed attendance rates

55.9

47.0

As mentioned earlier, the upper primary schools were smaller than one might expect.

investment is urgently required if they are to meet the needs of providing schooling to all

children in the age group corresponding to the upper primary stage of schooling. Two upper

primary schools in the survey were a picture of neglect. They had n

present on the day of the survey. They were in the same complex as a primary school

students (very few) were on their own. The students only took part in the assembly and the

midday meal. This is acutely different from w


The teacher cadre in the UP schools

recruited teachers (see Figure 4.9a)

recruitment for which is district based. The government has had a policy of appointing not

more than 2 Shiksha Mitras per school. At the time of the survey, the government

recruit 72,000 additional teachers, but thi

code of conduct was in operation in



64

Panchayat teachers

36%

Figure 4.9a: Profile of Teachers in Government Schools

131

As mentioned earlier, the upper primary schools were smaller than one might expect.



primary schools in the survey were a picture of neglect. They had no teacher or head teacher

present on the day of the survey. They were in the same complex as a primary school


midday meal. This is acutely different from what has been envisaged for them by the RTE Act.


teacher cadre in the UP schools was mostly regular teachers (63.8%), and 36% locally

(see Figure 4.9a).64

UP continues to have a regular teacher cadre,


more than 2 Shiksha Mitras per school. At the time of the survey, the government

teachers, but this had been stayed by a high court order (the model

code of conduct was in operation in the state as elections were to be held).


Regular teachers

64%


in UP: Type of Service

As mentioned earlier, the upper primary schools were smaller than one might expect. More



o teacher or head teacher

present on the day of the survey. They were in the same complex as a primary school – and the


hat has been envisaged for them by the RTE Act.

mostly regular teachers (63.8%), and 36% locally

to have a regular teacher cadre,


more than 2 Shiksha Mitras per school. At the time of the survey, the government was to

s had been stayed by a high court order (the model

Regular teachers




A majority of teachers were males (53.6%) but

(46.4%). Regular teachers were more likely to be male. Locally recruited teachers were more

likely to be female (see Table 4.9c)

panchayat teachers, upper primary schools had only regular teachers (see Figure 4.9b).


Proportion of teachers appointed who are:

Permanent / regular

Panchayat appointees

All



Teacher qualifications: Section 23 of the RTE Act deals with the issue of qualifications required

for a teacher. Section 23(1) specifies that an academic authority authorized by the central

government will decide on the minimum qualifications of teachers, in this case the National

Council of Teacher Education (NCTE).

65

The norms for minimum qualifications for teachers can be relaxed for 5 years (Section 23 (2)) but teachers are

required to acquire minimum qualifications within 5 years (Section 23 (3)).

Panchayat teachers

in primary schools

36%

Figure 4.9b: Teacher Profile

in Primary and Upper Primary Schools in UP

132

sample schools

males (53.6%) but the proportion of females was also substantial


ble 4.9c). Primary schools had high proportions of regular and



s appointed who are: Male Female

37.7 26.3

15.8 20.2

53.5 46.5


23 of the RTE Act deals with the issue of qualifications required



l of Teacher Education (NCTE).65


um qualifications within 5 years (Section 23 (3)).

Regular teachers in

primary schools

35%

Regular teachers

in upper-primary

schools

29%

Panchayat teachers

in primary schools

Figure 4.9b: Teacher Profile


was also substantial


Primary schools had high proportions of regular and



Female

26.3

20.2

46.5

23 of the RTE Act deals with the issue of qualifications required




Table 4.10b Educational Qualifications of

UP

Proportion of teachers

who are educated:

Less than class 12

Class 12

Graduate and above

All



The NCTE Rules on teacher qualifications (29

studied at least up to class 12 to teach primary grades. It can be seen that nearly all the

teachers (96%) in the primary schools in UP met this requirement. The teachers recruited were

primarily graduates (see Figure 4.10a)

also stipulate that teachers who teach upper primary grades must be graduates (except those

who have done a 4 year B.El.Ed.). This stipulation was met by 72% of the teachers in the uppe

primary schools. Those who did not meet these norms included a small proportion (6%) who

had not passed Class 12, and 22% of teachers who had not studied beyond Class 12.

Looking at educational qualifications of male and female teachers, we see that a

proportion of both were graduates (see Table 4.1

had studied up to Class 12 but not beyond. This was one fourth of the male teachers but 16% of

the female teachers.

Teacher training: In terms of teacher tra

had a Diploma in primary education, but more women (39%) than men (28%) had no training

(see Table 4.11b). The teachers with no training were nearly all in the primary schools (46%)

4.1

6.3

20.3

0

Primary schools


Figure 4.10a: Educational Qualifications of Teachers (%)


Less than class 12

133

Educational Qualifications of Male and Female Teachers in Government Schools in

(per cent)

Male Female

4.5 4.9

25.3 16.4

70.2 78.8

100.0 (265) 100.0 (226)


The NCTE Rules on teacher qualifications (29th

July 2011) stipulate that teachers need to have



see Figure 4.10a). Less than 5% had not completed class 12. NCTE rules


who have done a 4 year B.El.Ed.). This stipulation was met by 72% of the teachers in the uppe



Looking at educational qualifications of male and female teachers, we see that a

proportion of both were graduates (see Table 4.10b). The difference was the proportions who

to Class 12 but not beyond. This was one fourth of the male teachers but 16% of

In terms of teacher training, a similar proportion of male and female teachers


. The teachers with no training were nearly all in the primary schools (46%)

20.3

21.8

75.7

71.8

% teachers with training



Less than class 12 Class 12 Graduate and above

Teachers in Government Schools in

July 2011) stipulate that teachers need to have



. Less than 5% had not completed class 12. NCTE rules


who have done a 4 year B.El.Ed.). This stipulation was met by 72% of the teachers in the upper



Looking at educational qualifications of male and female teachers, we see that a high

). The difference was the proportions who

to Class 12 but not beyond. This was one fourth of the male teachers but 16% of

ining, a similar proportion of male and female teachers


. The teachers with no training were nearly all in the primary schools (46%)

100


(see Figure 4.11a). This is an important area where action is required

taken.

Provisions have been made for a two year training programme through Distance Mode

(approved by the NCTE). A notification was issued regarding this 2 year NCTE approved

course on 11th

July 2011. Under this provision, Shiksha Mitras who are graduates shall be

trained through distance mode with material prepared by the SCERT. Contact programmes at

the block level will be combined with the distance mode. The notification

1.25 lakh graduate Shiksha Mitras are to be trained the last batch of which shall be trained in

2013’. Interestingly, teachers are to be trained under a CCE system culminating in a final exam.

Table 4.11b Professional Teacher Edu


Proportion of teachers who have received the

following training

Diploma (JBT, CPED, DPE etc)

B. Ed.

None

All



There is an urgent need to bring basic educational qualifications of teachers in line with RTE

norms. There were still 4% of teachers in upper primary schools who had not passe

and 28% of teachers in upper primary schools who were not graduates, including 6% of

teachers who had not passed Class 12. The teachers with no training were nearly all in the

primary schools. They were 46% of the teachers in the primary school

26.8

0

Primary schools


Figure 4.11a: Teachers (%) with Professional Teacher

Education in Primary and Upper Primary Schools in UP

% with Diploma (JBT, CPED, DPE etc)

134

. This is an important area where action is required and was reported to being


(approved by the NCTE). A notification was issued regarding this 2 year NCTE approved



the block level will be combined with the distance mode. The notification states that ‘about



Professional Teacher Education among Male and Female Teachers (%)

Proportion of teachers who have received the Male

36.6

35.1

28.3

100.0



norms. There were still 4% of teachers in upper primary schools who had not passe



primary schools. They were 46% of the teachers in the primary schools surveyed in detail in UP.

26.8

58.7

27.1

38.5

46.2

% teachers with training



% with Diploma (JBT, CPED, DPE etc) % with B. Ed. % having no training

and was reported to being


(approved by the NCTE). A notification was issued regarding this 2 year NCTE approved BTC



states that ‘about



among Male and Female Teachers (%) in

(per cent)

Female

35.1

25.5

39.4

100.0


norms. There were still 4% of teachers in upper primary schools who had not passed Class 12,



s surveyed in detail in UP.

2.8

100



% having no training

135

4.5 Salary scales of teachers in UP

The regular teachers in the UP teacher cadre were more likely to be male. Local teachers were

more likely to be female (see section 4.4). This is of particular interest as we look at the huge

differences in the salary scales of the regular and local teachers. We explored the issue in semi-

structured interviews with a sample of Class 3 and Class 7 teachers – one Class 3 teacher from

the 101 government primary schools, and one Class 7 teacher from the 59 government upper

primary schools.

Table 4.12 Salary Scales of Teachers for Selected Classes in Government Schools in UP

Number of teachers

who receive as

monthly salary (Rs.)

Class 3 teachers Class 7 teachers Class 3/Class 7 teachers

Regular Local Regular Local Regular Local

3500 0 67 0 0 0 67

10,000 - 20,000 9 0 3 0 12 0

20,000 - 30,000 23 0 38 0 61 0

30,000+ 0 0 10 0 10 0

32 67 51 0 83 67



Class 3 and class 7 teachers were asked what salaries they are paid. While all contract teachers

in class 3 reported being paid a salary of Rs. 3500, the largest proportion (72%) of regular

teachers reported being paid between Rs 20,000 and Rs 30,000. Among class 7 teachers, there

were no contract teachers found; here too the majority (75%) of regular teachers was being

paid a salary between Rs. 20,000 – Rs 30,000. One fifth (20%) of regular Class 7 teachers were

being paid above Rs. 30,000.

