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NAVIGATING TRANSPORT NAMAsPractical handbook for the design and implementation of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) in the transport sector

TRANSfer

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Published byDeutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH

TRANSfer Project – Transfer towards climate-friendly transport technologies and measuresDag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-565760 Eschborn, GermanyT +49 61 96 79–0E transfer@giz.deI www.giz.de, www.TRANSferProject.org

On behalf ofFederal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU)

AuthorsWuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt, Energie GmbH and

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH

ManagerDr Harald Diaz-Bone

LayoutKlaus Neumann, SDS, G.C.

Eschborn, February 2012

DisclaimerFindings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this document are based on information gathered by GIZ and its consultants, partners and contributors. GIZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracy or completeness of information in this document, and cannot be held responsible for any errors, omissions or losses which emerge from its use.

CopyrightThis publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, whenever provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The GIZ would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this GIZ publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever.

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Foreword ii

How to use this handbook iv

Introduction vi

Part I Generic information on mitigation action in the transport sector 1

1. Many solutions towards sustainable low carbon transport are ready for implementation 4

2. Transparency on emission reductions is key 15

3. Financial and technical support can be tapped from different sources 25

4. Implementation of mitigation action is beneficial for all stakeholders 43

Part II Case studies from partner countries

A. Colombia

B. Indonesia

C. South Africa

D. Mexico

E. Costa Rica

F. Chile

Annex A: Overview of options for GHG emission mitigation actions (factsheets)

Annex B: International Climate Finance Sources

List of Contents

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Foreword

In December 2010, the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) took all necessary action to enable developing countries to implement Nationally Appropriate

Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) and therefore contribute to the overall objective of the Convention. International support

from developed countries for these activities will be made available step by step and can be tapped through a

number of opportunities for bilateral cooperation already today.

Future decisions under the UNFCCC will expand these opportunities towards multilateral financing options, based on

international agreed standards for monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV). Furthermore, a NAMA registry will

facilitate an overview of NAMA proposals and activities across the globe. But governments aiming to take mitigation

action as soon as possible do not need to wait until these elements are set in place, as information on mitigation

action can be added also retroactively to this database.

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Transport systems do not seem to naturally evolve towards sustainable low-carbon pathways. Many cities, regions and nations around the globe display severe problems with their transport systems, both in terms of efficiency and sustainability. It seems that transport tend to naturally grow beyond the point of optimum size and complexity, without displaying much capability for self-regulation. The results are traffic congestion and noise, local air pollution, regional and global environmental impacts, high energy demand and unnecessary fatalities due to accidents. Already today, quality of life is threatened in many places by these negative effects. In 2010, transport was responsible for 22 % of fossil-fuel-related carbon dioxide emissions and is projected to grow by 45 % by 2030 (OECD/IEA, 2010). Thus in the near future, CO2 emissions from transport are expected to rise rapidly unless ambitious actions will be taken to mitigate these emissions. Most of this increase is projected to stem from a stark increase in freight transport and the rapidly growing number of passenger cars, joined by declining shares of rail, public and non-motorised transport.

Therefore, a transition towards sustainable low-carbon transport systems needs active planning and effective policy making in order to counterbalance this natural degradation. The need for a transformational shift in the transport sector seems to be apparent in many countries,

however, the ability for designing and implementing such a transformational process is not always given.

The good news is that a number of solutions towards sustainable low-carbon transport is available that have proven their effectiveness in the real world. And for countries that lack the necessary capacity for designing and implementing sustainable transport policies, international support is made available.

The purpose of this handbook is to provide transport policy makers around the globe with practical guidance on the steps to be taken in order to identify and implement mitigation actions in the transport sector that are nationally appropriate. We will call such action “transport NAMAs” — Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action in the transport sector. A broader overview on NAMAs in general can be found in the “UNFCCC handbook on good practice guidance for preparation and implementation of NAMAs” (currently under development; the URL will become available after its publication in May 2012). This handbook on transport NAMAs builds on the UNFCCC handbook (e.g. in terms of how to register a NAMA under the UNFCCC) and addresses specifically and in more detail the perspective of the transport sector towards this new instrument.

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How to Use this HandbookThis handbook is divided into:Part I – Generic information on mitigation action in the transport sectorPart II – Collection of case studies, mostly from partner countries in the TRANSfer project

Part I of the handbook provides guidance and suggests four practical steps for the design and implementation of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) in the transport sector:Step 1 – Policy IdentificationStep 2 – MRV ApproachStep 3 – FundingStep 4 – Registration and Implementation

Each of the four steps starts with a summary of the section, which provides a quick overview of the key aspects of the proposed step.

Part II of the handbook will be filled with case studies as they become available in the course of the years 2012 and 2013.

The handbook also comprises an annex with a collection of factsheets of possible mitigation actions in the transport sector. These factsheets can be downloaded at: http://www.TRANSferProject.org. Further annexes contain an overview of international sources of climate finance and a list of references.

Finally, a number of practical models and tools are being developed or collected from other sources and will be gathered in a toolbox. The toolbox will also become available in 2012 at http://www.TRANSferProject.org.

Icons used in this handbook

The following icons are used throughout this handbook. Remember their meanings.

& Definition of a term

2 Important tip or remark

4 Other TRANSfer product

� External source

L Information

3

Policy identification

Nationally appropriate mitigation actions in the transport sector (t-NAMAs) can comprise any action programme, policy package, policy or measure that aims to reduce GHG emissions from transport in a measurable, reportable and verifiable manner. Other supportive actions (e.g. capacity build-ing activities) can also be integrated into a t-NAMA design. To reduce emissions from the transport sector, the Avoid-Shift-Improve (A-S-I) approach offers an adequate framework to develop effec-tive sectoral mitigation strategies. The co-benefits of pursuing such actions might include better energy security, increased quality of life, stronger economic development and fewer externalities. These benefits can be achieved by putting forward solutions towards sustainable low-carbon transport, many of which are available and ready for implementation.

step 1

‘Public Transport First’ StrategyAnnex A of the Handbook ‘Navigating Transport NAMAs’

TRANSfer Project – Towards climate-friendly transport technologies and measures

TRANSfer

The concept

A high quality public transport system is characterised by its ability to effectively meet the mobility needs of people.

For users, a high quality public transport system has to be acces-sible, fast, reliable, affordable and attractive (Böhler, 2010). From an environmental perspective the system needs to operate effi-ciently, including low emission vehicles and high occupancy rates.

Expanding the public transport network, successfully managing its operations and improving its services are key factors to ensure public transport use. A high quality public transport system can accommodate a high number of trips and is far more efficient (factor 2–4) than individual motorised transport. In this regard, high quality public transport can be considered the backbone of a sustainable urban transport system. It is a key element of any GHG reduction strategy in cities, as better public transport has

Table 1: GHG mitigation matrix of a ‘Public Transport First’ Strategy

Avoid Shift Improve

Direct effects þþ Attracts car users to efficient mode and use of energy

þþ High occupancy rates reduce energy consumption per pkmþþ Modern bus and train

fleets can reduce energy consumption

Indirect effects

þþ Supports a Transit-oriented Develop-ment (ToD)

þþ Improves conditions for walking and cycling as it enables intermodality, it offers reliable mobility without cars and a daily alternative (e.g. during bad weather)

Rebound effect

þÖ Can increase travel distances of peo-ple that do not have access to a car

þÖ Expansion of the network can con-tribute to urban sprawl

þÖ Can induce a undesirable shift by attracting people that previously cycled and walked

þÖ Modern buses can result in an increase in fuel consumption, e.g. due to air conditioning

Complemen-tary measures (to achieve full mitigation potential)

þþ Public transport (PT) integration into land-use planning (LUP) (e.g. ToD) (see Factsheet ‘Dense and Transit-oriented Urban Development’)

þþ All ‘push’ measures (such as parking policy or congestion charging) (see Factsheets

‘Economic and Regulatory Instruments for Road Traffic’ and ‘Sustainable Parking Management’)þþ Walking and cycling infrastructure (see

Factsheet ‘High Quality Walking Infrastructure’)

þþ Green procurement (see Factsheet ‘Green Mobility Management’)þþ Eco-labelling and emission

standards (see Factsheet ‘Promotion of Energy Efficient Vehicles’)

Elements of a ‘Public Transport First’ Strategy:

þ� Provide a transit-oriented public transport network;

þ� Invest in infrastructure that enables interchange between

modes;

þ� Develop the public transport services demand oriented;

þ� Improve reliability and travel time;

þ� Improve comfort for passengers.

