trainor, l. j., & trehub, s. e. (1994). key membership and implied harmony in western tonal music-...

7/29/2019 Trainor, L. J., & Trehub, S. E. (1994). Key Membership and Implied Harmony in Western Tonal Music- Development

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Percepti on&sychophysi cs1994, 56 ( 2 ) , 125- 132

Keymembershi p and i mpl i ed harmonyi nWestern t onal musi cDeve opmental per spect i ves

LAUREL J . TRANORMcMaster Uni versi ty, Haml ton, Ontar i o, Canada

andSANDRAE TREHUBUni versi ty of Toronto , Toronto , Ontar i o, Canada

Wi nvesti gated t he r ol e of keymembershi pand i mpl i edharmony i n adul t s' and chi l dren' spercepti on of tone sequences . Li stener s were evaluated on thei r ab i l i t y t o def ect threetypes ofchanges i n onenote of awel l -st ructuredWesterntonal me ody I n one change ( out- 0f -key) t henewnote was not i nt he basi s key, i n another ( out - of - harmony) i t was i n the key l o ut not i nthei mpl i es harmony, and i n the th i rd(wthi n-harmony) i t was i nboththe keyandthe i mpl i edhar-mony Adul tsand7-year- ol ds performedbetter on t he out- of - key andout-of-harmonychanges thanon t he wthi n-harmony change, r ef l ect i ng t hei r i mpl i ci t knowedgeof keymembershi p and i mpl i ed harmony Fi ve- year- olds performed better anthe out- of -key changethanonthe other twochanges, ref l ec t i ng the i nf l uence of keymembershi p but not i mpl i ed harmonyWconsi der thedeve opmental precedence of keymembershi pover i mpl i edharmony i n t he context of cross- cul turaland theoret i cal perspect i ves .

Western l i s t e n e r s , i ncl udi ng those whoare musi cal l yunt rai ned, processmel odi es accor di ng t o musi c- t heoret i crul es of t o n a l i t y ( e . g . , Caddy, 1991 ; Caddy, Cohen,&M l l er , 1979 ; Deut sch&erce, 1981 ; bow i ng&ar-wood, 1986 ; Howel l , Cross, &West , 1985 ; Krumhansl ,1940 ; Pi ck, 1979; Shepard, 1482 ; Sl oboda, 1985 ; Thomp-s o n , 1993), as descri bed i n st andard t e x t s of musi c theory( e . g . , At dwel t&chacht er, 1989) . Oneexampl e of t heconver gence of perceptual processes andmusi c- t heoret i cr u l e s concerns key r e l a t i ons i n musi c . West er n t o n a l composi ti ons are s ai d t o be i n ap ar t i c ul a r key ( e . g . , Cmaj or) ,whi chmeans t h a t t he component not es of a composi t i onbel ong t o t he scal e beari ng that name( i . e . . Cmaj or s c a l e ) ,w th s p e c i f i c notes servi ng d i f f e r e n t f uncti ons . Percep-tua l studi es reveal t h a t a du l t s more r e adi l y de t ec t changet h a t i nt r oduce a nonkey n o t e t han changes t h a t do not( e . g . , Cuddyet a) . , 1979 ; Trai nor&Trehub 1992) . West -ern musi c theory al so def i nes some keys as bei ng c l o s e l yr e l a t ed ( e . g . , Cmayor andGmaj or ) andother s a s d i s -t a n t l y r e l a t e d ( e . g . , Cmaj or and F#maj or ) . Agai n, thereare psychol ogi cal consequences of such key r e l a t i o n s ;a du l t s ' and chi l dren' s percept i ons o f pa i r s of mel odi es arei nf l uencedby t he rel atedness of t hemel odi es' keys ( B a r t -l e t t&aw i ng, 1980 ; Takeuchi &ul se, 1992 ; Trai nor&r ehub, 1993a ; Trehub, Morr ongi el l o,&hor pc,Thi s research was support ed by grants f romthe Natural Sci ences andEngi neeri ng Resear ch Counci l of Canada Ware gratef ul t oE G[enn

Schel l enberg, RonRaci ne, andJ ohn P l a t t f or t h ei r c r i t i c a l r evi ews of t hemanuscri pt Send repri nt requests t o L J Tremor, Depar tment of Psy-chol ogy, Nf cMact er Uni versi ty.aml ton, Ontari o, CanadaL8S4101,

1985) . Never t hel ess, t he extent t o whi ch t heconver genceof musi c theory andpercepti on deri ves fromnature ornurture i s unknownThe st udy of musi cal devel opment provi des a meansof assessi ng t he r e l a t i v e cont ri but i ons of perceptualpredi sposi t i ons and exposure . Feat ures of musi c wthani nnate basi s aremorel i k e l y t o be per cei ved and producede a r l i e r khan t hose t h a t are acqui r ed- i ndeed, therehas beensi gni f i cant progress i n i denti f yi ng percept ual processi ngbi ases i n i nf ancy ( s e c Trehub&rai nor, 1990, 1993 ;Trehub, Trai nor, &Unyk, 1993 ; Trehub&Unyk, J , 9 9 1 ) .Devel opmental musi c research can al so pr ovi de a w n-dowon t he r e l a t i v e ease or d i f f i c u l t y of processi ng d i f -f e r e n t s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s of musi c. For f e a t ur e s t h at mustbe l earned, those acqui red e a r l i e r must be i n t r i n s i c a l l yeasi er t o l earn t han t hose acqui r ed l a t e r , gi ven compar a-bl e exposur e . I n t he present i n ve s t i g at i o n, we examnetwof e a t u r e s of West er n t onal musi c i n devel opmental p e r -spect i ve keymember shi p and i mpl i ed harmoni c f uncti on .Pi tch structure i n Westernt onal musi c has twoaspects :mel ody, or successi ve pi tch s t r u c t u r e , andharmony, orsi mul t aneous pi tch structure . Me odyand harmony arenot i ndependent , however , i n t h a t every mel ody i s con-si dered t o embodyan i mpl i ed harmony ( s e e , e . g . , Bha-t ' t j c h a , I 984) . I n other words, s p e c i f i c mel odi c s t r u c t u r e sare t hought t o di c t a t e appropr i ate harmoni c accompani -ment . I n f a c t , de f i n i t i o ns of mel ody o f t e n refer s p e c i f i -c a l l y t o harmoni c i mpl i cat i ons . Accordi ng t o Terhardt,"What makes atone sequence a mel ody i s harmoni c andrhythmc organi zati on" ( 1991, p 217) . Empi r i cal r e-search r e v e al s , mor eover , t h a t West er n a d u l t - , w thnomu-