Complaints from teachers: Not surprisingly, 65% of contract teachers complained regarding

about low and irregular salaries as opposed to a small proportion (13%) of regular teachers.

Table 4.13 Teachers’ Satisfaction with Level and Regularity of Pay in UP Schools

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who

said

Permanent Contract All teachers

that their salary is low /

irregular

12.9 64.7 35.9



One of the negatives pointed out by the teachers was posting to rural / difficult to access areas

or issues of safety. This was expressed more by Class 7 teachers, perhaps reflecting that all the

Class 7 teachers interviewed were regular teachers rather than local teachers. A lower

136

proportion of Class 3 teachers interviewed had these concerns reflecting the higher proportion

of local teachers among the Class 3 teachers. A complaint on the part of teachers was lack of

cooperation from panch members / parents in the village. Teachers said that parents were

uncooperative, especially at the time of uniform and books distribution. A higher proportion of

Class 7 teachers complained about such a lack of cooperation.

Table 4.14 Accessibility of Schools a Problem for Some Teachers in Government Schools in UP

Proportion (%) of teachers who reported

problems with being posted:

Class 3 Class 7 Class 3/Class

7 teachers

in difficult-to-access rural areas 11 18.5 13.6

in areas where there are issues of safety 5.0 11.1 7.1

In villages where they had little

cooperation from panch members /

parents

13.0 25.9 17.5




Teachers are responsible for completing the curriculum on time.66

However they face several

hurdles in this. The reasons, as we can see, include student irregularity and that students find it

difficult to understand the coursework (reported by 43% of primary schools and 32% of upper

primary schools). This goes with the poor student attendance noted in section 4.3. In addition

to this, important reasons for non completion of curriculum were the lack of adequate teachers

and deployment of teachers for election and census duties (reported by 25% of primary schools

and 50% of upper primary schools). These activities aggravate the situation of teacher shortage.

Late arrival of textbooks was cited by one third of the teachers. Schools being closed due to

extreme weather conditions was also cited by a number of teachers.



Proportion (%) of teachers: Class 3 Class 7 Classes 3 and 7

who reported that they face problems in

completing the curriculum on time

64.0

70.4

66.2

Who cited the following reasons for this:

Students irregular/students do not understand 43.0 31.5 39.0

Late arrival of textbooks 33.0 29.6 31.8

Poor infrastructure, insufficient teaching staff,

non teaching duties

25.0

50.0 33.8

School closed due to extreme weather

conditions/natural calamities 19.0 24.1 20.8

66

The RTE, Section 9 (i) makes the local authorities responsible for ensuring timely prescribing of curriculum and

courses of study for elementary education.

137



4.7 Meetings with guardians

Section 24 (I) (e) of the Act states that teachers must regularly hold meetings with parents and

guardians and appraise them about the regularity in attendance, ability to learn, progress made

in learning and any other relevant information about the child.

Table 4.16 Parent-Teacher Meetings for Monitoring Child’s Progress in UP Schools

Proportion (%) of teachers who said

they have

Class 3 Class 7 All teachers

interviewed

Regular meetings with parents to

inform them about their child’s

progress

76.0 75.9 76

They keep records of such meetings 71.1 75.6 72.6

They have received government

order with regard to such meetings 55.0 56.6 55.6



76% of both class 3 and 7 teachers stated that they regularly met parents to update them on

their child’s progress. 71% of class 3 and 75.6% of class 7 teachers kept records of these

meetings and around 55% of both teachers had received government orders regarding the

same. However, parent meetings are not a new phenomenon and many of them said they had

got orders for this much before 2011. Some (about 40 teachers) did mention that they were

told in late 2011 through oral orders from the BRC or had been informed of this during their

RTE training.


Table 4.17 Non-Teaching Duties of Teachers in Government Schools in UP

Proportion (%) of teachers who were

involved in following activities during

the previous academic year 2010-11

Class 3 Class 7 All interviewed

teachers

Election 48 56.6 51

Census 58 73.6 63.4

Polio 40 35.9 38.6

Disaster relief 0 0 0

Others (Board examination duty, TET

evaluations, Sakshar Bharat scheme) 14 15.1 14.4



138

Teachers were asked what non teaching activities they were involved in during the last

academic year. Section 27 of the Act states that no teacher shall be deployed for any non

educational purposes other than the decennial population census, disaster relief duties or

duties relating to elections to the local authority or the State Legislatures or Parliament.

Most of them reported to be involved in the ‘legitimate’ functions of election and census

duties. However the survey did not find out whether this was done during school hours or on

weekends/holidays. Out of the class 3 teachers, 58% were sent for census duties, while 74% of

class 7 teachers were sent for the same. Some of the teachers said that they were also sent on

BLO duty. Only a handful said that they did other duties such as examination invigilation,

literacy surveys and so on.

SECTION 5. GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS FOR TRANSACTING THE CURRICULUM

5.1 How teachers interpret RTE guidelines for transacting the curriculum

The provisions specified in the RTE Act include all round development of the child; building up

child’s knowledge, potential and talents; development of physical and mental abilities to the

fullest extent; learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a child friendly and child

centred manner; making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety and helping the child to

express their views freely.


Education

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who had training Class 3

teachers

Class 7

teachers

Class 3 / Class 7

teachers

in conducting curriculum according to

provisions which included ensuring all round

development of the child.

78.0 81.5 79.2



About four fifths (80%) of class 3 and class 7 teachers stated that they had received training in

teaching keeping these parameters in mind i.e. ensuring a child’s all round development and

making them children learn through activities, discovery and exploration in a child friendly and

child centered way.

Using TLMs, stories and play-way methods, and being friendly and encouraging to children are

the most common methods that UP teachers interpret as teaching in a child-centred and child

friendly manner. For instance, some teachers say that “Some children understand and some

don't - we explain with pictures when they don't”, “Along with book knowledge, I teach with

139

natural objects around them”. Another said they use sports, stories, music, poems etc. “First I

teach them and make them understand. If they don’t understand, then I take different

examples related to that subject and use charts also”, elaborated another teacher. Teachers

said they try and encourage children and be friendly in various ways. “I use playway methods;

encourage the children to come daily and understand what is being taught”, says one. “Make

students understand, never beating them if they don’t have the right answer”, is the meaning

of being child friendly for another. “First I try to understand their level and then teach with

affection and compassion”, says another. ‘Remove their fear or attract children towards

studying’ was also a common response for child-friendly teaching.

Teaching according to children’s interest or mood; and explaining repeatedly and simply are

also two approaches which teachers say they use often. “I teach as per children's interests so

that they pay full attention to studies”, “I teach only if the children want to study. I try to create

the right ambience first. I adopt a friendly attitude”, says another. The last example is actually

illustrative of many similar answers given to other methods as well. Many teachers say that

they teach when children are in the mood, or tell them stories or poems if they are not in the

mood to study. For instance, teachers gave answers such as “When children are shouting or

disrupting the class, I ask them what they want to learn and teach them on that”, “I write

something on the blackboard and say to the children that I am not going to ask questions,

rather the children have to ask what they haven't understood”, “When I find that students have

no interest in studying, I focus on TLMs like charts, pictures, GK related to the subject

concerned”. One teacher mentioned, “I make them do various activities - I take them for picnics

in the forest where it is very peaceful. I teach them there”.

Teachers suggested the use of activities such as sports and PT, and music, dance, excursions

etc. as a means to ensure all round development. Some reported organizing bal sabhas and

competitions. Teachers also felt that all round development included telling children the

importance of cleanliness and teaching them social skills and values.

Overall, teaching through TLMs or activities, teaching as per children’s interests or based on

their ‘mental level’, explaining well, removing fear from children are common methods

teachers report across the board. A few teachers do suggest teaching methods that engage

with the children’s environment, that encourage question answers sessions and discussions, or

teach through practical applications. These are also methods that engage higher order thinking

skills of students. They are a positive sign but more of such responses will be welcome.

It should be noted that there is no mention of the rights of children or the attempt to focus on

children from backward communities or on girls. The difference between children’s levels is

acknowledged but as a consequence of their abilities not their background. There are no

proactive responses from teachers that they try and include children from all communities.

Inclusion is limited to helping weaker children and in few cases, encouraging shy children to

speak. This is of particular consequence in that the RTE Act requires that teachers transact the

curriculum in line with upholding the values of the Constitution.

140

5.2 Teaching practices reported and observed

Apart from these open ended questions on how they implement various approaches specified

by RTE, teachers were also asked which of the teaching activities below they did in class. Most

Class 3 teachers (more than 70%) reported that making children read, making them recite the

alphabet or numbers, poems or rhymes or making them copy from the board or from textbooks

were common teaching activities they did with children. Only a few (less than 30%) reported

using more creative ways of teaching. Class 7 teachers also reported ‘making children read’ and

‘asking them to copy from the board / textbook’ as common methods of teaching (in more than

85% of cases). But Class 7 teachers also had ‘class discussions or question-answer sessions’.

Based on the class observations, this usually means that teachers simply ask questions from

children one by one or do a round of few questions based on earlier topics taught.

Apart from their teaching methods teachers were also asked how they deal with situations in

which a child does not understand something the teacher has taught. Of the options given (see

Table) most teachers (93-94 percent) said that they explain to the child again, in some cases

with examples, or sometimes individually. Two other common responses were: telling the child

to read from the textbook or ask the child to take the help of another child. Teachers also said

they use the method of ‘asking related questions from the same child’ so as to explain. This was

preferred much more by Class 7 teachers (56% against 45% for Class 3 teachers). As can be seen

from the table, very few teachers reported scolding the child in such a circumstance. These too

were mostly qualified as “mild scolding”.