For more details on the elements’ characteristics see the following Box 1.

a ‘pull’ effect on motorists, thus encouraging a modal shift from cars to more sustainable modes of transport.

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NAVIGATING TRANSPORT NAMAs

Practical handbook for the design and implementation of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions – NAMAs – in the transport sector

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Any government can take mitigation

action in the transport sector already today

— it only needs four steps. This handbook

draws on the existing opportunities for

NAMA development and implementation,

based on domestic finance (unilateral

NAMAs) as well as bilateral technical and

financial support.

Introduction

vi

Copyright Ko Sakamoto

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Governments aiming to design a transport NAMAs basically need to clear four hurdles:

a) Identify the policy or measure to mitigate emissions in the transport sector;

b) Define the quantitative approach towards measuring, reporting and verifying (MRV) the resulting emission reductions;

c) Develop the financing plan by analysing investment needs and available domestic and international funding opportunities;

d) Register the resulting proposal for a transport NAMA under the United Nations and implement the mitigation action.

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NAMAs are voluntary emission reduction measures by developing countries that are reported by national governments to the United Nations Frame-work Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The concept of NAMAs was adopted by the UNFCCC in Cancún, Mexico in December 2010 (deci-sion 1/CP.16). NAMAs are expected to be the main instrument for mitigation action in developing countries under the UNFCCC. The UNFCCC provisions on NAMAs can be broken down into the following elements:

n Developing countries undertake mitigation actions that achieve a devia-tion from “business as usual” emissions;

n Such actions are to be nationally appropriate, i.e. tailored to countries’ national circumstances and in line with the principle of common but dif-ferentiated responsibilities;

n NAMAs take place in the context of sustainable development, meaning they are embedded in the countries’ broader sustainable development strategies;

n NAMAs need to be measurable, reportable and verifiable;

n Technical and financial support by developed countries needs to be measurable, reportable and verifiable as well;

n In addition to supported NAMAs, developing countries may pursue uni-lateral NAMAs, based on domestic resources.

So far, there is no predefined scope of what constitutes a NAMA. They can be policies, programmes and projects implemented at national, regional, or local levels. As such, they offer vast possibilities for application in the transport sector. Since the instrument of NAMAs is still young and not yet fully defined, developing countries have the opportunity to actively shape NAMAs by designing and implementing NAMAs in all sectors.

To enhance accessibility, the UNEP Risø Centre has developed a database that contains all NAMAs submitted by Parties under the UNFCCC. The file can be downloaded from http://namapipeline.org.

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Part I of this handbook provides practical guidance for each of these steps which can be summarised as follows:

STEP 1: POLICY IDENTIFICATION

Section 1 of this handbook provides an overview on options for mitigation action in the transport sector and on the process for identification of a transport NAMA.

STEP 2: MRV APPROACH

Section 2 of this handbook provides more detailed information on how to measure, report and verify the mitigation effect of a transport NAMA.

STEP 3: FUNDING

Section 3 of this handbook provides an overview of funding opportunities for transport NAMAs.

STEP 4: REGISTRATION AND IMPLEMENTATION

Section 4 of this handbook will provide more detailed information on registration of NAMAs under the UNFCCC (largely building on the UNFCCC handbook on NAMAs) and on good practices and lessons learnt from the implementation of NAMAs in the transport sector (largely building on the experiences gained in the context of the TRANSfer project).

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Part II of this handbook will provide a collection of

concrete cases of implementation of transport NAMAs.

The case studies for Colombia, Indonesia and South

Africa derive from GIZ’s project ‘Transfer Towards Climate-

friendly Transport Technologies and Measures (TRANSfer)’.

Also the case studies for Mexico (in the context of the

‘German-Mexican NAMA Programme’) and Costa Rica (in

the context of the project ‘Zero-Emission Country Costa

Rica’) have been developed in the context of GIZ projects.

The case study for Chile results from the Ecofys project

‘Development of a NAMA proposal in Chile’ and was

kindly provided by Ecofys. All of the above projects are

commissioned by the International Climate Initiative (ICI) of

the German Ministry for the Environment (BMU).

The case studies of Part II will be published as they become

available in the course of the years 2012 and 2013.

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Four Steps towards Navigating Transport Namas

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Policy identification

Nationally appropriate mitigation actions in the transport sector (t-NAMAs) can comprise any action programme, policy package, policy or measure that aims to reduce GHG emissions from transport in a measurable, reportable and verifiable manner. Other supportive actions (e.g. capacity build-ing activities) can also be integrated into a t-NAMA design. To reduce emissions from the transport sector, the Avoid-Shift-Improve (A-S-I) approach offers an adequate framework to develop effec-tive sectoral mitigation strategies. The co-benefits of pursuing such actions might include better energy security, increased quality of life, stronger economic development and fewer externalities. These benefits can be achieved by putting forward solutions towards sustainable low-carbon transport, many of which are available and ready for implementation.

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Box 1.1

Co-benefits (see Figure 1.1): Often, the benefits of imple-menting mitigation actions in the transport sector go beyond emission reductions. For instance, transport NAMAs can result in better local air quality, reduced congestion, reduced noise, lower energy/fuel cost and fewer accidents. Besides environmental advantages these sustainability ben-efits provide the possibility to realise economic and social improvements at the same time.

1 Many solutions towards sustainable low-carbon transport are ready for implementation

According to the UNFCCC handbook on NAMAs, there is no limitation for the type of action under a NAMA, besides the goal of achieving a measurable, reportable and verifiable mitigation effect. Therefore, any action programme, policy package, policy or measure that reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transport in a measurable, reportable and verifiable manner generally qualifies to become a transport NAMA. There is no limitation of the type of action that may be developed as trans-port NAMA as long as it supports the sustainable development of the country and can be shown to reduce GHG emissions. Fur-thermore, supportive actions, including education and research, training and capacity building activities as well as public informa-tion campaigns, can be integrated into a transport NAMA design in order to enhance its effectiveness. Two types of transport NAMA can be differentiated:

A) Mitigation action with direct emission reduction effects: Several policies and measures are available that can result in direct emission reductions. These measures aim at reducing the overall transport activity, reducing the energy consump-tion of individual trips or altering the transport fuel mix towards lower GHG emissions.

B) Mitigation action with limited net benefits: Under certain conditions, expansions of the transport infra-structure can result in reduced GHG emissions. For example, expansions of the public transport system or the rail infra-structure may lead to short-term emission reductions due to a modal shift away from individual motorised transport

Lowerenergy costs Less noise

Betterroad safety &less accidents

Lesshealth risks

Lowerwelfare costs

(hospitals, etc.)Better

air quality

Increasedprivate

investments

Morelocal jobs

Reducedcongestion &time savings

Lessimported fuel Better

energy securityLess

externalities

Increasedquality of life

Stronger economicdevelopment

Sustainabletransport

Figure 1.1: Sustainable Transport Co-Benefits, Source: GIZ, 2011

or road freight. However, the new infrastructure may also induce new transport demand that, in the long run, can exceed the short-term mitigation effect.1

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Figure 1.2: Approaches to describe the GHG emissions from transport (ASIF) and strategies to reduce emissions (ASI), Source: adapted from Böhler-Baedeker and Hüging ‘Urban Transport and Energy Efficiency’ (forthcoming)

Capacity-building and other supportive activities can enhance the effectiveness of a transport NAMA. Capacity building intends to develop the necessary databases, skill and knowledge to implement emission reduction measures and maintain low-car-bon transport in the long-term. Capacity building can include:

n Data collection and analysis (e.g. household travel surveys); n Development of transport models; n Training for transport planners and engineers; n Development of local, regional or national low-carbon transport plans;

n Forming institutions that develop strategies for low-carbon transport.