125 Copyr i ght 1994 Psychvnomc Soci ety, I nc .


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126 TRANORANDTREHUS

s i c a l t r a i n i n g a r e s ens i t i ve t o aspects of i mpl i edharmony( P l a t t &Raci ne, 1994) , al t hough melody and harmonyseem t o contr i but e somewhat i ndependent i nf ormati onabout key s tructure (Thompson&Cuddy, 1989, 1492) .Cr oss- cul t ural exam nat i on reveal s that mel ody i s f oundmi r t u a l l y al l mus i ca l sys t ems , but that harmony maybe uni que t oWesternmusi c (Dowurg&Harwood, 1986) .Vi r t u al l y al l musi cal system base melodi c c r eat i on onscales, which great l y r e s t r i c t s t he choi ce of componentnot es . Di f f e rent musi cal systems use di f f e rent scal es , mak-i ng i t necessary f or l i s teners t o become f am l i a r , at feasti mpl i c i t l y, w t h t he par t i c ul ar s cal es of thei r musi cal cul -t u r e . Ther ef ore, t he acqui s i t i on of i mpl i c i t knowedgeabout keymembershi p ( i . e . , whichno te s bel ong t o a par-t i c u l a r scal e or key) can be cons i der ed a uni versal of mu-s i cal devel opment . Presumabl y, musi cal syst ems havede-veloped i n accordance w t h t he human audi t ory systema t l east t o some extent . Uni versal aspect s of musi c ar el i k e l y t o be more per c eptual l y sal i ent than nonuai vers alaspects-the l a t t e r ar e l i k e l y t o r equi r e grea te r exposuref or comparabl e ease of p rocess i ng (Trehub&Tr a i ner ,1990, 1993 Trehub et a l . , 1943) . I n t h i s l i g h t , onewoul dexpect t he per cep t i onof mel ody t o bemore f undament althan t he per cep t i on of harmony, andonewoul d al so ex-pect i t t o develop ear l i er , even f or l i s t ener s exposed t obot h ki nds of i nf ormat i on .Thesearch f or musi cal uni ver sal s has met w t h l i m t e ds u c c e s s , yi el di ng very fewand very basi c c r o s s - c u l t u r a ls i m l a r i t i e s ( Har waod, 1976) . Nevert hel ess, these s i m l a r -i t i e s may gui de t he i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of el ement ary or r e a d i l yacqui r ed aspects of musi cal processi ng . I n mos t musi calsyst ems, p i t c h i s r e l a t e d t o f undament al f r equency on al ogar i t hmc s c a l e , whi ch means t h a t t i e di st ance bet weentwo pit ches i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t ed t o t he r a t i o of t h ei r f unda-ment al f r equenci es . Tones t h a t ar e one octave apart ( i . e . ,f undament al f r equenci es st andi ng i n a 1 : 2 r a t i o ) soundvery s im l a r i n musi cal cont ext s, ar e f u nc t i o na l l y equi va-l e nt , and a re often ass igned the same not e name More-over, r e sear c h w th very youngi n f a n t s i n di c a t e s t h a t event hey per cei ve t he s i m l a r i t y of t ones t h a t ar e one octaveapart (Demany&Armand, 1984) . Anot her n ea r - u ni v e r s a li s t he use of a smal l s et of di s cre te pi t ches per octave( s c a l e s ) and t h ei r r e p e t i t i o n i n successi ve octaves . Ac u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c exampl e i s t heWes t er nmaj or s c a l e , whi chi s composed of t ones separated by t wo, t wo, one, t wo,t wo, t wo, andone semtones, where a semtone i s onetwel f t h of an oct ane ( on a l o g, . s c a l e ) . The f i r s t not e, o rt o ni c , i s consi dered t he mos t i mpor t ant, and composi t i onsbased on a pa r t i c ul a r s c a l e ar e s a i d t o be i n t he key oft he toni c . Thenot es C, D E, F , G, A, andB(262, 293,329, 349, 391, 440, and492 Hz, s t a r t i n g an m ddl e C)f a r m a maj or s c a l e ; composi t i ons based on t h i s s to i cwould be i n t hekeyofCmaj or . Thesecond mos t i mpor -t a n t not e i s t he f i f t h , or dom nant, whi ch i s Gn t he c a s eof t he Cmaj or scal e .West er n harmoni c s t r u c t u r e i s based an chords ( i . e . ,three or more si mul t aneous t o n e s ) , whi ch can be con-s t r u c t e d on each not e of t he s c a l e . Thetwomos t i mpor -