Table 5.2 Methods Used by Teachers for Explaining Lessons in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who said they use

the following methods to explain to

students who have not understood what

has been taught

Class 3 Class 7 All teachers

interviewed

Explain again with examples/Explain

individually 93.0 94.4 93.5

Tell the child to read from the textbook 44.0 57.4 48.7

Ask the child to take the help of another

child 42.0 37.0 40.3

Ask other related questions from the same

child 45.0 55.6 48.7

Scold the child 5.0 3.7 4.6



The common activities that teachers were observed to be doing in class were reading from the

textbook, asking questions from students, writing on the board, and explaining. Often these

were done together and a majority of teachers reported were seen explaining. Of course, in

141

quite a few cases this involved explanation at individual level, as part of checking notebooks or

solving a ‘weaker’ child’s confusion.

Teaching aids were observed to be used in any class in a minority of schools, although as we

note when discussing infrastructure and facilities in the schools, nearly all schools had teaching

aids.

Table 5.3 Use of teaching aids observed in Government schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools where:


schools

All

schools

teaching aids observed to be in use in

any class during the time of the visit

12.0

10.9 11.6



The study found that only in 9% schools (14 schools) was any form of sports activity observed.

Kho-kho and cricket were the common games, apart from badminton, pithu, skipping rope,

racing. Counting games were seen in two schools and bal sabha was held for 2 hours in another.

Children from classes 1,2 and 3 in one school were playing antakshari and singing songs, while

Class 4 and 5 students played kho. Examples of organized sports activities include Class 6, 7 and

8 boys playing cricket while girls were played badminton for 45 minutes; classes 4 and 5 playing

cricket while classes 1, 2 and 3 spent time skipping; classes 4 and 5 students playing kho while

classes 1, 2 and 3 raced between themselves for 30 minutes; classes 6,7 , 8 girls playing pithu

and skipping for 20 minutes; Classes 4 and 5 playing kho and kabbadi and class 1-3 students

playing the ‘Bol Bhai’ game.

5.3 Methods of controlling / disciplining children

The Act requires that children do not experience mental harassment or corporal violence in

school. In this context, teachers were asked about how they controlled / disciplined children.

Only a minority of teachers in UP said that they shout at children to control them (19%). The

proportion was comparatively higher with older children – 26% of Class 7 teachers in contrast

to 15% of Class 3 teachers. Few teachers said they threaten the children (3%). Only one Class 7

teacher actually admitted beating the children.


in UP

Proportion (%) of teachers who said they use the

following measures to control/ discipline students

Class 3 Class 7 All

Shout at them 15.0 25.9 18.8

Threaten them 3.0 3.7 3.2

Beat them/Hit them 0.0 1.9 0.6

Others (Motivate them to be cooperative) 85.0 77.8 82.5

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A majority of teachers from both classes 3 and 7 said that they use various kinds of gentler

means to control or discipline students. Most of them said that they explain to children gently

and motivate them to behave well. Some said they try to communicate the value of discipline;

some give examples of great people. Teachers also said that they try and keep children busy by

giving them some work or reading a poem or something of their interest. One option was to

give children prizes to motivate them. One teacher said that if he is not able to control the

child, he contacts the parents. A few teachers ask the rest of the children to suggest a

punishment for the child who is being naughty.


in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who used the following

methods to discipline students (as observed by the

survey team)

Class 3 Class 7

Teacher corrects non-abusively 92.2 93.0

Reprimands abusively 5.6 2.3

Physical forms like kneeling / holding ear / murga /

putting hands up 1.1 4.6

Beating/caning students 3.3 0.0

Options not mutually exclusive


Source: CORD survey, 2011-12

During observation for one period in the school day, in agreement with what they claimed,

most class 3 teachers were found to be correcting undisciplined children gently. Ten percent of

teachers were using some form of abusive reprimanding or actual physical punishment.

Interestingly the reasons were similar to those where the teachers had chosen to not be

abusive -- children making a noise, looking here and there, not reading the book or not sitting

properly. Even fewer Class 7 teachers were found being abusive or punishing children for being

undisciplined. In one classroom, children were being naughty so the teacher punished them by

making them put their hands up. In another case the teacher scolded them strongly when they

did not become quiet after 2-3 warnings.

It appears that teachers have internalized the requirement of RTE that there should not be

corporal punishment. Both in their words and in their behavior while the team was in the

school, only a minority of teachers were harsh with the children when they needed to discipline

them.

143

5.4 Assessment: Use of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

The Act requires that there should be comprehensive and continuous evaluation of a child’s

learning, and his / her ability to apply the same. Only a small proportion of Class 3 and Class 7

teachers (22% and 31.5%, respectively) said that they were using CCE. The state government

was reportedly piloting CCE in some schools. It could be that these schools were part of that

scheme. Most Class 3 and Class 7 teachers (85% and 93%, respectively) responded that they

conduct exams as a means of assessing a student’s progress. These varied from annual to half

yearly to quarterly examinations. In addition to this, 82% of Class 3 and 70% of Class 7 teachers

said that they conduct either written or oral unit tests for assessment. Seen together the tests

and CCE included either monthly or weekly tests. Often tests or exams were held on a particular

day of the week, such as Monday or Saturday. Oral assessment was also conducted by quite a

few teachers regularly in the form of questioning students on the previous day’s lesson. There

was generally a lack of clarity on the meaning and components of CCE which makes it difficult

to determine how many teachers and schools are carrying out this method of evaluation.

Table 5.6 Assessment of Children’s Progress by Teachers in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of teachers who take the following

assessments into account to assess the children’s

overall progress

Class 3 Class 7

Examinations (half yearly/final) and quarterly 85.0 92.6

Unit tests – written or oral – monthly, weekly, daily 82.0 70.4

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation CCE –

tests and other methods

22.0 31.5



The UP State Rules [19(e)] stipulate that teachers ‘shall maintain a file containing the pupil

cumulative record for every child to check child’s understanding of knowledge and his or her

ability to apply the same and for continuous evaluation, and on the basis of which shall award

the completion certificate’.

As a part of CCE, teachers are expected to maintain pupil files to keep a record of the

performance of students. A small proportion of teachers (30 Class 3 and 17 Class 7 teachers)

reported that they had received government orders to maintain pupil files. It was found that

most of the teachers had either received oral orders regarding the maintenance of pupil files or

had been informed about it during their RTE training. Very few had received written orders. A

majority of the teachers said they received orders in 2010 or earlier or that they are simply

continuing an older system. This indicates that teachers may be referring to the regular student

record file that exists from before. Only few teachers specifically referred to being told during

their RTE training session or during BRC meetings in late 2011 about maintaining pupil files. In

some instances the orders were received fairly recently so the files hadn’t been made yet.

Teachers said they were yet to make them or were awaiting further orders. Only 23 Class 3 and

144

15 Class 7 teachers actually reported maintaining pupil files. Additionally, only 16 Class 3 and 13

Class 7 teachers reported showing them to parents. The team did not see any pupil files.

Table 5.7 Methods Used by Teachers for conducting CCE in Government Schools in UP

Number of teachers who Class 3 Class 7

Maintain a file to record the performance of

each pupil 23 15

Show the pupil file to the parents 16 13

Have received any government order about

maintenance of Pupil Files 30 17



The Government of UP was reported to be piloting CCE on a small scale. It was being

undertaken in 5 schools in each of 5 districts. Special Classes were being run in which 50,000

children were reported to be admitted.

5.5 Teachers’ feedback on RTE guidelines

Several teachers shared a range of problems that they face in teaching in general and in

implementing the above approaches. Many of the problems they shared were quite real and

reflect the situations teachers face in rural schools particularly with teaching first generation

learners. It is extremely important to discuss these concerns during future training

programmes.

Teachers said that it is tough to explain to some children who are slow to understand and need

separate attention; children also often forget what is taught. “The children forget after some

time and we have to repeat several times”, “Children’s home and school environments are very

different. They do learn when we teach but they forget at home and the family is not able to

help”. “Even after trying to include all children while teaching, some don’t understand. If we

insist too much, they stop coming to school; it is not possible to include fully each and every

child”, were some of the problems teachers brought up when discussing the inclusive and more

interactive teaching methodologies required by RTE.

Teaching children at different levels of learning was a considerable challenge. One teacher

spoke of the problems of multi-grade teaching which “required special attention to be paid

separately to each grade”. Within a class, teachers faced problems handling children at

different levels of learning.

Problems with using activities, discovery and exploration to teach: The most common response

teachers gave was that it is difficult to explain to children. “When we use flash cards, children

recognise pictures but not the alphabet”, shared one teacher. I have problems making the

children understand because with some objects, they just keep looking at them and forget the

lesson.”

145

Activities take time and due to them the syllabus does not get completed, said some teachers.

A few teachers also said that they face problems because children are irregular or come late

and lament the lack of support from parents in sending children to school regularly. Teaching

through discovery and exploration does not work with children who are irregular. Another

teacher stressed that learning through discovery is only possible for a few topics.

Some teachers struggle with the need to use activities and to teach in an anxiety free

environment. They feel that students get distracted by activities and want to play or that it is

tough to discipline children and sometimes they need to be scolded. “When children don't

listen, we have to scold them,” they said. “Some children cannot learn unless they are

threatened. With different activities, children do learn faster but the whole class becomes a

mess and it is very time consuming.” “When I am teaching, I keep a cane to scare the children.

If I use child-centric methods, I will not be able to finish the curriculum. I have to leave the weak

students behind and move ahead.” One teacher said that with the new approaches that RTE

suggests, “children become more and more curious and it becomes difficult to answer their

questions”!