1.1 Strategies towards sustainable low-carbon transport – the avoid-shift-improve approach

The four different components that determine the transport sector’s GHG emissions can be described by the ASIF framework (Schipper et al., 2000):

n (A) the total transport activity or the demand in person- or tonne-kilometres;

n (S) the modal structure (expressed as market share of individual transport modes);

n (I) the energy intensity of each mode (modal energy intensity in MJ/person-km or MJ/tonne-km);

n (F) the carbon content of the fuel used in each transport mode.

IMPROVESHIFT/MAINTAINAVOID/REDUCE

Reduce or avoid travelor the need to travel

Shift to more energyenvironmentally-friendly modes

Improve the fuel economyof vehicles and the carbon

intensity of the fuel mix

GHG Emissions from Transport= Activity * Share of Modes * Energy Intensity * Fuel Carbon Content

Activity Share of modes Intensity Fuel mix

Total transport activity of pas-senger (pkm) and freight (tkm)

Share (%) of each mode(e.g. public transport, non-motorised transport, cars)

Energyintensity

(MJ/km)of each mode

Carbon intensity of the fuel mix (CO2/MJ)

The ASIF framework helps to capture the characteristics of the current transport system and can be used for emission monitor-ing and measurement. The question on “how” to reduce GHG emissions from transport is best described by the Avoid-Shift-Improve (ASI) strategy (Dalkmann and Brannigan, 2007). Both approaches are closely related (see Figure 1.2). The ASI approach describes the three basic ways achieve low-carbon transport:

n Avoid an increase in transport demand or reduce existing demand: Passenger transport demand is closely correlated to the settle-ment structure. Dense urban structures with mixed use of areas avoid unnecessary traffic and reduce travel distances without limiting the mobility of people. Likewise, demand for freight

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transport can be managed through intelligent organisation of freight transport activities and the characteristics of the overall system of production and distribution.

n Shift demand to energy-efficient / low-carbon modes: Individual motorised road transport (both passenger and freight) typically has the highest GHG emissions (per passenger or tonne kilometre) in land transport. For passenger transport, a shift from private cars to public transport and non-motorised modes can yield considerable GHG emission reductions. In terms of freight transport a shift to more efficient modes, including shipping and rail transport, results in several times less emission than road freight transport.

n Improve the efficiency of vehicles and the quality of fuels: Technological and design improvements, as well as an efficient driving style and energy-saving devices can increase the fuel-economy of vehicles. Furthermore, carbon emission can be reduced by switching to alternative fuels with lower lifecycle GHG emissions, such as natural gas.

Annex A to this handbook provides an overview of options for GHG emission mitigation actions in the transport sector (see Factsheets).

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1.2 How to identify a nationally appropriate mitigation action [1]

Who drives the process?

Within a national government, Ministries of Transport are gener-ally best positioned to develop and implement a concrete trans-port NAMA. However, other ministries may hold the mandate for overall NAMA development, such as the Department for Environ-ment in South Africa or the National Planning Authority (BAPE-NAS) in Indonesia. Additional ministries, including the Ministry of Finance or the National Planning Authorities, often have sectoral expertise needed to develop a successful NAMA proposal. There-fore, an inter-ministerial coordination process is essential to facilitate the NAMA development, e.g. in the form of an inter-ministerial working group for transport NAMAs (see Figure 1.3).

The establishment of such a joint working group is a success factor to handle complex transport planning projects — which developing a NAMA definitely is. It is suggested to establish a joint working group at an early stage of the development process for a NAMA proposal. At the latest, it should be established well before the ideas for NAMAs have reached the stage of a concept note (see below). Such working groups normally hold meetings at regular intervals until the concept for the transport NAMA is

[1] This chapter is strongly based on studies assessing the status and experi-ences in current NAMA development processes (Wang-Helmreich et al., 2011, Jung et al., 2010), a suggested NAMA template by Ecofys (personal communication) and a ECN discussion paper “on developing a NAMA proposal” (van Tilburg et al., 2011).

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outcomes of the working group within their depart-ments. In addition to national government representa-tives, it may be suitable to invite local government, NGOs, research institutes or private sector representatives (e.g. business associations) as guests or full members to the group. Continuity is key to success and effectiveness, therefore, at least a core group of the same individu-als should participate in all meetings during the entire process.

Once the group is established and working effectively it can address a number of topics. Thus its scope should not be limited to the development of one NAMA, instead it should be used as long-term catalyst for NAMA develop-ment, at the same time improving the quality of strategic transport planning.

NAMA development – step by step [2]

To successfully develop and implement a transport NAMA, the development process needs to be aligned with existing planning procedures for transport projects (see Box 1.3).

The fundamental steps of NAMA development and their inter-linkages with the general transport planning pro-cess are illustrated in Figure 1.4.

[2] Compare van Tilburg et al., 2011.

NGOs,Science

PrivateSector

Joint Working Group

responsible for

developing a Transport NAMA

Ministry ofEnvironment

Transport MinistryMinistry of

Finance

Ministry ofEnergy Planning

Authority

Premier's Office

To be involved upon demand

Ministers or top-level

policy makers

Local & Regional

Gvmt.

For specific NAMAs also

Figure 1.3: Structure of Join Working Group for NAMA development. Source: Wuppertal Institut

developed into a full grown proposal NAMA proposal. Its activi-ties might also expand well into the implementation stage of the transport NAMA.

Such a joint working group may include experienced technical experts or decision-makers of the relevant departments who, by their hierarchy and/or personality, are able to promote the

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Box 1.2

The general process of transport planning

Although transport planning varies from country to country, the following steps mark fundamental milestones:

A Identification of Transport Objectives – Transport planning serves to support a broad range of objectives in various policy fields. For example, “facilitating traffic flow” is not a policy objective per se, but a means to reach other objectives, like supporting eco-nomic development and well-being, e.g. by enabling citizens to have access to jobs, medical care, education, etc. Thus, transport planning should be based on a thorough evaluation of relevant policy objectives. In many cases, transport strategies are devel-oped at the national or regional (city-wide) level. Any transport policy or measure, including transport NAMAs, should contribute to these objective or (if existent) the general transport strategy.

B Draft Preferred Measures – based on objectives linked to trans-port development, governmental experts in the respective trans-port department design specific transport measures that will later be transformed into transport NAMAs.

C National Consultation Process – the proposed measures need to be consulted, refined and developed in detail with three levels of stakeholders and decision-makers:

Political decision-makers – political buy-in is key for successful implementation, thus political decision-makers need to be involved in an early stage of transport planning. Prioritising

and selecting different transport options is a highly political process. The choices made do not only depend on technical characteristics but often on availability of support or political preferences.

Governmental departments – transport planning is linked to a wide range of other spheres of governmental action, thus the respective departments — responsible experts (to gather information) and decision-makers (to assure support for fur-ther planning and subsequent implementation) — need to be involved in an iterative consultation process.

Stakeholders from civil society, private sector, local communi-ties — transport planning strongly interlinks with the interests of a wide variety of stakeholders. It is crucial to involve rel-evant stakeholders — both to gather local knowledge to opti-mise the planning process and to ensure acceptance, which is important for successful implementation of transport projects.