t ant chords ar e based on t he toni c anddomnant not es .desi gnat ed t he toni c chord (CEGn t he keyof Cmaj or)and domnant chord (GSDn t he key of Cmaj or) , r e-spect i vel y . Avar i ant of t he domnant chord i s t he dom-nant s event h chord (GSDF i n t he key of Cmaj or) .For Western l i s teners , a t l ea s t , domnant harmony i st hought t o produce t ensi on, which i s r esol ved when f o l -l owedby toni c harmony . I t i s not surp r i s i ng, t hen, thatWesterncomposi t i ons t y pi c al l y begi n and endwth toni charmony .Recent r e sea r ch has r evea led that i nfant s ar e s im l a r t oadul t s i n thei r per cep t i on of a number of aspects of musi -c al s t r uc t ur e . For exampl e, i nfants andadul t s r ecogni zemel odi es presented i n t r anspos i t i on ( i . e . , at di f f e rent s t a r t -i ng pit ches) , i ndi cat i ng th at t h ey gi v e precedence t o r e l a -t i v e p i t ch i nf ormat i on ( i . e . , t he p i t ch di s t anc e, or i nt e r v al ,betweennot es) over absolu te p i t c h ( e . g. , Cohen, Thorpe,&rehuh, 1987 Trai nor&rehub, 1992, 1993a) . I n-fants , l i k e adul t s, ar e sens i t i ve to pi t c h contour (the up/downl same pa t t e rn of pi t c h changes) , r eadi l y de tect i nganymel odi c changes t hat a l te r t he contour (' Tr ehub, Bul l ,&hor pe, 1984 Trehab, Thorpe,&or r ongi e l l o, 1985,1987) . Moreover, i nfants andadul ts exhi bi t enhancedpro-cess i ng f or somemel odies (Cohen et al . , 1987 Tr ai nor&rehub, 1993a, 1993b ; Trehub, Thorpe,&r a i nor ,1990), al t hough some of t he f ac tor s under l y ing t he easeor d i f f i cu l t y of melodi c di s c r i mnat i ons remai n uncl ear .Both i nfants andadul t s, however, f i n d i t easi er t o d i s c r imi nat e changes tomelodi es i f theycont a i n perfect f i f t h i n-t e rval s ( i . e . , not es st andi ng i n a 2: 3 f requency r a t i o ; seeCohen et al . , 1987 ; Tr ai nor &Trehub, 1993b Trehubet a l . , 1990) . I t i s al s o eas i e r t o di s c r i mnat e di f f e rencesbetween t ransposed mel odies i f t he mel odi es ar e re l a t edby a perfect f i f t h (Tra i nor&rehab, 1993a) .I nf ant s d i f f e r f r oma du l t s i n other aspects of musi calprocessi ng, such a s t hei r i mpl i c i t know edge of key mem

bers hi p . Tr ai nar and Trehub ( 1992) compar ed i n f a nt s ' andadul t s ' ab i l i t y t o det ect two types of changes t o a s i n g l enot e o awel l - s t ructured West er n mel ody ( C E, , G, ,Fq, D, , G, , C, , E, , D, , C, - the subscr i pt represents t heoctave f r om whi ch t he not e i s dr awn, whereC, i s m d-dl eC262, 329, 391, 344, 243, 195, 262, 329, 293, and262 Hz i n t he key ofCmaj or) . One of these i nvol ved t hea l t e r a t i o n of a s i n g l e not e so t h a t i t was out si de t he keyof t he mel ody ( i n t he key ofCmajor , G, , or 195 Hz, waschanged t o AV, , or 207Hz) ; t he other i nvol ved as i n gl e -not e change t h a t r emai ned w t hi n t he key of t he mel ody( G, , or 195 Hz, was changed t o B, , or 246Hz) . Not s u r -p r i s i n g l y , t he a dul t s f ound t he w th in-key change mor ed i f f i c u l t t o det e ct t han t he out-of-key change ; t he l a t t e rchange created an a t y pi c a l West er nmel ody. By c o n t r a s t ,t he i nf a nt s per f ormed equi val ent l y on both changes, a c -t u a l l y outperformng f l o e a du l t s on t he w th in-key change .These f i ndi ngs i mpl y t h a t i nf ant s ar e unaffected by keymember shi p, l acki ng know edge about t he underl yi ng s c a l es t r u c t u r e of West er n musi c . Resear ch w t h f orei gn musi calmateri al s (Lynch, F i l e r s , Oi l e r ,&r bano, 199 (3 ; Lynch,Ef l er s , Oi l er , Ur bano, &Wl son, 3992) i nd i c a t e s t h a t mu-


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s i c a l l y unt r ai ned adul t s more readi l y detect changes i n t hef am l i a r West ern mj or scal e than i n t he unf am l i arJ avanese pel og s c a l e , but t h a t i nf ants perf ormequi val entl yon bot h tasks . I nf ants' nondi f f erent i al perf ormnce onnat i ve and f orei gn scal es i mpl i es that t he Westernmaj orscal e does not have pref erenti al s t a t u s , at l east f or 6-month-ol d l i steners .There are r e l a t i v e l y f ewst udi es of presc hool andschool -age chi l dren' s pr ocessi ng of mel odi c pi t c h s t ruc ture .Nevert hel ess, untr ai ned Western chi l dren 10-13 years ofage are better abl e t o detect changes i n t he West ernmaj orscal e than i n t he J avanese pel og scal e (Lynch&i l er s ,1991) . There are suggesti ons t h a t , even by age 6, c hi l -dren f i nd t h a t changes that go out si de t he keyof a wel l -knownmel ody ar e easi er t o detect than those that remai nw t hi n t he key (Trehub, Mor rongi el l o,&horpe, 1985) .