Expressing distress with the RTE, a teacher said “I was told during the training that we cannot

take any tests. Without tests, we cannot know what progress the child is making, and the child's

interest in studies becomes less.” “Children are now aware that teachers cannot beat them so

some children don't listen”, said another teacher.

These views indicate that these teachers are going beyond lip service and actually trying to

understand the concepts of all round development and teaching through activity, discovery and

exploration in a child friendly and child centered way. But they need to be convinced of the

rationale behind these changes of they will implement them poorly at most. The teachers also

need more clarity in how best they can put these concepts into practice. There is a lot of

natural resistance to new methods, and a feeling that the old ways are the best, particularly

with regard to policies such as prohibiting corporal punishment.

SECTION 6. ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE SCHOOL SYSTEM

The Act envisages a system of decentralized planning. To this end, it outlines the duties of the

teachers in the school with regard to being regular and punctual themselves, completing the

curriculum, and ensuring that children attend school regularly, and in schools above a certain

size, it provides for a head-teacher to play a supervisory role. The teachers and head-teacher

are to be monitored and supported in these duties by a School Management Committee, with

the head-teacher being a member of the Committee. SMCs were required to have several other

important duties which included supervising special classes for children who have never been

enrolled / dropped out, monitoring school expenditure, making of the annual School

Development Plan and to be the first stop if anyone had any complaints about the working of

the school. The Act also envisages a role for a member of the local body to play a role in

monitoring school attendance of all children (under the age of 14 years) in the village, to ensure

that none are out of school and that those who are in school attend regularly. In this section,

146

we focus on the role of the head-teachers and the SMCs. The sarpanch as representatives of

the locally elected bodies were reportedly not active in keeping records of all the children in the

village and ensuring that they were in school. The team was informed that in many cases the

head teacher and the sarpanch were working together to manage the funds coming into the

school.


We asked heads what they do in cases where teachers default on any matter. A high proportion

of them (73%) reported that they simply speak with the teachers concerned. A small proportion

(27%) chooses to complain to higher authorities. Hardly any head teachers (5%) reported that

they take disciplinary action under service rules. The SMCs are asked to intervene only in a

negligible 7% of cases. In 15% of schools, the respondents report that they take no action.


UP

(per cent)

When asked about the disciplinary

action taken against errant teachers,

the proportion of Head Teachers who

reported that they:

Primary Upper primary All schools

Speaking to the teachers concerned 76 64.1 72.6

Complaining to the higher authorities 27.1 25.6 26.7

Taking action under service rules 4.2 7.7 5.2

Taking up the issue with the SMC 6.3 7.7 6.7

Others 2.1 0 1.5

Taking no action 13.5 18 14.8

Options not mutually exclusive


Source: CORD Survey.

We got a similar response when we asked heads of schools, how they ensure that teachers

come on time. The RTE entrusts the duty of monitoring teachers punctuality and regularity to

the school’s Education Committee and further to the local authority. The daily management of

this issue however, is still a concern for the Head teacher.

A substantial proportion (24%) of respondents simply said that the need to ensure regularity

has not arisen implying that teachers are themselves regular. Some (21%) said that they prefer

to simply set a standard by themselves coming on time. The largest group (36%) said that they

verbally ask teachers to come on time. A few make the teachers sign a register. Barely anyone

spoke of complaining to the education authorities. This indicates that hardly any formal steps

are taken by heads to ensure teacher regularity.

147

Table 6.2 Appointment of Head Teachers in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools in UP in which Primary schools Upper primary

schools

All schools

HT appointed 83.2 81.0 82.4

HT appointed and present 61.4 63.8 62.3

HT appointed and not present 21.8 17.2 20.1

Teacher in charge present; HT not

appointed 14.8 17.3 15.7

No teacher in charge; HT not

appointed 2.0 1.7 1.9

100 100 100



Head teachers in the UP schools were appointed in a high proportion of the sample schools

(82%). In 62% of the schools the head teachers were appointed and present so there was a

clear established line of authority in these schools.

6.2 Role of the School Management Committee

The RTE Act requires the setting up School Management Committees – Chapter IV, Section 21.

Information was collected on the working of SMCs through interviews with the head teacher

and interviews with a key functionary of the SMC. Some information was also collected from a

panch member.

Formation and composition of SMCs: A notification issued on June 2011 mandates the setting

up of SMCs in UP. It lays down the composition of the SMC as well. The HTs reported that SMCs

required under RTE were formed in over 90% of the schools in UP, and that in 10 schools, the

earlier VECs were still continuing. It appears that the SMC members had been nominated rather

than elected.

Table 6.3 Setting up of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools where


schools

All schools

SMC was formed 93.0 94.5 93.5

SMC was not formed 7.0 5.5 6.5


CORD survey 2011-12

More than half the SMCs appeared to satisfy some of the membership norms. 94% of the SMCs

had 15 members – out of which most had 11 parent members and 6 to 7 female members.

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Most (87.2%) SMCs had around 75% parent members. However a much lower proportion of

SMCs had at least half female members – 57%. Proportionate representation of disadvantaged

groups and weaker sections is also required, but the study was not able to ascertain this in a

short interview with a single member.

Table 6.4 Composition of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

Proportion of SMCs with Percent

75% parent members 87.2

at least 50% women members 56.7

Based on interviews with members of education committees

CORD survey 2011-12

The State Rules for UP mandate that the members of the SMC must meet at least once a month

and make their records public. However, we find that these meetings are quite irregular. Only

54% of the SMCs reported that they had been meeting once a month. In the case of most SMCs

(81%) though, more than half the members were reportedly present at the last meeting.

Table 6.5 Regularity of Meetings of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

Proportion of SMCs which report that Per cent

They meet once a month 53.5

More than half the members attended the last meeting 80.6


CORD survey 2011-12

The newly formed SMCs reported that they had had an SMC meeting in the previous two

months. However, it was found that many of them were not informed about their roles and

responsibilities. Only in a few cases (8%) did they report having received a government

document detailing this – see Box on “SMC Training Module” prepared by the UP Government.

School Management Committee Training Module: Uttar Pradesh

The Education Department of UP completed the SMC module in early 2012. The UP SMC

Training Module is divided into several sections: rights of children, duties of teachers, duties

of the school and SMC’s composition and functions. It begins with an introduction about RTE,

stating the norms laid down in the Act. It then goes on to state basic guidelines for the

schools such as teaching science, social science and languages to students, if the strength of a

school exceeds 200 students, then there must be a head teacher and one teacher per forty

students, etc. It also mentions the various schemes initiated by the government in the

promotion of education, such as the free textbooks scheme.

The Module reiterates most of the norms laid down in the Act, such as provisions for clean

drinking water, a proper boundary wall, separate toilets for boys and girls, etc. which the

SMC is also expected to ensure.

149

According to the Training Module, an SMC must be formed every two years. Some of the

functions of the SMC mentioned in the Training Module are laid out as follows:

i) the SMC must make an effort to enroll out of school children from the

neighbourhood

ii) the SMC must maintain records of all students between 6-14 years

iii) ensure no discrimination of students

iv) must inform people about the RTE and its provisions

v) ensure that teachers do not engage in any non-educational work, apart from

work related to the population census, election and disaster relief.

vi) The SMC must come up with a School Development Plan for a period of three

years.

The Training Module lays down a list of observations to be made by SMC members when they

visit the schools. This includes checking the attendance records, progress of the students and

curriculum, etc. The Module consists of guidelines on how to prepare for and organize

meetings through cooperation and coordination between various departments. There is also

a brief on how to formulate the School Development Plan.

It has an interesting section on how the SMC members can evaluate the progress of

children’s education. There are certain points listed as the basic minimum knowledge that

students from each class must possess.

A larger module and a small booklet have been designed. While their content is in line with

the RTE, it is not too interactive.

Functioning of SMCs: A large proportion of SMCs (40%) said that they tried to ensure teacher

regularity and punctuality. Details about the methods used show that 29% reported that they

check the number of teachers present and a few reported that they check the register or

recorded time of arrival or departure. The majority used informal methods. Several

respondents said they live near the school and drop in to check and enquire on the attendance

of teachers. The head-teachers also confirmed this role of the SMCs (see Table 6.8).

Table 6.6 Functioning of Education Committees in Government Schools in UP

Proportion of Education Committee members who said that they per cent

have received a government document defining roles and responsibilities 8.0

monitor provision of infrastructure, equipment, MDM and textbooks 50.6

monitor teacher regularity and punctuality 40.3

monitor children’s attendance 34.5

ensure admission of out of school children and CWSN 31.0

monitor school expenditure 20.7

are involved in developing School Development Plans 25.3

Note. Options not mutually exclusive.


CORD survey 2011-12

150

Only one third of the SMCs (35%) said that they monitor children’s attendance. While a few said

they did it by counting the children or looking at the register, here too informal methods

through school visits were reported to be used. The head-teachers saw this as one of the most

important areas in which the SMCs play a role (see Table 6.7).

While SMCs have been mandated to ensure the enrolment and continued attendance of all

children from the neighbourhood, very few respondents said that their village had out of school

children. Only 31% reported that they actually motivate parents to enrol children who have

never enrolled and to send them regularly. More respondents talked about identifying CWDs

and motivating them to go to school. Here too they talked about incentives and sometimes

special schools. None of the SMC members spoke about Special Training for older children who

needed to be mainstreamed into age-appropriate grades. This is also an area they are supposed

to take a keen interest in. SMCs will have to develop the skills of educationists if they are

supposed to guide and monitor such a difficult area of implementation.

Very few of these respondents said that they monitored school expenditure (20%) – primarily

through checking accounts and being involved decisions on items of expenditure. Involvement

in making of School Development Plans was also quite low – and it largely involved identifying

additional infrastructure and equipment required. Both these roles would require some

financial and management skills, in addition to having the confidence to work with the head-

teacher on these issues.