As part of the national consultation process, financing options need to be identified and budget commitments need to be made.

D Implementation – Based on the outcomes of the previous plan-ning and consultation steps, specific actions are chosen for implementation. This may include: passing of transport relevant laws, building of infrastructure as well as the establishment of institutions (e.g. for public transport).

E Monitoring and Evaluation – the implementation of transport activities needs to be monitored and the mitigation effect needs to be evaluated as a basis for further planning.

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The most important steps are:

i) Starting Point: Transport Objectives

Based on the general sustainable development objectives, a set of possible measures in the transport sector (long list) should be identified as part of regular transport planning. Information on these options may be compiled as “NAMA factsheets” (max. 2 pages each), which can be used to discuss the NAMA ideas with policy-makers and other departments.

ii) Data on Emissions and Mitigation Potentials

Information on emission trends and mitigation potentials are key to identify appropriate mitigation measures. There-fore, in many countries with limited statistical systems, a data collection process may be necessary to facilitate the transport NAMA development. The resulting improved transparency also supports the measuring, reporting and verification of the mitigation effect of the proposed trans-port NAMAs, as well as overall transport planning. However, the minimum quality and quantity of transport related data needed depends on the type and scope of the proposed NAMA. A lack of data should not generally prohibit action: sometimes expert judgments and coarse estimates can suf-fice to push initial projects — always bearing in mind that systematic data gathering is a long-term issue that needs to be addressed at some point.

iii) Selecting the Most Promising NAMAs

From the list of NAMA options (factsheets), the most suit-able projects need to be selected.

The following list of key criteria can support the selection process:

Benefits for sustainable development: e.g. reductions in local emissions and subsequent health improvements may be a key issue for local transport planning and regulations. Passenger safety is another important topic (e.g. for privately-owned minibus taxis). As an example, modernising vehicle fleets may — if addressed appro-priately — not only improve energy efficiency and thus

National Consultation

Process

Identify Transport Objectives

Draft Preferred Measures

Implemen- tation

Transport Planning

Additional Steps for NAMA Development

Monitoring

Evaluation

Analysis Activities & Emissions

Identify Possible NAMAs

Select & Refine

Funding & Data

Issues

NAMA Proposal

Funding Negotiation

NAMA Fact-sheet

NAMA Concept

Note

NAMA Full

Proposal

MRV

MRV Reports

UNFCCC Regis-tration

Figure 1.4: The process of NAMA development (violet) needs to be closely interlinked with existing transport planning procedures (green). Fundamental milestones in the NAMA development are highlighted in the form of reports. Source: Wuppertal Institut

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reduce CO2 emissions, but also add to improving local air quality, passenger safety and overall travel comfort.

Mitigation potential: What is the direct emission reduction potential of the action? What is the baseline against which this potential is determined? What are indirect or long-term mitigation potentials?

Costs: What are direct (including transaction) costs? What are indirect costs (e.g. long-term maintenance obligations)? What are incremental costs compared to alternatives? Can those costs be expressed in dollars per tonne CO2 avoided?

Barriers to implementation: Do barriers for implementation exist, e.g. are there needs to change regulations? How is the acceptance of key stakeholders?

The selection process should be undertaken in consultation with other governmental departments / ministries. The above named joint working group plays a central role in this consultation process.

For the most promising NAMAs concise “concept notes” (2 to 5 pages) should be developed, describing key features of the proposed NAMA, such as planned actions, costs and expected impacts.

iv) Explore Funding Options as Early as Possible

For supported NAMAs it will be crucial to find an international donor who is willing to contribute to the financing of the NAMA. To this aim it is important to explore funding options at an early stage of the NAMA development. The NAMA concept notes can be used to facilitate discussions with possible funders and help to fine-tune NAMA concepts to meet the eligibility criteria of inter-national donors.

v) Can Success be Measured?

Different actions will call for different ways for measuring, report-ing and verifying (MRV) the outcomes and impacts of the actions. In some cases, straightforward methods to determine resulting emission reductions may exist — in other cases this may hardly be possible (e.g. due to lack of data, capacity or a proven meth-odology). But since supported NAMAs need to be MRVable, it is crucial to have technical experts define a MRV concept and discuss with possible funders if this MRV concept meets their requirements.

vi) Proposal Development

The short list of possible NAMAs needs to be narrowed down to those, which are to be implemented. This should be done in an iterative consultation process, in which technical experts as well as decision-makers, both within government and from non-governmental stakeholders, need to be involved. The selected NAMA should be described in a NAMA proposal. Templates for those proposals have been developed in the context of the UNFCCC Handbook on NAMAs (currently under development; the URL will become available after its publication in May 2012) which have proven to be very helpful to support the design process of the proposal.

vii) Implementation and Monitoring

During and after the implementation of the NAMA a sound mon-itoring and evaluation is necessary. This serves three purposes: 1) a justification towards the funders, 2) MRVing of GHG emission

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reductions for national reporting, and 3) guidance for future stra-tegic transport planning. The MRV concept may also include the monitoring of sustainable development benefits other than GHG emission reductions (see Step 5 in the“UNFCCC NAMA Hand-book” for more information on MRV and NAMAs in general).

The above steps describe an ideal process towards developing a NAMA. In reality, different varieties of this blueprint are possible, depending on national circumstances or on-going decision-making processes. It is nevertheless recommended to follow the major steps of the presented process and potentially take a step back and restart the process, if necessary, to avoid stranded investments in a NAMA proposal that, due to insufficient coor-dination, does not receive the necessary political, technical and financial support.

Some early examples of NAMA development in 2011 already point to the danger of producing NAMA proposals without backbone, where relevant government departments or potential donors were not closely involved in the development of the NAMA proposal at an early stage.

Experiences and lessons learned on the development process of transport NAMAs in the TRANSfer project and their scope of miti-gation options will be presented in part two of this handbook. The “UNFCCC NAMA handbook” provides additional guidance on how to develop and implement NAMAs.

Section 4 of this handbook will provide further insights on good practices relevant for the implementation phase of NAMAs in the transport sector.

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References

L Böhler-Baedeker, S. and Hüging, H. (forthcoming) ‘Urban Transport and Energy Efficiency’, Sourcebook Module 5h, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn, Germany.

L Dalkmann, H. and Brannigan, C. (2007) ‘Transport and Cli-mate Change’, Sourcebook Module 5e, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn, Germany.

L Schipper, L., Unander, F. and Marie-Lilliu, C. (2000) ‘The IEA Energy Indicators Effort. Increasing the understanding of the energy/emissions link ’, International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris, France.

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Box 1.3

Further reading

n Bongardt, D., Breithaupt, M., and Creutzig, F. (2010) ‘Beyond the fossil city: Towards low carbon transport and green growth’, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn, Germany.

n Broaddus, A., Litman, T. and Menon, G. (2010) ‘Transporta-tion Demand Management’, Training Document, GTZ, Eschborn, Germany.

n Dablanc, L. (2010) ‘Freight transport for Development Toolkit: Urban Freight ’. World Bank/DFID. Available at: http://go.worldbank.org/TMV4HHCPE0.

n Dalkmann, H. and Brannigan, C. (2007): ‘Transport and Cli-mate Change’. Sourcebook Module 5e, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn.

n Godefrooij, T., Pardo, C. and Sagaris, L. (eds) (2009) ‘Cycling-Inclusive Policy Development: A Handbook ’, Sus-tainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn, Germany.

n Herzog, B. O. (2010) ‘Urban Freight in Developing Cities’ Sourcebook Module 1g, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn.

n IEA (2009) ‘Transport Energy and CO2 – Moving toward Sustainability’, International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris, France.