Chi l dren' s i mpl i ci t knowedgeof t he hi erarchi cal s t r u c -ture of Western t onal musi c has been examned i n threest udi es ( s e e Kr umhansl , 1990) . Krumhansl andKei l (1982)f oundt h a t t he per f ormance of f i r s t and second gr aders r e-f l ected t he i nf l uenceof keymembershi p, t heperf ormanceof t h i r d and fourth gr aders ref l ec ted the i mport ance oft he toni c t r iad as wel l as key membershi p, andonl y adul tper f ormance showedeffects of t he i mpor t ance of t he toni cnot e over t he other not es of t he toni c t r i ad . Speer andMeeks ( 1985) , however , f oundnodi f f erence betweens e c -ondand f i f t h graders ; bot h groups showed i mpl i cit know -edge of key membershi p andof t he i mport ance of t he toni ct r iad and toni c not e . CuddyandBadertscher ( 1987) f oundt h a t t heper f ormance of f i r s t t hrough s i x th gr aders r eveal edeffects of al l of these structural f eatures, al t hough t o al esser extent than perf ormance by adul ts .

Vari ati ons i n performance across t he af orement i onedst udi es ar e l i kel y at t r i butabl e t o di f f erences i n pr ocedure .But l er ( 1989) contends , however, t h a t t he rel at i ve i n c i -denceof speci f i c not es i n t he st i mul i of these st udi es coul dhave account ed f or t he obtai ned pattern of perf ormance( but see Cuddy, 1991) . Hei s al so c r i t i c a l of t he use ofs t a t i c structures rather than mel odi es t h a t unf ol d over t i me .I n l i ght of t he i nconsi st ent devel opment al f i ndi ngs andquest i ons about t he probe t one met hodol ogy, i t i s f ai r t osay t h a t t he devel opment al course of l earni ng about vari -ous aspects of Western tonal s t ruc ture remai ns uncl ear .I n contrast t o t he case of mel odi c structure, there i s l i t -t l e empi r i cal work on t he per cept i on of i mpl i ed harmony .Accordi ng t o Westernmusi c theory, there may be morethan one appr opr i ate harmoni zati on of a mel ody For i n-stance, Bach someti mes harmoni zed t he same mel ody i ndi f f erent ways i n hi s choral e sett i ngs ( e . g . , J esu, Mei neFreude) . Nevert hel ess, a si mpl e, wel l - st ructuredmel odywoul d be expect ed t o have an obvi ous, or prototypi cal ,i mpl i ed harmony, al t hough other harmoni zat i ons woul dbe possi bl e i n pri nc i pl e . I ndeed, good agreement i s evi -dent among musi c experts f or si mpl e, wel l -st ructuredmel odi es, and vari ati ons i n harmoni zati on i ncrease asmel odi es devi ate f rom he rul es of West ern t onal s t r u c -ture (Cuddy, Cohen,&ewhort, 1981) .

Whad f i v e musi ci ans pr ovi de harmoni c anal yses ofTrai nor and Trehub' s ( 1992) si mpl e 10-note mel odyThree of t he musi ci ans characteri zed t he mel ody as i mpl yi ng a toni c chord ( on not es C, , E, , and G ) f ol l owedby a domnant seventh chord(onnot es F, , Dq, andG, ),f ol l owed by a toni c chord ( on not es C, , E, , D , and C, ) .Theother twomusi ci ans harmoni zedt he mel ody i n averys im l a r way, but addeda domnant chordont he secondt o l a s t note, y i el di ng a toni c chord ( on not es C , , , E, andG, ), f ol l owed by a domnant seventh chord(onnot es F, ,D, , and G3) , f ol l owed by a toni c chord(onnot es C, andE , ) , f ol l owed by adomnant chord (onnot e D4) , f ol l owedby a toni c chord (onnot e C, ) . Thus, t he musi ci ans wereuni f orm n i ndi cati ng an i mpl i ed domnant harmony at t hepoi nt of the potenti al note change ( i . e . , G3) i n Trai norandTrehub' s ( 1992) study . Furt hermore, t hewi t hi n- keychange i n t hi s s tudy (G, changed t o B, ) al so remi nedw t hi n t he i mpl i ed domnant harmony (GBDchord)at t h a t poi nt . As a resul t, t he adul ts ' poor performnceon t h i s change may have stemmed f romt he harmoni cf uncti on of t he changednot e as wel l as f rom t s wi t hi n-key status .Thepri nci pal goal of Experi ment 1 was t o examnet hecontr i buti ons of key membershi p and i mpl i ed harmonyt o l i s t ener s ' percept i on of mel odi c changes . Wused t hesame mel ody as i n Tr ai nor and Trehub ( 1992) , as wel las t he same change t h a t i nt r oduced an out - of - key not e,desi gnat ed out - of - key change ( G, was changed t o A63 i nC maj or) . However, we i ncl uded twowi t hi n- key changesas wel l . One, desi gnat edwi t hi n-harmony, was consi st entw t h t he i mpl i ed harmony ( G, was changed t o B, i nCmaj or) ; the other, desi gnated out - of - harmony, was not( G, t o A3 i nCmaj or) . I n al l threecases, the changednot ewas not present i n t he standard mel ody Whypothesi zedt h a t t he adul ts woul ddemonst r at e i mpl i c i t knowedgeofkey membershi p, per f orm ng bett er on t he out - of - key thanon t he w th i n-key changes, as i n pr evi ous research (Cuddyet al . , 1979 Tr ai nor&r ehub, 1992) . Adul t s, even thosewhoare musi cal l y unsophi st i cated, have hadconsi derabl eexposure t o harmony i n Westernmusi c, so we expect edt h a t thei r perf ormncewoul dbe affectedby i mpl i ed har-mony ( as i n P l a t t&aci ne, 1994 ; Thompson, 1993) . Spe-c i f i c a l l y , we expect ed them o perf ormetter on t he out -of-harmony than on t he wi t hi n- harmony change . Nevert h e l e s s , t he cross-cul t ural r a r i t y of harmony mght r e f l e c ti t s rel at i ve di f f i cul t y . Thus, musi cal l y unt r ai ned l i stenersmght be l e s s affected by i mpl i ed harmony than by keymembershi p, l eadi ng t o superi or per f ormance on t he out -of - key change (based on keymembershi p) over t he out -of-harmony change (based on i mpl i ed harmony) . I n t h i scase, the predi cted order of di f f i cul t y f or adul t nonmusi -ci ans, f rom eas t t o most d i f f i c u l t , woul dbe out - of - key,out - of - harmony, andwi t hi n- harmony . Warr anged thesecondi t i ons so t h a t t heuseof nonmusi cal st rategi es, basedont he r e l a t i v e magni t udeof the pi tch changes, woul dy iel dt he opposi t e order : wi t hi n- harmony ( change of four sem-tones), out - of - harmony ( change of two semtones), and