However when head teachers were asked whether SMCs supported their work in any way,

around one-fourth said they did not. Of those who did, the largest proportion (71.8%) said they

helped in ensuring children’s regularity. This is interesting in the light of the relatively low

student attendance at the time of the survey. A significant proportion (39%) said the SMCs

supported the school through facilitating the provision of infrastructure and equipment; and

32% of the heads also said the SMC supported them when parents did not cooperate with

them.



When asked of the ways in which the SMCs support their work, proportion (%)

of Head Teachers who said

Per cent

They have received support in the following way*

Ensures children’s regularity 71.8

Facilitates provision of infrastructure and equipment 39.1

Supports in case of non-cooperation by any parent 31.8

Ensures that teachers are not given non-academic duties 6.4

They are not supported in any way 28.3

*Options are not mutually exclusive.


CORD survey 2011-12

151

When asked about the ways in which the SMCs help monitor school functioning, around one

third said they do not play a monitoring role. Among the rest, most of them (81%) said that the

SMC members note regularity and punctuality of teachers. Nearly 60% said that SMC helped

monitor distribution of entitlements like textbooks.

Table 6.8 Monitoring by SMC as Reported by Head Teachers in Government Schools in UP

When asked of the ways in which the SMC monitors school functioning,

proportion of Head Teachers who said Percent

Does not monitor in any way 33.5

Monitors in the following way

Notes regularity / punctuality of teachers 81.0

Facilitates provision of free textbooks to all children 59.0

Ensures that there is no discrimination in the school (against CWSN / SC / ST

/ BPL) 21.0

Notes denial of admission 16.2

Ensures that no child faces mental harassment or corporal punishment in

the school 10.5

Responses not mutually exclusive


CORD survey 2011-12

Grievance redressal: As the State Rules have mandated, SMC should ensure that teachers of the

school must hold regular meetings with parents and guardians and appraise them about the

progress made in learning and any other relevant information about the child. The UP State

Rules also specify that the first grievance redressal of teachers shall be at the SMC level.

However, only 11 out 102 SMCs reported to have received any complaints or grievances from

teachers. 93% of SMCs reported that they hadn’t received any complaints from parents

indicating that the SMCs don’t yet function in a way that anybody seeks redressal through

them.

The Act states that while SMCs are the first redressal mechanism, they can further take forward

complaints to local authorities if the need arises. While very few complaints were forwarded to

higher authorities, the lack of timely provisions of entitlements was one issue that was.

Summing up, the study found that SMCS were formed in most schools. The composition is as

required in terms of parents but not in terms of women. To what extent the SMCs include the

specified proportion of disadvantaged groups could not be ascertained. The SMC members

interviewed are not very well informed about their roles and their activities. According to these

interviews their role is most important in providing infrastructure and distribution of

entitlements. Some said they do monitor teacher regularity and student attendance – but

152

usually through informal methods. There is no system in place to ensure that they are able to

improve attendance levels.

More than two thirds of the head teachers said that the SMC monitors school functioning and

supports them in their work. According to them the SMCs play an important role in monitoring

student and teacher attendance – suggesting that informal methods have some impact

according to them. Provision of infrastructure and monitoring distribution of entitlements was

reported to come next in terms of the importance of the role the SMCs play.

SMC involvement was reported to be very low in monitoring school expenditures, making the

School Development Plan,67

and in facilitating Special Training for out of school children who

have been enrolled in age appropriate grades. The first two would require some financial and

management skills, and some level of empowerment of members of the SMC to allow them to

be a part of the decision making around the finances. The latter would require some

understanding of curriculum and how learning takes place. The RTE Act seems to give SMC

members some responsibilities they are not prepared for.

The specific tasks they reported dealing with were mostly related to improvement of

infrastructure and provision of incentives, both tasks which the education committees have

been handling under SSA. The largest number of respondents said they were involved in

monitoring provision of infrastructure, midday meals and distribution of textbooks and

uniforms. The midday meal was reportedly monitored through tasting the meal or enquiring

about its quality. Many of them said they ensure that textbooks and uniforms are distributed

properly. The role of the SMC in this area was also confirmed by the head-teacher when he was

asked how the SMC supports him in the school and how the SMC monitors the functioning of

the school.

A system for training was in place. Master trainers had trained Block Resource Persons, but the

training at SMC level had not begun. The state was awaiting additional funds from the centre.


Registers are required to maintain records of activities which can be used internally and

externally to monitor performance. Schools were asked whether they maintained registers on a

range of activities. Most schools had registers for information such as attendance and even

SMC meetings. Few had registers on parent teacher meetings or a complaints register.

67

The School Development Plan had to have the following details: estimates of classwise enrolment for each year,

and additional financial requirements including additional requirement of free textbooks for children and providing

special training facility to children.

153

Table 6.10 Registers Maintained in Government Schools in UP

(per cent)

Proportion of schools which maintain Primary school Upper primary

school

All school

Teacher attendance register 99.0 100.0 99.4

Admission register 96.0 98.2 96.8

Student attendance register 100.0 100.0 100.0

Incentive register 98.0 96.4 97.5

Mid day meal register 99.0 98.2 98.7

Fund register 65.3 57.1 62.4

SMC meeting register 91.1 85.7 89.2

Parent meeting register 38.6 39.3 38.9

Complaint register 19.8 19.6 19.7


CORD survey 2011-12

SECTION 7 PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN UP

In this section, we look at non-government provision of schooling in UP. The issue of

compliance with RTE in UP cannot be completed without looking more closely at the

functioning of the private schools. Secondary data indicates that private schools play an

important role even in rural UP. We begin by looking at these trends, following which we look

at some features of government regulations for private schools in UP, before we discuss

features of the private schools we found in the sample villages.

7.1 Importance of private schooling in UP

Private schools play a very important role in the context of RTE as they account for a high

proportion of enrolment in elementary stages even in rural areas.

The table below presents the proportion of private school enrolment in rural areas according to

DISE 2010-11, DISE 2011-12 (provisional) and the CORD survey. The table indicates that private

school enrolment consisted of 33.5% of total enrolment at elementary stage in 2010 according

to DISE, and it shows a sharp increase to 38.2 %. The CORD survey shows a higher proportion of

enrolment in private sector – nearly 40%.

The table needs to be interpreted with caution. DISE data attempts to collect data from all

schools with elementary classes, but its coverage of private schools is not complete. Overtime

its coverage of recognized private schools has improved but not of unrecognized schools. So the

154

increase in enrolment in private schools between 2010-11 and 2011-12 may partly reflect a

better coverage of private schools. CORD survey, 2011-12 covers all schools in 102 villages –

and the proportion of private enrolment is larger at 40% -- very possibly because unrecognized

schools are covered.

Table 7.1 Enrolment in classes 1 to 8 in rural areas in Uttar Pradesh

Source Enrolment in classes 1 to 8 in Proportion enrolled

in private schools Government schools Private schools

DISE 2010-11 18785091 9477632 33.5

DISE 2011-12 (P) 18637264 11510883 38.2

CORD survey, 2011-

12

17587 11592 39.7

7.2 Regulation of private schools in UP

Partial recognition / temporary recognition / permanent recognition: Private schools in UP may

be granted recognition for a certain stage of schooling or for a certain subject.

After 1986, secondary and higher secondary schools with recognition in one subject were

allowed recognition in other subjects too, if unaided. However that process was stopped as it

gave rise to many irregularities. There was also an intervening period when upper primary

sections were recognized, and the schools were not allowed to run primary sections. This could

be the reason that DISE data indicates many private schools with only grades 6-8.

Recognition of schools can be temporary or permanent. Srivastava writes that “to obtain

recognition, schools had to comply with a number of state-set norms such as: minimum

enrolment; fee amounts; minimum number of teachers; teachers’ qualifications; and

infrastructure. Recognition for basic schools could be granted on a temporary basis in the first

instance if they did not fulfill all the conditions but complied with a minimum set standard.

Schools with temporary recognition were given a certain grace period during which they were

expected to fulfill all conditions and reapply for permanent recognition.” 68

Flourishing of unrecognized private schools reported: Many unrecognised private schools are

functioning in UP. Their students may do their Board exams through recognized private schools,

for an additional fee. Often one recognized school has many unrecognized branches. Some

unrecognised schools are reported to be popular because they promise good marks in the

Board examinations, by allowing copying. These schools are largely from grades 1 to 12, and

may or may not have good infrastructure.

68

Excerpted from Srivastava (2008).

155

Private schools and RTE: Under RTE, standards and norms for a school are the same for

government and private schools. The government of UP has introduced certain regulations

specifically for private schools post 2010.

• It has banned the process of screening children at the time of admission and the

demand of capitation fees.

• It is in the process of defining which children fall into the category of “weaker sections”

who can apply for admission to private schools under the 25% seats to be reserved in

private schools in the lowest grade in the school.

• There are restrictions on fees in a 2012 notification – school income cannot be more

than 20% of the total fee generated income after paying the teachers.

Apart from these regulations, there are systemic changes on account of the RTE Act which

apply to all schools in UP such as no Board exams before Class 8, no failure of children in the

annual examination, and no expulsion. Inside the school, children are not to be mentally

harassed or physically punished.

7.3 Private schools in the sample villages

Details were collected from 55 private schools in UP. We highlight some of the features of these

schools.

Private schools were located in the larger villages: The private schools were clustered in 45% of

the villages. Sample villages in UP were comparatively small. Half of them (49%) had less than

200 households and only 10 of these 50 villages (20%) had a private school. But in the larger

villages, the likelihood of there being a private school was very high. In the 36 villages which

had between 200 and 500 households, 23 had a private school (64%), and in the 16 villages

which had more than 500 households, 12 villages (75%) had a private school. Villages which had

more than one private school were comparatively few in number (11%).