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Measuring, Reporting and Verifying (MRV) Approach

Transparency of action, its costs and benefits, plays a central role in the overall NAMA design. As a key requirement under the UNFCCC, mitigation actions need to be MRV-able in order to be reg-istered as NAMA. However, by 2012, there is only limited guidance on MRV of NAMAs. Therefore, MRV approaches for transport NAMAs will largely build on existing experiences from successful transport planning and policy implementation, as well as from the CDM. This section describes the steps to be taken in order to 1) identify key parameters for the MRV approach, 2) check data avail-ability and needs; and 3) develop a MRV process for mitigation effects of transport NAMAs. The TRANSfer project will continue to facilitate the enhancement of knowledge on MRV of transport NAMAs. The results will be included in the TRANSfer Toolbox: http://www.TRANSferProject.org.

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2 2 Transparency on emission reductions is key

In 2007, the UNFCCC decided to enhance mitigation actions by developing countries in the context of sustainable development, supported and enabled by technology, financing and capacity-building, in a measurable, reportable and verifiable (MRV-able) manner. Therefore, mitigation actions need to be MRV-able in order to be registered as NAMA under the UNFCCC.

Generally, the MRV approach should facilitate the tracking of progress towards achieving mitigation goals. It also:

n Supports decision-making and national planning in the host country;

n Supports implementation of NAMAs and generates feedback on NAMA effectiveness;

n Promotes coordination and communication amongst the differ-ent emitting sectors;

n Generates comparable, transparent information; n Highlights lessons and good practices; n Increases the likelihood of gaining international support.

Hence, MRV plays a central role in the overall NAMA design. How-ever, by 2012, there is only limited guidance on MRV of NAMAs. Domestically supported mitigation actions will be MRVed domestically in accordance with general international guidelines that are still to be developed. They are to be MRVed through national communications due every four years, supplemented by biannual update reports. Flexibility is foreseen for least devel-oped countries and small island developing states. The reports shall inter alia cover national GHG inventories, information on mitigation actions, needs and support received. Internationally supported mitigation actions will be MRV-ed domestically and

will be subject to international measurement, reporting and veri-fication according to guidelines that remain to be developed.

But MRV is not a new concept: assessing, monitoring and evaluat-ing the environmental impacts has long been part of successful transport planning and policy implementation (Bakker et al., 2010). Lessons for ex-ante assessments can be drawn from experi-ences with Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) or Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA). For the estimation of direct emission reductions by transport interventions, lessons can be learned from existing methodologies for emission calculations in project-based activities under the Clean Development Mecha-nism (CDM) and existing climate funds, such as those operated by the Global Environment Facility (see Section 3 for more details on funds. Also policies and measures in the transport sector from developed countries offer a broad mine of knowledge and expe-rience on this matter.

� For an overview of GHG assessment tools in the trans-port sector and links to the original documents, please visit http://www.slocat.net/?q=content-stream/187/ghg-assessment-tools#

Generally, MRV of NAMAs is just one part of a broader demand for more transparency towards four different aspects: 1) total GHG emissions per year and country (as contained in a GHG emis-sion inventory), 2) estimated reduction of GHG emissions from mitigation action (e.g. from NAMAs), 3) technical and financial support provided by an industrialised country, and 4) technical and financial support received from a developing country (see Figure 2.1).

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NAMAs can cover a much wider scope than the project-based CDM and so different approaches to MRV are required for differ-ent types of NAMAs. For NAMAs seeking international support, emission reductions will probably still have to be quantified in some way depending on the requirements of the international finance sources, but the required level of accuracy of the emis-sion reduction estimation is likely to be significantly lower, allowing for more flexibility in the NAMA design. Lessons can be learned from existing methodologies for project-based emission calculations, both within and outside the CDM.

Box 2.1

MRV and the CDM

The CDM is a project-based offset mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol that allows developed countries to trade emission reduction certificates from activities in develop-ing countries to achieve their own emission reduction obligations. This means that for each tonne of CO2 resulting from a CDM project, one tonne less will be mitigated in industrialised countries. Due to this offsetting and to ensure environmental integrity, CDM projects have very stringent requirements regarding emission reduction calculation of the project activities. This made it very difficult for the transport sector with its many dispersed mobile emitters to benefit from the CDM.

Figure 2.1: What needs to be MRV’d? MRV applies to GHG emissions, GHG reductions and support for GHG reductions. Source: Sallie Lacy

Step 1: Dentify key parameters for the MRV approach

For a transport NAMA, setting up an MRV approach may be the most challenging aspect in its design phase – not least because of bad experiences with transport projects under the CDM. Meas-uring, reporting and verification of transport NAMAs, however, does not have to follow the same rules as the CDM.

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2 There are a lot of existing methodologies which can help to illus-trate basic features of an MRV approach for a transport NAMA. For a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) project in Bogotá (Colombia), for example, the CDM methodology for Bus Rapid Transit Projects (AM0031) was used. Another methodology for BRT projects is the draft GHG Manual BRT Model from the Global Environment Facility (GEF). While the CDM methodology requires a very accu-rate determination of emission reductions, a larger degree of uncertainty in emission estimations is accepted in the GEF meth-odology, where no offset credits are created. This is reflected in the level of detail and accuracy of data requirements in the methodologies.

Nevertheless, key parameters to determine emissions are essen-tially the same for both methodologies. To assess emission reductions in the two methodologies, data is required on the following indicators:

n Transport modes used in absence of the BRT project; and n Their specific fuel consumption (including the former bus system, as well as other non-bus modes), which largely depends on the age of vehicles in use and average speeds;

n Fuel types used by the different transport modes and their carbon emission factor (based on the net calorific value of the fuel);

n Occupancy rate of the vehicles by mode; n Trip distance for each mode used; and n Total number of passengers on the new system.

Default values can be employed for fuel efficiency (specific fuel consumption) of different transport modes and for fuel emission factors. All other data is assessed on a project-specific basis and is based on local traffic counts, observations and surveys or other

local (or national) statistics, as well as information on the planned new BRT system.

These examples illustrate the data needs to calculate emission reductions from a specific transport intervention, namely BRT development. Several projects have used either of these meth-odologies and have proven that it is well possible to measure emission reductions from a specific transport intervention at a high level of detail. But the transaction costs to gather all the relevant data at an acceptable level of accuracy are significant.

The methodologies presented above are designed for the pro-ject level. NAMAs, however, can have a much broader scope and also include sector-wide activities and policies. According to the UNFCCC handbook on NAMAs, the most important parameters to be monitored will depend on the specific NAMA framework and its concrete actions. MRV experience for such activities is still scarce and will be gathered only from real-world mitigation actions over time. This is illustrated by policies and measures in the transport sector from developed countries and, more recently, by NAMAs which are currently being developed in the transport sector in a number of developing countries. Most of these have not significantly elaborated on a MRV system.

For example, for a NAMA on electric vehicles in South Africa, so far, suggestions for MRV are to track progress via the displace-ment of conventionally fuelled vehicles, sales volumes of electric vehicles as well as the corresponding use of petrol and diesel over time. Such figures cannot quantify emission reductions exactly, but rather answer questions such as:

n Are actions really happening? n Are the resources used for the purpose they were provided for?

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2 n How effectively are actions being taken? n What is the expected order of magnitude of emission reductions roughly?

n What are the sustainability benefits of the action?

The answers to these questions may well be enough for unilat-eral and supported NAMAs, as long as no divergent specifications are made on this issue on an international level. Therefore, not only indicators for direct emission reductions may be used but also indirect or proxy indicators (e.g. kilometres of new bicycle lanes) and even process indicators (e.g. number of workshops conducted), where appropriate. This approach may suit the char-acteristics of a lot of transport NAMAs much better, because they may not actually result so much in direct, immediate emission reductions but rather lead to indirect emission reductions in the long-term (such as long-term systemic change).