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out-of-key (change of one semt one) . Ont he other hand,i f exposur e t o Westernmusi c r es ul t s i n i mpl i edharmony' sbei ng an i nt egr al par t of mel odi c percept i on by adul t hood,then hi gh but undi f f erent i at ed performancewoul dbeex-pect ed f or out-of-key and out - of - harmony changes, be-cause bot h changes i nvol ve structural devi ati ons fromt her epr esent at i on of t he ori gi nal mel ody.

EXPERMENT 1MethodSubj ects . Thesubj ects wer e 18 adul t s ( 6 mal e, 12 f emal e) 17- 39years of age (M=3 years), whocompletedal l three condi t i ons .Al l reported normal heari ng andwere f r e e of col ds at the ti me oftesti ng Threeother adult s were el i mnated for f ai l i ng t o meet thet r ai ni ng c r i t er i on Noneof the adul ts were prof essi onal or seri ousamateur musi ci ans, although somehad takenmusi c l essons (6hadtaken no l essons, 7 hadtaken l ess than 8 years of l essons, and5had takenmore than 8 years of l essons) .Apparatus . Thepart i ci pants were tested i ndi v idual l y i n an I n-

dustri al Acousti csCo . sound- att enuat i ng booth Thesi ne-wavetonesweregeneratedby twoHewett-Packard 3325Asynthesi zer/ f uncti ongenerators , attenuated by twoMedAssociates att enuat ors, turnedon andoff by twoMedAssociates r ise/ fa l l swt ches, ampl i f i ed byaMrantz 1070 s tereo ampl i f i er , andpresented through a s i ngl eAvant 2AXl oudspeaker . Theaudio equipment, touch- sens i t i veresponse recorder, andr e i n f o r c i ng toys were contr o l l ed by an ECSmcrocomputer through a custommade i nterf ace .Sti mul i . The st andar d mel ody ( s e e Fi gure 1) was i d ent i c al t o t hatof Trai nor and Trehub ( 1992) , consi sti ng of t he notes C, , E, , G4,

StandardMel ody

261 329 391 349 293 195 261 329 293 261Hz .Condi ti on1 Out-of Key Change

207HzCondi ti on2 Out-of-HarmonyChange

4L2211 Hz

Condi ti on3 Wthi n-Harmony Change3V Igem

246Hz

Figure 1 The standardmel ody andchange i n the s i x th not e foreach condi ti on

F, , D , G , C, , E, , 13, , andC ( 262, 329, 391, 349, 293, 195, 262,329, 293, and262 Hz) i n the key of Cmaj or . Themel ody wasr epeat ed i n tr anspos it i on t o threedi f f erent keys, or star t i ng notes-speci f i cal l y , Cmajor, Emajor, andA maj or- i naquasi - randomsequence so t hat no twoconsecuti ve mel odi es were i n t he same keyThetones were conti guous si ne waves 400mec i n durati on, i n-cl udi ng 10-mec l i near r i se anddecaytimes. The i ntermelody i n-terval was800mec. Theaverage i ntensi t y l evel was 75 dB(A) ,andtheambi ent noise l evel was27 dB(A) or 42dB(C) , measuredat t he approximate l ocat i on of the l i s tener ' s headThe st andar d mel odywast ypi cal of Westernt onal i t y i n thesense

t hat al l t he notes belonged t o one key, and i t hadasimpl e impl i edharmony t he f i r s t three notes i mpl i eda toni c harmony (C EG),the next three a domnant harmony (GBD) , and t he f i nal fourei ther a toni c harmony or a toni c-domnant- toni c harmony Thel i s tener ' s task i n eachof thet hreecondi ti onswas to det ect achangei n thes i x th note of the st andar d mel ody (see Fi gure 1) . I n the out -of -key condi t i on, G ( i n theCmaj or r endi t i on of themel ody) wasrai sed one semtone to Ab, (207 Hz), a note outsi de the key I nthe out-of-harmony condi t i on, G was rai sed two semtones t o A,(220 Hz), a note wthi n the key of Cmajor, but outsi de the impl i ed domnant harmony I nt hewthi n-harmony condi t i on, G wasrai sed four semtones to B, (246Hz) , anote wt hi n the key as wel las wthi n the prevai l i ng impl i edharmonyThechanges i n the t r ai ni ng phase (see Procedure bel ow were