Table 7.2 Distribution of Sample Villages by Availability of Private Schools

Village size Villages with private schools

Number Proportion

Below 200 households 10 20%

Between 200 to 500

households

23 64%

Above 500 households 12 75%

All villages 45 45%

Based on survey of sample villages


Few private schools went beyond grade 8; majority recognized: Private schools in UP were

mostly primary schools (up to grade 5 at most) or upper primary schools (up to grade 8 at

most). Only a few are secondary schools.

156

Table 7.3 Distribution of Private Schools by Classes Taught

Primary schools Upper primary schools Secondary/higher secondary

schools

Classes Number Classes Number Classes Number

0-2 1 0-8 16 0-9 1

0-4 1 1-8 8 0-10 1

0-5 11 6-10 1

1-5 11 1-10 1

1-12 3

All primary

Schools 24

All upper

primary

schools

24

All

secondary

schools

7

No.

recognized* 14

No.

recognized* 19

No.

recognized* 6

*Includes schools with partial recognition.

Grade 0 refers to children enrolled in the preprimary section.

Based on survey of private schools in sample villages


As Table 7.3 shows, 31 schools (56%) had pre primary classes. It is commonly expected that

private schools have pre-primary grades and that it is an important factor which attracts

parents to enrolling their children in private school.

There were 39 schools (70.9%) which were recognized. Of these schools, 3 had partial

recognition. All but one of the secondary schools were recognized. Most of the upper primary

schools were recognized (19 out of 24), and a significant number of primary schools were also

recognized (14 out of 24). Sixteen schools were unrecognized. These were mostly primary

schools (10 out of 16).

There were 2 all girls’ schools. The rest were coeducational. All were day schools with the

exception of one which had hostel facilities. The duration of the school day was reported to be

5.5 hours in primary and upper primary schools and 6 hours in the secondary schools.

Procedure for selecting students did not appear to be affected by government regulations. A

large number of schools have an entrance test. In some schools, a test is carried out for all

grades, whereas in other cases, it varies with the grade. For example, in one school an oral test

for recognition of alphabets was done for entry at class 1, but written tests were done for

classes 2-5.

Majority of these private schools set up after 2000: Majority (72%) of these private schools

were established after 2000. Of these schools, a significant proportion (38%) came up in the last

5 years. The older schools were largely recognized -- only 1 school was not recognised. Most

schools set up between 2000 and 2006 were recognized too – though there are 3 unrecognised

157

schools in this group as well. Of the more recent schools, only 7 out of 21 were recognized. Of

the remaining, 2 claimed partial recognition, and as many as 12 were unrecognized.

Table 7.4 Distribution of Private Schools by School Type, Recognition Status and Year of

Establishment

Year established Primary

Schools

Upper

primary

schools

Secondary/H

secondary

schools

All

schools

Before 2000 Recognised 9 3 2 14

Part recognized 0 0 0 0

Unrecognized 0 0 1 1

All 9 3 3 15 (27.3%)

Between 2000

and 2006

Recognised 4 8 3 15



All 7 9 3 19 (34.5%)

2007 to 2011 Recognised 1 6 0 7



All 8 12 1 21 (38.2%)

All schools 24 24 7 55



Costs of private schooling: Table 7.5 gives the total amount charged annually to private school

students. For the same grade, Grade 5 for example, fees were much lower in recognized

primary schools (Rs 579) compared to recognized upper primary schools (Rs 991).

In addition to tuition fees, in some schools an admission fee was charged as well as exam fee.

Interestingly, in two schools if three children from the same family were enrolled, one of them

would not be charged fees. One school provided free transport for those coming from outside

the village.

Table 7.5 Annual Fees in Private Schools in UP

Recognized (39) Unrecognized (16) All Private Schools

Primary Schools

Class 1 472 558 495

Class 5 579 457 546

Upper-Primary Schools

Class 1 915 966 926

Class 5 991 1018 997

Class 8 1149 1168 1153

Secondary schools

Class 8 1292 NA 1292

158



Reduction of costs of schooling for children from disadvantaged groups / EWS: As part of a

government scheme to reduce the costs of education for disadvantaged groups, in a few

schools it was reported that some children receive an annual government scholarship69

of Rs.

300. Some schools reported that they charged no fees in the case of children whose families

had a BPL card / belonged to economically weaker families. They received no reimbursement

from the government for this.

High enrolment in primary and upper primary grades in recognized private schools: Private

schools have quite high enrolment, particularly the recognized schools. The partially recognized

schools have significantly lower enrolment than the recognized schools and the unrecognized

schools have significantly lower enrolment than the partially recognized schools.

Table 7.6 Average Enrolment in Elementary Classes in Private Schools in UP

Average

enrolment in

Recognized (36) Partially

recognized (3)

Unrecognized (16) All Private

Schools (55)

Primary schools 229.8 Missing 80.9 167.8

Upper primary

and secondary

schools

283.2 154.0 151.2 247.1

All 261.9 154.0 104.3 211.2



Enrolment in all types of private schools had a disproportionately high share of boys: The high

proportions of boys in private schools reflects the higher motivation that parents have for their

sons’ education relative to that of their daughters, as well as their inability to cover the costs of

sending all their children to private schools. The study found that government schools had a

slightly higher proportion of girls, reflecting the fact that more boys were being sent to private

schools.

69

SC, minority and OBC students in recognized private schools receive annual scholarships of Rs 300 and Rs 480 in

primary and upper primary stages of schooling, respectively. There is no income limit. Children from BPL families in

general castes are also entitled to this scholarship. These are given by the Social Welfare Department, Minority

Welfare and Department of Backward Classes. Local bodies have the responsibility of supervising distribution of

scholarships, and since 2007 the lists are available publicly on the UP Government website.



Comparatively lower proportions of children from SC and

One fourth of students enrolled at primary and upper primary levels were children from SC

families. The proportion of SCs enrolled in private schools is less than their proportions in the

population as a whole, whereas t

role of private schools in furthering social stratification should not be ignored. Childhood is a

time when strong bonds can be forged between children of widely differing social groups.



Less than one tenth enrolled were Muslims.

than the proportions in society as a whole. This is similar to the enrolment pattern in th

Girls

41%

Figure 7.7: Enrolment by Gender in Private

Schools in UP

25 0.6 8.7

0% 10% 20% 30%

Figure 7.8: Distribution of Children (%) by Social Group

Enrolled in Private Schools in UP

% SC

159


Comparatively lower proportions of children from SC and Muslim families in private schools



population as a whole, whereas they were more highly represented in government schools. The



on survey of private schools in sample villages

were Muslims. The proportions of Muslims enrolled are lower

than the proportions in society as a whole. This is similar to the enrolment pattern in th

Boys

59%

Figure 7.7: Enrolment by Gender in Private

Schools in UP

65.7

40% 50% 60% 70% 80%


Enrolled in Private Schools in UP

% SC % ST % Muslims % Other Hindus

Muslim families in private schools:



hey were more highly represented in government schools. The



proportions of Muslims enrolled are lower

than the proportions in society as a whole. This is similar to the enrolment pattern in the

90% 100%


160

government schools. Large proportions of Muslim children are enrolled in madarsas at primary

level. By upper primary they may well be out of school.

Teacher and classroom provision better in the upper primary schools: Private schools, like

government schools, are required to have a minimum PTR and a minimum level of

infrastructure. The average PTR and the average SCR was lower in the upper primary schools

compared to the primary schools, indicating that there is less pressure on the resources they

have. The average enrolment per grade is comparatively higher in the primary schools.

Twelve out of 15 primary schools with enrolment less than 150 had a PTR less than 30 as

required by RTE. There was only 1 primary school with enrolment between 150 and 200. It did

not have at least 5 teachers (excluding head-teachers). Only 2 out of 8 primary schools with

enrolment more than 200 had a PTR less than 40 (excluding head-teachers). So 15 out of 24

private primary schools satisfied RTE norms for PTR. A similar analysis could not be done for the

upper primary schools as teachers taught both primary and upper primary grades. The average

PTR in the upper primary schools was 27.

The Act requires that all schools should have at least 2 teachers and that the Teacher Classroom

Ratio should be greater than or equal to 1. The study found that 1 private school had less than 2

teachers, and 46.3% of private schools had a Teacher Classroom Ratio of less than one.

The RTE Act requires only schools with a specific enrolment to have a head-teacher. Head-

teachers are part of the set-up of all private schools. Close to four fifths (78%) of the private

schools had a separate head teacher’s room.

Table 7.9 Availability of Teachers and Classrooms in Private Schools in UP

School Type Average

number of

students

Pupil Teacher

Ratio

Average

number of

teachers

Average

number of

classrooms

Student

Classroom

Ratio

Primary Schools 167.8 31.5 5.3 4.4 39.5

Upper-Primary

Schools 208.8

26.8 8.2 7.3

30.6

Secondary Schools 394.0 34.8 11.6 10.7 36.7

Total 211.2 29.8 7.4 6.5 34.7



In general, schools had a head-teacher’s room, some use of all weather classrooms and access

to drinking water (through a handpump). The SCRs were highest in the primary schools

indicating possible overcrowding. The availability of a proper boundary wall to keep children

safe and secure inside the school was restricted to about half the private schools. The

secondary schools were more likely to have a boundary wall. These schools were also most

likely to have a playground. Separate toilets for boys and girl

schools.