4 More examples of MRV approaches for transport NAMAs will be soon available in Part II of this handbook and in the TRANSfer toolbox (currently under development).

Step 2: Check data availability and needs

Availability of high-quality data is crucial for any MRV approach. The use of indicators instead of directly calculating emissions may simplify MRV-ing considerably. Still data will have to be gen-erated, gathered and updated. These activities, however, have a value beyond MRV: detailed and reliable data on transport issues is the key for all kinds of transport policies and strategies, e.g. road safety and air quality enhancements. Therefore, co-ordinated

approaches to the improvement of data availability such as the SLoCaT Global Transport Intelligence initiative are extremely helpful and will need further efforts on the way towards sound policy-making in the transport sector.

In the case that data is not fully available for some key param-eters, a data collection process needs to be set up. Such activi-ties can be costly and time-intensive and might need additional expertise, e.g. on the measurement methodology that needs to be applied. Therefore, such data collection processes should be part of the overall technical support provided by developed countries that partner with the host country in the context of a bilaterally supported NAMA. In the future, climate-technology centres might be well-positioned to provide such capacity build-ing in the context of multilaterally supported NAMAs.

Depending on the nature of the NAMA and the data available, different indicators may be used. Huizenga and Bakker (2010) assert: “because of the huge costs of accurate data collection, as well as the variety in local conditions, the monitoring of GHG impacts in the transport sector lends itself to a mixture of actual calculation of GHG emissions reductions, indirect or proxy indicators and, in some cases, process indicators.” Table 2.1 gives an overview of the differ-ent types of indicators, examples and their likely application.

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Depending on the NAMA design, only some or a mix of the above types of indicators can be used to develop an MRV approach for both GHG mitigation effects and other co-benefits.

Step 3: Develop a MRV process for mitigation effects of transport NAMAs

Finally, a monitoring plan will be set up to facilitate the process of monitoring and recording of the key parameters and other information. According to the UNFCCC handbook on NAMAs, this monitoring plan should clarify:

n Assumptions/default values used and relevant data sources;

n Frequency of monitoring and reporting of monitored parameters; n Description of data storage plan; n Responsibilities of specific actors with regard to monitoring and reporting;

n Methodologies to be applied to calculate mitigation benefits; n Level of accuracy to be applied.

Beyond this GHG emissions mitigation effect, transport NAMAs may also provide other benefits. These co-benefits will most likely include sustainable development benefits such as benefits to the economy (e.g. increase in number of jobs), environment (e.g. reduction in air pollution) and public health (e.g. less fatali-ties due to accidents). In the interest of the host country, such

Table 2.1: Different types of Indicators for a MRV approach for a transport NAMA

Direct estimation of emission reductions (output indicator) Indirect or proxy indicators Process indicators

(input indicator)

Examples n Tonnes of abated CO2 equivalent and subordinated direct GHG impact indica-tors to calculate emission reductions, e.g. carbon content of the fuel.

n Kilometres of new bicycle lanes; n Changes in modal split; n Number of newly registered vehicles

with new fuel efficiency standard.

n Policy or regulation passed; n Number of capacity build-

ing workshops organised or number of people trained;

n Budget allocated and spent.

Likely applicability n Project-based NAMAs; n NAMAs with direct mitigation impact; n Good data availability.

n Projects with direct mitigation impact, but insufficient data availability;

n Complex interventions with high (costly) data demand, such as modal shift or avoid actions;

n Actions with indirect mitigation effects.

n Projects with indirect mitigation effects, such as capacity building, establishment of emission databases, etc.

Source: own compilation based on Huizenga and Bakker (2010)

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Box 2.2

CDM methodology for Bus Rapid Transit Projects (BRT) (AM0031)

To ensure the environmental integrity of the CDM and because financ-ing is directly tied to the amount of CO2-eq. abated, the requirements for the CDM methodology for calculating emissions are very strict both at project entry (ex-ante) and during the project (monitoring). Dif-ferent formulae with clearly defined parameters are used to calculate baseline (and project) emissions. Although the CDM methodologies do not make mention of the ASIF methodology, the formulae used to calculate baseline emissions inevitably cover all ASIF parameters. Essentially, the CDM methodologies calculate the baseline trip distance per vehicle category that would have been used in the absence of the BRT system by the BRT passengers, multiplied with the respective fuel consumption and fuel emission factors for each vehicle category.

Baseline emissions and emission reductions are calculated ex-ante to project implementation and are verified through annual monitor-ing. Emissions are determined per passenger surveyed and upscaled according to total passenger numbers and modal split. A fixed tech-nology change factor is used in ex-ante calculations. The baseline emission factor is adapted to potential changes in trip distance and type of fuel used by passenger cars if the surveys reveal that baseline emissions in a particular year were actually lower than estimated ex-ante. A template for passenger surveys is provided in each of the methodologies.

Box 2.3

Global Environment Facility (GEF) draft GHG Manual BRT Model

The GEF draft methodology only requires emissions to be estimated ex-ante, because this is when financing is made available. The GEF draft methodology is based on ASIF and uses a spreadsheet-based Transportation Emissions Evaluation Model for Projects (TEEMP) to estimate emission savings of the anticipated project scenario against the baseline scenario. The model measures the changes in emissions brought about by the introduction of a new BRT system by identify-ing the likely future ridership and making certain reasonable assump-tions about how riders would have travelled had the new system never been built. The baseline must factor in the likely expansion of the specific market (e.g. vehicle km of travel by vehicle and fuel type, development in fuel economy and carbon intensity of fuels, etc.); where limited market information is available, a conservative esti-mate of a modest improvement in fuel economy should be used.

The methodology recognises that, at an early planning stage, detailed data is often not available and project impacts are less cer-tain. While the GEF draft methodology encourages detailed gather-ing of local data, it also allows more uncertainty in the data used, such as secondary sources or international literature if local data is not available, e.g. for average trip length of different transport modes. The focus is on positive long-term impacts (including capacity building, etc. for which impacts are hard to quantify) rather than on accuracy.

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2co-benefits could also be included in the monitoring plan and will thus help to increase transparency of the overall effectiveness of the concrete mitigation action.

In conclusion, it is obvious that time and effort will have to be spent on designing the MRV approach for a transport NAMA. The stringency of the MRV approach will largely depend on require-ments as defined by the financing partner. However, it is also clear that the efforts required may actually be manageable for transport NAMAs and also further the common good of a coun-try in areas other than GHG mitigation.

The methodologies developed under the CDM as well as the models used by developed countries for the estimation of miti-gation effects of policies and measures in the transport sector should be consulted with a strong emphasis on adapting them to the specific needs of the concrete transport NAMA.

The TRANSfer project will continue to facilitate the enhancement of knowledge on MRV of transport NAMAs through dedicated studies and other research activities in this field. The results will be included in the TRANSfer Toolbox, available online at: http://www.TRANSferProject.org.

References

L Jung, M., Vieweg, M., Eisbrenner, K., Höhne, N., Ellermann, C., Schirmschar, S. and Beyer, C. (2010) ‘Nationally Appropri-ate Mitigation Actions. Insights from Example Development’. Ecofys, Cologne.

L Bakker, J.A., Würtenberger, L., van Tilburg, X., Cameron, L.R. (2010). ‘On developing a NAMA proposal’, Discussion Paper. ECN, Amsterdam.

L Wang-Helmreich, H., Sterk, W., Wehnert, T. and Arens, C. (2011): ‘Current Developments in Pilot Nationally Appropri-ate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries’, JIKO Policy Paper, Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy on behalf of: Federal Ministry for the Environ-ment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU). Available at: http://www.jiko-bmu.de/960, Accessed 11 October 2011.