l arger andof t hesamemagni tudef or al l condi t i ons . I nt he f i r s t threet r ai ni ng t r ia ls , G was l owered si x semtones t o CJ f , (139Hz) ; i nthe remaining t r ai ni ng t r ia ls , i t was l owered four semtones t oE63 (156Hz) .Procedure Wusedtheprocedureof TrainorandTrehub ( 1992)

t o enhance comparabi l i ty Thel i s teners were seated i n the sound-at t enuati ngboothopposi te t heexperimenter, whowore headphonesand l i s tened t o maski ngmusi c so as t o be unaware of whether acontrol or change t r i a l was bei ngpresented Thestandard mel odywas r epeat ed conti nuousl y i n tr ansposi ti on i naquasi - randomorder,so t hat no two consecuti verepet i t i ons were at thesamepi tch l evelthroughout the test sessi on Therepeat i ng standard mel ody con-st i tu ted the backgroundagai nst whichthe detect i onof changes wasevaluated Wen the part i ci pant was att enti ve, t he experimentercal l ed fo r a t r i a l by pressi ng abutton on theresponse recorder . Tr i al swere not i dent i f i ed i n anyway, f or ei ther the experimenter or thel i s tener . Therewere var i abl e number s of repet i t i ons of the st an-dard mel ody between t r i a l s ; themnimumwastwo Onhal f thet r ia ls , themel ody was presentedwth thechangednote (see Sti mu l i ) ; on theother hal f , or control t r ia ls , repet i t i ons of the standardmel ody si mply conti nued Change andcontrol t r i a l s werepresentedi n a quasi - randomorder (nomore than three consecuti ve controlt r ia l s) , f or a total of 24 t r i a l s per condi ti on Thel i s teners were i n-st ructed t o ra i se a hand when t hey detected achange . I f theyrespondedcor r ect l y duri ng t he 3-sec peri odt hat beganwth t he s i x th(changed) noteof themel ody, an animated toywas acti vated andi l l umnated for 4sec, as i nthe i nf ants' procedure of Trai nor andTrehub (1992) . No feedback was provided for responses at othert imes. Thecomputer recorded al l responses duri ng thi s 3-sec r e-sponse i nterval on both change and control t r i al s .Thetest phase of eachcondi ti onwasprecededby a t r ai ni ng phase

wth l arger changes ( see St i mul i ) . Fai l ure t o respond t o a changel ed to the present at i on of the next changemel ody at a l evel t hatwas5dBgreater than t hat of thebackgroundmel ody . Correct r e-sponding resul ted i n a 5-dBdecrease i n the i ntensi t y of the nextchangemel ody unti l background andchangemelodi eswereequi va-l ent , as they remai ned f or t he subsequent test phase Part i ci pantswhodi dnot meet a t r ai ni ng c r i t e r i o n of four consecuti ve correctresponses ( at equi val ent backgroundandchange i ntensi ty) w t hi n 20t r i a l s weree l i mnated . Eachpart i ci pant completedal l three condi ti onsi n a singl e test sess i on of approximately 45mn Therewere3par -t i c ipants i n each of the si x possi bl e orders of t he threecondi ti ons


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KEYMEMBERSHPANDIMPLIEDHARMONY 129

Resul t s and Di scussi onFor each part i c i pant i n each condi ti on, t he proport i onsof responses on change t r i a l s ( h i t s ) andcontrol t r i a l s ( f a l seal arms) were t r ansf ormed t o d' s cor es accordi ng t o yes/ notabl es of si gnal detecti on theory ( E l l i o t , 1964) . Occasi onalproport i ons of 0 or l present a probl embecause t hey r e-s u l t i n i n f i n i t e d' scores . These scores are bel i eved t o bes t at i s t i c al l y i n f i n i t e rather than t r ul y i nf i ni t e (seeMcml -l an&Kaplan, 1985) , ar i s i ng f romt he sampl i ngerror i n-herent i n a l i m t e d cumber of t r i a l s . To ci rcumvent thi sd i f f i cu l ty , we t r ansf ormed t he scores pri or t o conversi ont o d' . Proport i ons were cal cul atedby addi ng J t o t he number of actual responses ( out of 12) and di vi di ng by t henumber of possibl e responses plus 1 ( i . e , l 3) . Thi s trans-f ormati on mai ntai ns t he ori gi nal r anki ngof scores andhasl i t t l e effect on d' val ues (see Thorpe, Trehub, Mrron-gi el l o, &u l l , 1988) . Ad' of 0 represents chance per-formance t he maxi mumd' achi evabl e under t hese con-di t i ons a 3. 50,Arepeated measur es a na l y s i s of var i ance (ANOVA)w t h t ype of change and order of condi t i ons a s factors r e-veal ed noe f f e c t of or der and no i n t e r a c t i o n bet ween orderand change, al t hough power was l oww t h onl y 3 sub-j e c t s per or der . Ther e was, however , a s i g ni f i c an t e f f e c tof change [ F(2, 24) =1434, pc . OOoI ; see Fi gure 2]Pai r ed- sampl es t t e s t s , w t h t he Bonf err oni corr ecti on f ormu l t i p l e t e s t s , r eveal ed t h a t per f ormance on t h e out-of-keyand out - of - harmony changes ( mean d' s of 2. 64and2_64,respect i vel y) di d not d i f f e r Fur t hermore, perf or manceon t h e wi t hi n- harmony change (meand' of 1 . 8 0) was s i g -n i f i c a n t l y l ower t han perf ormanceon t heother condi ti ons( t ( 1 7 ) =4 07 , p < . 003 F or out- of- key v s , w thi n-harmony r(17) =5,36, p