In a few cases, the infrastructure was very poor. In one school, for example, water was kept in a

small tank outside for children to drink water. In a few other schools, the boundary wall was

partially constructed, or broken. In one school, there were no p

During the rainy season the school faced additional problems as the school did not have a roof.



Teaching learning materials such as charts on vegetables, animals, alphabets, and numbers

were found in 73% of the private schools. Some sports equipment (e.g. for badminton,

volleyball and cricket) was found in 62% of the private schools. A very low propo

had an available and usable library (only 13%). The number of books in the library was generally

limited.

Low proportions of teachers were trained

cadre in sufficient number. This is

The proportion of trained teachers in private schools was as low as 30%. The figure was

particularly low in both the primary and upper primary schools (27% and 25%, respectively)

which form the bulk of the private schools in UP.

46.3

77.8

0

25

50

75

100

At least one

classroom for

each teacher

Head teacher's

room

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

sch

oo

ls

Figure 7.10: Private Schools (%) in UP with Specified

Infrastructure and Facilities Available and Usable

161

likely to have a playground. Separate toilets for boys and girls were also available only in 43% of



partially constructed, or broken. In one school, there were no proper sitting arrangements.





volleyball and cricket) was found in 62% of the private schools. A very low propo


Low proportions of teachers were trained: The RTE Act requires a qualified and trained teacher

cadre in sufficient number. This is likely to raise their costs and make some of them unviable.



bulk of the private schools in UP.

77.8

43.4

92.3

63

Head teacher's

room

Separate toilets

for boys and

girls

Drinking water

facility for all

children

Playground



s were also available only in 43% of



roper sitting arrangements.




volleyball and cricket) was found in 62% of the private schools. A very low proportion of schools


The RTE Act requires a qualified and trained teacher

likely to raise their costs and make some of them unviable.



49.1

Boundary wall





Summing up, we find a large number of private sc

villages. These were clustered in 45% o

to have a private school. Ten villages had more than one private school. The private schools

appear to be well established. Some proportion were established before 2000, some between

2000 and 2006, and some in the last five years. The majority (70%) of private schools have been

recognized. A few of these have partial recognition

one does not. The unrecognized schools were mostly among those who had been set

last five years. The private schools included an equal number of primary and upper primary

schools, and a few secondary schools. A large proportion of the schools (56%) had lowest grade

nursery while the rest had Class 1 as the lowest grade. Som

met in a high proportion of schools such as sufficient classrooms and access to drinking water.

However, this does not tell us anything about the size of the classrooms or the adequacy of

drinking water. The proportion o

7.4 Madarsas

The madarsas offering primary schooling in the sample villages generally had poor physical

infrastructure. Most did not have a playground or sports equipment. Charts and other TLM

materials were not found. There was only 1 madarsa which had comparatively good

infrastructure. It had 5 classrooms and teaching learning equipment such as charts on numbers

and alphabets. It had an office room, a kitchen, and a storeroom. It had taps and

for drinking water, and clean toilets. It had a big playground and sports equipment such as a

football.

27.3

0

25

50

75

100

Primary schools

Pe

rce

nt

Figure 7.11: Availability of Trained Teachers (%) in

162


Summing up, we find a large number of private schools in our sample villages, 55

villages. These were clustered in 45% of the sample villages; the larger villages were more likely



, and some in the last five years. The majority (70%) of private schools have been

recognized. A few of these have partial recognition – one stage of schooling has recognition,

one does not. The unrecognized schools were mostly among those who had been set



nursery while the rest had Class 1 as the lowest grade. Some infrastructural requirements were



drinking water. The proportion of trained teachers in private schools was as low as 30%.





and alphabets. It had an office room, a kitchen, and a storeroom. It had taps and


24.9

44.4

Primary schools Upper primary schools Secondary and higher secondary

schools


Private Schools in UP

hools in our sample villages, 55 in 102 sample

f the sample villages; the larger villages were more likely



, and some in the last five years. The majority (70%) of private schools have been

one stage of schooling has recognition,

one does not. The unrecognized schools were mostly among those who had been set up in the



e infrastructural requirements were



f trained teachers in private schools was as low as 30%.





and alphabets. It had an office room, a kitchen, and a storeroom. It had taps and handpumps


44.4

Secondary and higher secondary

schools


163

SECTION 8. CONCLUSION

UP is the most populous state in India. It has substantial proportions of disadvantaged groups.

According to the 2001 Census,70

Muslims formed 19 % and Scheduled Castes 21% of the State’s

population. Literacy rates in 2001 were 48% for Muslims and 46% for SCs, respectively while the

average literacy rate for the state as a whole was 56%. The gaps between the literacy rates

among disadvantaged groups and the population as a whole were between 8% and 10%. By

2011, the literacy rate for the state as a whole had risen to 70%. It would be interesting to see if

the gaps between the disadvantaged groups and the state as a whole have narrowed with the

continued focus on Education For All in the decade between the two Censuses.

8.1 Some progress on the road towards RTE

• Module on RTE has been prepared and teachers have received training

More than 80% of teachers and head teachers in U.P. reported that they have received training

on RTE for a duration of 4 days. Most teachers reported getting the Samvad module which has

information on RTE. However, while the module is comprehensive, it is very dense. It would be

even more useful if it was made more reader-friendly.

The duties of the teachers outlined in the Act include them being regular and punctual

themselves, completing the curriculum, and ensuring that children attend school regularly.

Later trainings will need to motivate and inform them on all aspects of the Act, including these.

• High proportions of teachers reported implementing policies specified in the RTE Act

High proportions of teachers reported that they were putting policies specified under RTE into

practice such as children not being refused admission to school even if they do not have

documents or come for admission after 30th

September (the cut-off date in the past); children’s

names not being cut off the register even with prolonged absence; corporal punishment being

prohibited.

However, it is important that teachers understand the rationale behind the provisions of the

Act to get them to implement it more effectively. They also need support in deciding how to

carry out these provisions in their own context. Feedback from the teachers on problems they

face in teaching in general and in implementing the approaches outlined in the Act is critical

and needs to be used in future training programmes on RTE.

• The Government of UP has taken the initiative of piloting CCE in 5 schools in each of 5

districts. Special Classes are being run in which 50,000 children were reported to be

admitted.

70

2011 figures for literacy of specific social groups is not available.

164

The Act can only be implemented effectively if it is done in a thoughtful manner. It requires

careful planning and implementation on a small scale to work out how best to take it forward

on a wider canvas. The piloting of CCE should provide insights on how it should be done, and

what pitfalls can be avoided.

• The Government of UP continues to recruit regular teachers and restricts the

deployment of contract teachers.

The Act demands that teachers work competently and conscientiously. In this context,

recruitment of appropriate candidates as teachers is critical. The Government of UP has so far

restricted the deployment of contract teachers to not more than two per school, and continues

to recruit regular teachers. This will ensure that they have some level of competence to handle

the new demands made on them by the RTE Act to teach in a way which builds up the child.

However, even teachers who have received professional teacher training are likely to require

support to carry out their duties under the Act, as their own experience in school and during

training is most likely to have consisted mainly of rote learning.

• SMCs set up in most villages with adequate proportion of parents

The Act requires that teachers be monitored and supported in their duties by a School

Management Committee. The study found that School Management Committees had been set

up in UP with the required representation of parent members, although smaller proportions

had adequate representation of women and the representation of disadvantaged groups is not

clear.

• Module for training of SMCs called “Jan Pahal” has been prepared

A system for training was in place. Master trainers had trained Block Resource Persons, but the

training at SMC level had not begun. The state was awaiting additional funds from the centre.

The SMC members’ lack of knowledge of their roles and responsibilities will be discussed in the

next section.

• Schooling system in UP has expanded in terms of more government schools being

opened at upper primary level. More private schools have also come up. Access to

primary and upper primary schooling remains an issue.

More upper primary schools in UP have been set up in the last decade. They were found to

have low enrolment indicating that there is dropping out as children transition between

primary and upper primary schools. Many more upper primary schools are needed if all

children enrolled in primary are to continue into upper primary and beyond. The issue of access

at this stage is particularly important for girls (for whom safety issues are important and the

opportunity cost of schooling is important), and for all children from disadvantaged groups who

165

are likely to be needed for directly or indirectly contributing to the family economy, and are

vulnerable to being taken out of school if they need to travel outside the village to get there.

Few, if any, government primary schools have been opened in the last 10 years. The

importance of providing sufficient access to government primary schooling should not be

underestimated, as it is the primary provider of schooling to children from disadvantaged social

groups, including the minorities.

Private schools have been opened but they are quite heterogeneous in quality. Recognition by

the government does not appear to be tied to any norms for infrastructure or teacher

provision. There are also problems with equity, as they cater to higher proportion of boys and

to proportions of Scheduled Castes lower than their representation in the population.

• Infrastructure and teachers in primary and upper primary schools have been improved

but gaps remain

More teachers have been appointed. In the primary schools, nearly all the teachers (96%) had

passed Class 12 (a requirement of RTE). However 46% of them were not professionally trained

to be teachers, also a requirement under the Act. In the upper primary schools, 72% were

graduates (a requirement of RTE), and nearly all were trained. So while there were positives,

gaps in qualifications and training of teachers remain.

The provision of teachers was inadequate in both the primary and upper primary schools, but

worse in the primary schools. Only 41% of the primary schools had at least 2 teachers and a PTR

below the maximum specified by the RTE Act, while this applied to 60% of the upper primary

schools. The positive for both primary and upper primary schools was that the majority of

schools which required a Head teacher had one appointed.

In spite of the expansion of infrastructure in the last decade, there was still a shortage of

classrooms. The Student Classroom Ratio was much higher in primary schools than in upper

primary schools. The situation appears to be better at upper primary levels because of the

lower numbers of children enrolled at this level.