L Huizenga, C. and Bakker, J.A. (2010) ‘Making climate instruments work for sustainable transport in develop-ing countries’, Natural Resources Forum. Special Issue: Transport. Volume 34, Issue 4, pages 314–326, Novem-ber 2010. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2010.01315.x/abstract.

Box 2.4

Further reading

n CDM Methodology for Bus Rapid Transit Projects (AM0031). Available at: http://cdm.unfccc.int/methodolo-gies/DB/RV5CO1R1ZD7FU854LMWHTWDPDUDGTG.

n SLoCaT Global Transport Intelligence Initiative. Available at: http://www.slocat.net/key-slocat-prog/466.

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Funding

NAMAs are a new vehicle to match mitigation action in developing countries with financial and technical support from developed countries. Although, this new instrument of international climate policy does not (yet) comprise a tailor-made NAMA financing mechanisms, a number of different sources are available that do offer opportunities for financial support.Before submitting and implementing a t-NAMA proposal, a developing country should identify its needs for financial support. Domestic and international as well as public and private sources for funding might be tapped. To access the needed resources, NAMA developers should 1) Identify potential (domestic) sources for climate finance for unilateral NAMAs; 2) Design appropriate financing vehicles to attract investments; 3) Tune in public policy with private investments.

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3 Financial and technical support can be tapped from different sources

NAMAs are the instrument to implement the necessary mitiga-tion activities to keep the mean global temperature rise due to anthropogenic emissions of GHG below 2 °C. NAMAs can include changes at the project as well as at the policy level. They can implement activities in markets for real emission reductions and create the enabling environment of markets for such emission reductions activities. Whilst NAMA proposals are in the process of development, the financing for the needed investments to implement NAMAs may be just missing. Hence, NAMA financing mechanisms need to be established. So far, there is no tailor-made NAMA financing mechanisms, however there are a number of different sources from which financial support can be tapped.

By early 2012, no NAMA has been financed or fully implemented, nonetheless both the financing of large programmes (which could represent a NAMA in future) and the financial instruments to allocate the financing do exist.

According to the Copenhagen Accord from 2009, developed countries plan to invest some USD 100 billion annually from 2020 on into climate action. Designing financeable NAMA proposals means to link the expertise and experiences in designing and implementing financing instruments with the expertise and experiences in designing and implementing mitigation actions in the countries. Every country should — before submitting and implementing a transport NAMA — identify needs for capac-ity building, technological and financial support and potential international sources for this support. For each NAMA, a financial proposal comprises this information. However, in the absence

of an international transfer mechanism to finance NAMAs, such financial proposal need to tap domestic and international as well as public and private sources for funding and technology.

Figure 3.1: The wobbly building blocks of global climate finance architecture. Source: GIZ

internationaldomestic

private

public

Each NAMA proposal will probably need to combine differ-ent sources of funding and different financing instruments. As transport NAMAs will not be implemented by accessing certain available climate finance funds, NAMA developers might need to actively mobilise certain investments or create financing mecha-nisms which allow to recover initial investments.

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The compilation of planned activities, identified needs for sup-port and financing vehicles, according to risk profiles of individual activities, and identified sources as well as financing instruments to tap into these sources, linked with public policies to create an enabling environment for the well-functioning of the financing vehicles, forms finally the financial proposal of a NAMA in the fourth step.

3.1 The steps of designing a NAMA financing structure

A NAMA entails various activities at different levels of the econ-omy. A set of activities can comprise policies and measures to create an enabling environment and the policy framework with incentives to support private investment flows, the setting up of regulation and effective institutions, the establishment of open and accessible information systems, as well as the development of actual business models to overcome certain barriers and pro-mote low-carbon technologies. Thereby a NAMA can connect financing, technology cooperation, and capacity building in one consistent set of activities. All these activities imply different cost structures (transition costs, incremental costs, opportunity costs) as well as revenue streams (private and public). In the first place, these activities and the financing thereof should be undertaken unilaterally.

The different activities and levels of investments are character-ised by different risk profiles which require tailor-made financing instruments for the needed investments. Only in the second step (when designing the appropriate financing vehicles) the analysis of required support should also consider attracting international investments.

Therefore, as a third step, NAMA developers need to identify potential sources for support, and set up financing vehicles to access the needed resources. A NAMA developer should at the same time design a structure to tune in public policy with private investments in order to maximise effectiveness of NAMA activi-ties and leverage of investments (Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2: Designing a NAMA’s financing architecture. Source: GIZ

1. Plan a set of unilateral individual transport activitiesalong a timeline,

according to risk profiles of individual transport activities

2. Design financing vehiclesto attract international investments

3. Link public transport policies with private financing vehicles

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Box 3.1

Financial aspects of sustainable transport policies

Sustainable transport policies are often characterised by their large size and decentralised nature. Additionally, investments in sustainable transport often generate a range of positive externalities — benefits for users who can enjoy these benefits without paying for them — which makes it hard to recover initial investments. In social terms sustainable transport increases mobility, allows for integration of marginalised groups, and enhances safety of all people in traffic. Economically, sus-tainable transport reduces the so-called social costs by avoiding traffic congestion and generating time savings, enhances regional integration, and efficiency gains and a better transport infrastructure may save vehi-cle operating costs. Investments in efficient vehicle technology, sustain-able fuels, an infrastructure satisfying the needs of new technologies and fuels as well as supporting optimised logistics will all produce the above mentioned positive externalities without enabling the investors to fully recover these (public) returns on investments. In many cases, the emission reduction of a NAMA might be considered as co-benefits while the sustainable development impact generates the main (public) benefit. The sustainable development co-benefits of NAMAs ensure that the low-carbon solution implemented through a NAMA will be applied and not abandoned again in the long-term and replicated and scaled-up in future. On a project basis, these externalities can hardly be internalised. Therefore NAMAs, combining project-based activities with policy-based frameworks, enable transport activities to design a financ-ing structure viable to recover the initial investments of NAMAs.

3.1.1 Step 1: Sources for climate finance for unilateral NAMAs

Investments in sustainable transport, i.e. transport NAMAs, should either come from public authorities themselves, or incentivising regulation and legisla-tion should accompany these investments. [1] This latter public intervention can attach a price tag to externalities of sustainable transport and force various actors benefitting from the positive externalities or causing negative externalities (according to the ‘pol-luter pays’ principle) to pay that price. Which measure may be most appropriate and viable in reality without excluding or overcharging individual actors should be decided by the implementing public authorities. However, in general one can choose from a menu of various domestic points to which a price tag can be attached:

n The external costs caused by the use of individual vehicle technologies through emissions, noise or use of transport infrastructure (causing congestion during rush hours) or the benefits enjoyed by motorists through enhanced infrastructure, mobility or social inclusion can be calculated as a lump sum and levied at the point of vehicle registration.

n Over the lifetime of a certain vehicle, taxes can levy a regular lump sum calculating costs caused and

[1] Opportunities for exclusively private investments in sustain-able transport are only rare but private sector investments should always be taken into account.

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benefits enjoyed by that vehicle. Alternatively, taxes can also levy a regular lump sum from all people under a jurisdiction for the provision of public goods like transport infrastructure or for the needed investments in safer and cleaner transport.

n To directly attach costs to certain behaviour or use of public transport infrastructure, tolls and congestion charges, parking fees, public transport fares, or fines for costly transport behaviour may be adequate.

n In order to attach costs to certain technologies and especially to the emission of GHGs, fuel levies are an option to put a price on the damage to the climate caused through transport. Vice versa, fossil fuel subsidies can be phased-out to adjust prices environmentally.

To maximise the mitigation impact of those economic instru-ments, the generated revenues can be invested in mitigation activities again. Thus, those instruments have a financing effect additional to the regulatory effect which is supposed to change behaviour.