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130 TRANORANDTREHUB

p a b i l i t i e s . F i r s t , t he mel odi es were not pr esent ed i n trans-posi t i on, because p i l o t t esti ng reveal ed t h a t chi l dren r e-spond t o t he t ransposi t i onal change as wel l as t o t he r e l a -t i v e pi tch changes of i n t e r e s t . Second, di scret e t r i a l s werepresented i nstead of t he cont i nuous repeti t i ons of Exper -i ment 1, because of chi l dren' s pr opensi t y t o i n i t i a t e con-versat i ons f romt i me t o t i me, t her eby obscur i ng t he au-di tory sti mul i Thus, di screte nont r ansposed t r i a l s al l owedf or superi or management of chi l dren' s attenti on . Thi rd,we used a between- subj ect s desi gn because of t he d i f f i -cul ty of mai ntai ni ng chi l dren' s i n t er es t i n three succes-si ve sessi ons .Method

Subj ect s The subj ects were f ort y- two 5- year- ol ds (range =4years, 9months t o 5 years, 3 months ;Myears, 26 days)and fort y-two 7- year - ol ds (range=6years, 9months t o7years,3months ;M7years, 10 days) . Therewere20boys and22g i r l si n theyounger groupand15 boys and27 g i r l s i n theol der groupal l hadnormal heari ng(accordi ng t o parenta l repor t ) andwere f r e eof col ds at t he ti meof test i ng . Anaddi t i onal twenty-one5-year - ol dsand t our 7-year-ol ds wereexcluded f romthe sampl e f or threerea-sons : f a i l u r e to meet the t r a in ing c r i t e r i on (5 -year - ol ds : n=1 ;7-year-ol ds : n =) ; i nadequate att ent i on (5 - year- ol ds : n=47-year-ol ds : n =) , as i ndi cat edby i ncorr ect respondingonmorethan twoout of th ree probe t r i a l s (see Procedure) ; or f a i l u r e t o compl e te theent i re test session (5- year- ol ds : n - - 6) . Most of the c hi l -dren hadhadno formal musi cal t r a in ing (5 -year - ol ds 2had 1yearof pi ano l essons ; 7- year - ol ds : 2had 1 year and2had2years ofpiano l essons) .Sti mul i . Themelodiesandchanges were i denti cal t o thoseof Ex-

periment 1, except that al l melodies were presented i n the keyofCmaj or .Apparatus. The apparatuswas i denti cal to that of Experiment 1 .Procedure The chi l dren par t i c ipated i n asame-di f ferent task .On each t r i a l , twomelodies werepresented-the f i r s t was the st an-dardmel odyandthesecondwas t he compari sonmel ody . On changet r i a l s ( n =0) , thesecondmel ody i ncorporat ed thechange for that

condi t i on (out - ofkey, out-of- harmony, or wth n-harmony; seeSti mu l i ) ; on cont r ol t r i a l s ( n =0) , the second mel ody was i dent i calt o thestandard . Theexperi menter, whowas bl i ndt o thehypothesesof thest udy, sat i n the sound- at t enuat i ng chamber across f romthec h i l d . Thechi l dren were f i r s t t r a ined i n theuseof theterm "same"and "di f f e rent " wth col ored bl ocks . They werepresentedwthtwoi dent i c al bl ue blocks andasked i f they were the sameor di f f erent .Subsequentl y, they recei ved two t r i a l s wth abl ue andgreenbl ockof di f f erent size and were asked i f t hese were thesame or d i f f e r -ent . F inal l y , they were presentedwth tworedbl ocks of di f f erentsize . Wen t seemed c l ear t hat thechi l dren understood t he appr opri -at e appl i cat i on of "same" and "di f f er ent , " the experi menterproceeded t o the task of i nterest .Thechi l dren were t ol d t o l i st en t o a"speci al song" andweregi ven three present ati ons of the standard mel ody . Subsequentl y,

they were t o l d that they would hear thespeci al song ( i . e . , standardmel ody) fol l owed by another song that mght beexactl y t he sameas thespeci al song, or a l i t t l e di f f erent . They coul d i ndi cate whetheri t was the same or di f f erent ei t her verbal l y or by pressi ng oneoftwobutt ons (negot i ated i ndi v idual l y at thestart of the t rai ni ng phase) .Therewere two i dent i cal pi c tures of acat besi de the same button;a pi c ture of a cat and another of a dogwere beside the di f ferentbutton. Theexperi menter recorded thechi l d' s responseson the re-sponse recorder, whi chwas l i nked t o the computer . Correct re-spondingon same and di f f erent t r i a l s resul ted i n the act i vat i on ofal i gh t andtoy f or 4sec . Pri or t o the test t r i a l s , t he chi l dren recei vedt r a in ing t r i a l s i n whi ch the t o-be-det ected changewasmuch l arger

(see St i mul i ) . Thechi l dren were requi red t o produce f our consecu-t i v e corr ect responses ( i nc l udi ng at l east onesame andone di f fer -ent t r i a l ) w t hi n 20 t r i a l s beforeproceedingt o thet est t r i a l s . Duri ngt he t e s t phase, therewere th ree probe t r i a l s i n whi chthecompari son( second) mel ody i ncorporatedthe t r a in ing change each probe t r i a loccurred a f t e r every f i v e t est t r i a l s . These probe t r i a l s were usedas ameasureof at tent i on ; thech i l dren whof a i l e d t o detect thechangeon at l east two of the th ree probe t r i a l s were excluded f romthef i nal sampl e (see Subj ects) , whi ch consi sted of 14 chi l dren f or eachagegroup i n each of t he th ree condi t i ons .