Both the primary and upper primary schools had a shortage of most other infrastructural

requirements including a boundary wall, a playground, and separate toilets for boys and girls.

On the other hand, the majority of these schools had access to safe drinking water and to a

kitchen shed.

• Schools were functioning but only to a limited extent

Schools reported that they were open the minimum number of days specified by the RTE Act

but this is unlikely to be true. Schools were found to be closed at various times during the

survey because the day before had been a holiday on account of a festival or even the day

166

before that. Extremely cold weather conditions prevailing at the time of the survey also meant

that schools were all but closed on many days.

The study found that teachers were generally in school – 11% were absent due to personal

reasons on the day of the survey. However, an additional 15% were absent due to other duties,

mostly related to the forthcoming elections in the State. It is possible that the picture of

teacher regularity and punctuality is actually worse than it appears, as the team noted that in

many cases the regular teachers depended on the contract teachers to open and close up the

school, and came for a shorter part of the school day themselves. They also found that while

the contract teachers were there for a longer period than the regular teachers, they themselves

also came late and left early. Teachers reported that they keep no record of how much time

they spend on their work. The Act requires them to spend a minimum of 45 hours a week in

teaching and preparation.

The team found that student attendance even before the midday meal was less than half of the

enrolment, and that it dropped post the midday meal. Observed attendance was also lower

than what was reported in the register. Clearly neither the teachers nor the SMCs nor the

sarpanch were playing an adequate role in this area. This is the critical area which needs to be

plugged and we discuss it in the next section.

8.2 Too little accountability in the government system

• Head teachers and teachers not playing a strong role in carrying out their various duties

The head teacher and teachers are accountable to the education authorities at block level,

district level, and finally, state level. It did not appear that the head teachers were playing a

strong leadership role or that teachers were functioning in a way in which they were envisaged

in the RTE Act – to be punctual and regular, monitor student attendance, complete the

curriculum, and transact the curriculum in keeping with certain principles designed to

fulfil the child’s potential to the maximum possible. The lines of accountability do not appear to

be drawn sufficiently strongly. This may have something to do with the reportedly strong and

powerful teacher lobby in the state of UP.

• SMCs not playing the multi pronged role envisaged for them

The SMCs are newly mandated bodies. In UP, they appear to have been nominated rather than

elected. They are accountable at most to the parent body, an amorphous group which include a

sizable proportion from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections, and would need to be

empowered to demand accountability on any front. The SMCs had only a limited idea of their

roles and responsibilities particularly in their need to monitor student attendance. Observing

teacher attendance seems to be a duty they have internalized. In any case, it was reported by

members of SMCs who were interviewed that they used only informal methods to monitor

teacher and student attendance. SMCs were primarily involved in schemes involving

distribution of uniforms and textbooks and the cooked midday meal.

167

SMCs were required to have several other important duties which included supervising special

classes for children who have never been enrolled / dropped out, monitoring school

expenditure, making of the annual School Development Plan and to be the first stop if anyone

had any complaints about the working of the school. These provisions were not in place.

• Sarpanch not playing a role in monitoring school attendance of all children in the village

The sarpanch is to be involved in keeping a record of all children in the village to ensure that

none are out of school and that those who are in school attend regularly. Paying careful

attention to records of all the children in the village did not appear to be happening on

anyone’s watch. The team was informed that in many cases the head teacher and the sarpanch

were working together to manage the funds coming into the school.


Implementing the RTE Act by the various stakeholders will require

• Awareness of their roles and responsibilities

• Understanding the rationale behind the provisions of the Act to get a buy-in from the

stakeholders

• Follow-up with regard to whether the roles and responsibilities are carried out, and

putting in place a system of grievance redressal

Provision of schools and their infrastructure, facilities and availability of teachers needs utmost

priority. School based planning is essential – there is considerable variation in quality among

the government schools.

• Access to schools needs to be improved. More government schools at both primary

and upper primary levels are required.

• Infrastructural gaps need attention particularly the shortage of classrooms.

Infrastructural gaps are particularly great in the primary schools.

Requirements related to teachers need to be dealt with on several levels. To begin with, the

shortage of teachers needs to be unpacked, according to what the RTE requires for the stage of

schooling and the numbers of students enrolled. In addition, to recruiting more teachers, they

need to be posted where they are required. There is also a need to bring basic educational

qualifications of teachers in line with RTE norms.

The Government of UP has begun the process of implementing the RTE Act in a determined and

meaningful way. It needs to take it much much further for the provisions to reach all children as

envisioned in the Act.

168

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170

APPENDIX 1 – The Samvad Module

The Samvad Module has been introduced by the U.P. Government as a tool to assist in training

teachers about RTE. The Module is divided into chapters pertaining to different aspects of the

RTE.

• The first describes what the attitude of teachers should be towards students, the

qualifications of the teachers and the subjects that must be taught, including math,

science, art, etc.

• The second chapter lays down a framework for schools. It specifies the approaches to be

adopted to facilitate teaching and learning, emphasizes the need for child centered

education and a safe and fear free atmosphere for children.

• This chapter is followed by a chapter on guidelines for teachers. It states that students

must be taught about different religions, cultures and traditions, so as to sensitize them

and reduce discrimination in the classrooms. It also gives examples for methods of

teaching various subjects such as math and science.

• The next chapter discusses CCE and the approaches that should be adopted for effective

CCE. It begins with the importance of CCE and why it is needed. The formative and

summative techniques are also explained in some detail and emphasis is laid on

evaluations through regular assignments and project work. How exactly it is to be

operationalised within the classroom is however not very clear.

• Lastly, the duties of teachers are listed, which include putting in 45 hours a week,

maintaining student profiles (for which a format is given), and using TLM in classrooms

to facilitate student learning.

The second half of the module contains the Act in Hindi as well as a reproduction of several

state government orders relevant to its implementation. It is a thick module, 240 pages long

and a fairly exhaustive reference document.

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APPENDIX 2 -- Status of Urdu in Uttar Pradesh

Urdu speakers in India number almost 44 million (Census of India, 1991) with the largest

numbers in the state of Uttar Pradesh (followed by Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and

Karnataka, which together account for 85% of the national Urdu-speaking population). Syed

Shahbuddin writes that “on partition, Urdu was declared as the national language of Pakistan.

On the Indian side, the Hindu community, including Urdu and Punjabi speaking refugees

steadily dissociated themselves from Urdu. The result is that Urdu has become synonymous

with Muslims though it is not the mother tongue of all Muslims but almost all Indians who

declare it as mother tongue are Muslims. Among the major states AP and Karnataka top in the

list with 94.3 and 84.6 percent of Muslim as Urdu speaking. In UP only 43.3 percent Muslims

have so declared, even lower than Jharkhand (http://www.arabnews.com/status-urdu-land-its-

birth)”.

This makes the status of Urdu complicated. While there are several speakers in Uttar Pradesh, it

is also not recognized as a ‘regional language’ and instead is associated with a minority

community. This community moreover consists of both those who speak Urdu traditionally and

those who speak local dialects.

Hindi was the only official Language until 1989, when the Uttar Pradesh Official Language

(Amendment) Act, 1989 was passed and Urdu language was declared to be the second official

language. A notification issued by the State Government declared the purpose for which the

Urdu was to be used as second official language.

- Entertaining petitions and applications in Urdu presented by members of public.

- Receiving documents in Urdu presented for registration with a Hindi copy thereof.

- Publication of important Government rules, regulations and notifications.

- Publication of important Government advertisements, etc.

- Issuing Government Orders and circulars of public importance in Urdu also;

- Translation of Gazette in Urdu.

- Exhibition of important sign posts in Urdu.

(see http://www.ciil-ebooks.net/html/langUse/policy.html).

This status is given to Urdu in the 21 minority concentration districts, all of which are

concentrated in the northern belt of the state (see below). Among the districts covered in the

survey these were Barabanki, Bijnor, Pilibhit and Baharaich.

The “Scheme of Financial Assistance for Appointment of Language Teachers” of the MHRD

states that it shall provide for Urdu Teachers in the schools of those districts that have a

significant minority population. The State/UT Governments is provided 100% financial

assistance for salaries of Urdu teachers and Honorarium to the existing Urdu teachers for

teaching Urdu in Schools. The scheme has been revised during 2008-09 such that assistance is

provided for appointment of Urdu Teachers to any locality where more than 25% of the

population is from the Urdu speaking community in pursuance to the Prime Minister’s new 15

Point Programme for the Welfare of the Minorities.

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APPENDIX 3 – UNICEF Framework for Rights based Child friendly Educational Systems and

Schools

A useful ‘framework for rights-based, child-friendly educational systems and schools’ has been

developed by UNICEF. As per this framework – a rights based child friendly school meets a wide

set of requirements

• Is a child-seeking school

– actively identifying excluded children to get them enrolled in school and included in

learning

– treating children as subjects with rights and States as duty-bearers with obligations to

fulfil these rights

– demonstrating, promoting, and helping to monitor the rights and well-being of ALL

children in the community

• Is a child-centred school

– acting in the best interests of the child

– leading to the realisation of the child’s full potential

– concerned about the “whole” child: her health, nutritional status, and well-being

– concerned about what happens to children before they enter school and after they

leave school

• Above all -- has an environment of good quality

– Inclusive of children

– Effective with children: Promotes good quality teaching and learning processes,

instruction appropriate to each child’s learning needs, abilities, and learning styles

active, co-operative, democratic, gender-sensitive learning, Provides structured

content and good quality materials and resources

– Healthy and protective for children, Physically safe, emotionally secure and

psychologically enabling

– Gender-sensitive

– Involved with children, families, and communities