Resul t s and D scussi onProport i ons of h i t s andfa l se al ar ms were cal cul atedandt r ansf ormed t o d ' scores, accor di ng t o yes/no t abl es, asi n Experi ment 1 . Fi gure 2showsmeand' s f or each con-di t i on across age l evel s . ANOVAs wi t h t ype of change( out - of - key, out - of - harmony, wi t hi n- harmony) as a factorwere performed separat el y f or t he 5- and7- year- ol ds . I nboth cases, there was a signi f i cant e f f e c t of type of change[ F(2, 39) =15 . 9 0, p< . 0001 f or t he 5- year- ol ds ;F( 2, 39) =. 4 4, p


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KEYMEMBERSHPANDIMPLIESHARMONY 13 1

on t he out - of - harmony change t hanont he w t hi n- harmonychange Thi s pattern of resul ts i s consi st ent w t h t he i n-terpretati on t h a t 5- year- ol ds have i mpl i ci t knowedge ofkey membershi p but not of i mpl i ed harmony, whereas7-year- ol ds, l i ke adul t s , have i mpl i ci t knowedgeof bot haspects of musi cal structure .

GENERALDSCUSSIONI n t he present i nvest i gati on, we were concerned w t ht he rol e of key membershi p and i mpl i ed harmonym

adul t s' and chi l dren' s percepti on of t one sequences . Wexpected earl i er percept ual effects f or keymembershi p,which i s rel evant t o vi r t ual l y al l musi cal system, and l a t e reffects f or i mpl i ed harmony, which i s r e l a t i v e l y rare cross-cul tural l y . Presumabl y, di f ferent devel opment al t i metabl esf or t h es e f eat ures woul d ari se f romdi ff erenti al ease ofacqui si t i on or fromdi ff erenti al exposure. Our predi cti onswere borne out : Theperformance of t he 5- year- ol d chi l -drenwas affected by keymembershi pbut not by i mpl i edharmony, whereas t hat of t he 7-year -o ld chi l dren andadul t s was affected by bot h keymembershi pand i mpl i edharmony .These f i ndi ngs together w t h earl i er research i ndi cat ea cl ear devel opment al progres si on, begi nni ng w t h effectsof perfect f i f t h and oct ave i nterval s i n t he f i r s t year of

l i f e (Demany&Armand, 1984 Tremor&Trehub, 1993a,1993b) , and fol l owed by effects of keymembershi pby5 years of age and i mpl i ed harmony by 7 years of age.I mpl i cit knowedge about keymembershi p, al t hough ab-sent i n 8-month-olds (Tremor&Trehub, 1992) , i s l i k e l yt o be present wel l be for e 5 years of age, which i s t heyoungest age t hat has been examned post i nf ancy . I n anycase, t he acqui si t i onof i mpl i cit knowedge about i mpl i edharmony occurs rather l at e i n devel opment, comparedwth otter aspect s of musi cal structure .Wat arc t he i mpl i cat i ons of t he present devel opment alf i ndi ngs f or t heori es of musi c acqui si t i on? Krumhansl( 1990, pp 285-286) proposedthat t he acqui si t i on of i mp l i c i t knowedgeabout musi c structure i s basedpri mari l yon t he s t a t i s t i c a l propert i es of musi c . For exampl e, t henot es of t he t oni c chordare bel i eved t o assume percept ualpromnence because they occur w t h greater f r equencyt han t he ot her not es of t he scal e . Extending t h i s l i ne ofr easoni ng t o a devel opmental cont ext , chi l dren shoul dl earn about keymembershi pbecauseof t he f r equent co-occurrence of cert ai n not es ( i . e . , not es of a scal e) and t hei nf requent co-occurr ence of ot hers ( i . e . , nonscal c w t hscal e notes ) . Si m l ar l y, c hi l dr en shoul d l earn about ampl i ed harmony by associati ng mel ody not es w th thei r ac-companyi ngchords . Oneprobl emw th t h i s f ormul ati on,however, i s i t s fai l ure t o expl ai n t he devel opment al prece-dence of keymembershi pover i mpl i edharmony . I ndeed,many commn chi l dren' s songs ( e g. , Tw nk l e Tw nk l eL i t t l e Star) donot cont ai n al l t he not es of t he scal e . More-over, chi l dren fr equent l y hear recorded versi ons of suchsongs w t h harmonic accompaniment ( e . g . , TVshows l i k e"Sesame Street" and "The El ephant Show") . Thus, a[ -though rel ati ve f r equency of occurrence may i nfl uence

t he acqui si ti on of speci f i c musi cal structures, i t seem un-l i k e l y t hat i t can account f or t he present devel opmentalf i ndi ngs .Theacqui si t i on of speech sounds reveal s some di ssoci -at i ons between s t a t i s t i c a l propert i es of phonemes w t h i n

a l anguageand the i r order of acqui si t i on . On t i c whole,sounds that are uni versal or near- uni versal ( e . g . , ma/pa)are acqui r ed earl i er t han sounds that occur i n rel at i vel yfew l anguages ( e . g . , l a/ ra) ( . Takobson, 1968 ; Locke,1983, even though sounds t hat are cross-cul tural l y i n-f r equent may havea high f r equency of occurrence i n apart i cul ar l anguage ( e . g . , i n Engl i sh, sounds wri t t en ast h) . I n musi c, as wel l , near- uni versal musi cal features maybe acqui r ed earl i er andmore easi l y t han uni que features .

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( . Manuscri pt recei ved J ul y 8, 1993,revi sion accepted f or publ i cati on December 31, 1993 )

trainor, l. j., & trehub, s. e. (1994). key membership and implied harmony in western tonal music-...

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