Apart from those instruments to adjust prices directly, there are several domestic policy instruments and economic incentives available for the transport sector. The policy instruments should address (i) the planning and design of an enabling framework, (ii) the regulatory institutions and define clear responsibilities for public interventions, (iii) the economic structures and give incentives for low-carbon activities, (iv) the information needed to enhance transparency and enable low-carbon activities, and (v) the technology and implement actions pro-actively. Which combination of those instruments is nationally appropriate must be determined individually.

3.1.2 Step 2: Identify required support and appropriate financing vehicles to attract investments

Supplementary to domestic economic instruments to finance sustainable transport policies and measures, international sup-port can be an important financial source for public interven-tions. NAMAs can comprise both domestic and internationally supported activities — in one NAMA. In fact, it is hard to differ-entiate on the ground if one specific activity can be domestically financed or needs international financial support without which the activity could not be implemented. So, which activity con-tributes to meeting national emission reduction goals and which activity contributes to international commitments to reduce emissions can hardly be clearly separated. Additionally, there is an ongoing debate whether international financing should cover only incremental costs of low-carbon investments or the full costs of NAMAs.

Therefore it will always be negotiable between a developing country and a bi- or multilateral donor which parts of a NAMA could be implemented unilaterally and which parts need inter-national support. In general, NAMAs developers should design replicable business models how to overcome certain barriers of NAMAs and manage risks in markets in order to be able to access sustainable, long-term financing.

Therefore, it seems to be advisable that stakeholders from the private sector get involved at an early stage of NAMA develop-ment — as well as other stakeholders — and the outcomes from analyses and sector investment opportunities should be widely communicated. Public-private roundtables can establish a con-tinuous communication process for this purpose.

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Table 3.1: List of Barriers

Project action Policy-based framework

Financial barriers

n High upfront costs, small project sizes n Split incentives (e.g. of owners and users) n Misallocation of resources for investments

(e.g. subsidies for conventional technologies)

n Start action on the ground n Connect partners to share risks and costs n Produce value-added

n Provide long-term financing

Institutional barriers

n Limited access to capital n Monopolies / Limited access to markets

n Integrate partners n Abolish monopolies and regulatory market access barriers

Economic barriers

n Externalities n Create opportunities for free communication n Inform policy makers through bottom-up processes

n Adjust market prices and internalise externalities

Technical barriers

n High transaction costs n Connect partners with complementary capacities and resources

n Provide technology access

Information barriers

n Limited awareness of options n Lack of knowledge / access to knowledge

n Connect actors to knowledge holders n Install gatekeepers for information flows n Increase transparency and openness

n Education and awareness raising campaigns

n Educational curricula

Capacity barriers

n Lack of skilled labour n High transaction costs

n Select (international) partners with needed capacities

n Establish capacity building institutions

Source: GIZ, adapted from Report of the Secretary General’s High-Level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing; and Wuppertal Institute: Current Developments in Pilot Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries (NAMAs)

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While barriers refer to political and economic market failures to allocate adequate and timely resources to activities which will generate a posi-tive net revenue in the long-term for the whole of the market actors, risks rather classify the financial factors that can indeed turn the net revenue of investments negative and be a reason for whole societies as well as individuals in the short as well as the long-term to abstain from adequate resource allocation.

3.1.3 Step 3: Identify sources for international and tune in public policies with financing vehicles to attract private funds

There are multiple channels to access funding for sup-ported transport NAMAs. The UNFCCC NAMA registry is supposed to enhance transparency and provide informa-tion on support needed, support received and support available. Thereby the registry, which is supposed to be launched later in 2012, can eventually contribute to matching proposals and technical as well as financial sup-port. A platform that can be used to match proposals with funding is still to emerge. In the end, however, donors and implementers of transport NAMAs will always have to make direct contact and to agree on the disbursements of funds for specific activities, as probably no donor will be ready to give up the sovereign decision about the use of the provided funding.

Funding may be accessed via multilateral funds set up within the UN system or other multilateral organisa-tions like the multilateral development banks (MDBs), or bilaterally via developed countries governments’ climate funding mechanisms. Furthermore, there may be more opportunities to gain access to funding via direct bilateral development cooperation in the future as the recognition of the importance of NAMAs grows.

On the multilateral level, negotiations continue to estab-lish the Green Climate Fund under the UNFCCC, which shall “support projects, programmes, policies and other activities in developing countries related to mitigation

Table 3.2: List of Risks

Risk (Public) Risk Management Instrument

Country risk n Country risk guarantees

Policy risk:Low-carbon policy reversal

n Low-carbon policy risk cover linked to NAMA process

Currency risk:Volatile returns due to exchange rate fluctuations

n Currency funds offering foreign exchange hedging products

Deal flow problems:Insufficient number of commer-cially attractive deals

n Low-carbon project development companies (publicly funded, privately run) for early stage project develop-ment, power purchase negotiations

Difficulty evaluating multiple, overlapping risks:Established mechanisms to fully evaluate risks may not be appli-cable due to inter-linked risks

n Structured funds with public first loss equity stakes

Source: UNEP and partners (2009), Catalysing low carbon growth in developing economies- public finance mechanisms to scale up private sector investments in climate solutions.

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including REDD-plus, adaptation, capacity-building, technology development and transfer” (Copenhagen Accord). There may be significant opportunities to finance supported NAMAs through this new mechanism in the future. Developed countries have committed to disburse significant amounts for climate change issues in the long-term. At the moment, however, it remains unclear how much of this funding will be channelled through the Green Climate Fund.

In principle, all types of transport NAMAs are eligible for interna-tional support. However, individual funding mechanisms have their own eligibility criteria and condi-tions that need to be met.

Figure 3.3 shows the types of activities, including examples that can be funded through climate finance. In this context it has to be noted that, although capacity building is an issue on its own in the UNFCCC negotiations, capacity building activities at a technical level are intertwined with all other activities to plan, finance and implement NAMAs. Thus, climate finance should also be provided for capacity building, as capacity building is needed for enabling countries to manage climate finance.

Financing TechnologyTransfer

CapacityBuilding

Concepts &Plans

Infrastructure

Operation &Management

• Integrated urban and transport plans• Guidelines & Rules• Outlining Transport systems (e.g. BRT)

Construction of…• Bus lanes, rail, stops• NMT networks• Interchanges (integration of modes)

• Operational subsidies• Campaigns• Reporting on performance

• Transport modelling• Data gathering (e.g. tra�c counting)

• Efficient vehicles and retro�tting• E-ticketing• Passenger infor- mation systems

• Intel. Transport Systems (ITS)• Charging systems

• Organisation development• Trainings• Setting up networks• MRV concept

• Green public procurement• Building Standards

• Maintenance & Inspection• System optimisation• Eco Driving

�nance oforganisation

mainly initialinvestments

continuous�nancial �ows

Figure 3.3: Types of climate change mitigation activities that can be supported by climate finance. Source: Binsted et al., (2010)

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Box 3.2

Climate finance from the international realm: credited NAMAs

A sectoral crediting mechanism defines a baseline and a sectoral target for emission reductions. If a country achieves emission reductions beyond that target, these reduc-tions can be traded for offsetting to other countries. Reductions from NAMAs within the sectoral target are counted to national commitments. The traded reductions beyond that target count to commitments of the purchasing country, respectively, to the emissions budget of the selling country. The revenue from the traded reductions can contribute to recover initial invest-ments in the emission reductions through so-called credited NAMAs.

So far, there is no such trading scheme for credited NAMAs. For any trading scheme implies to agree internationally on nation-wide or sector-wide caps as well as very strict rules and procedures to calculate exact baselines, targets and the reductions measured against these baselines and targets. However, the transport sector is

particularly well suited for international sec-toral approaches due to high international exposure and uniformity of products and processes in the transport sector (Bradley et al., 2007). Sectoral approaches address con-cerns of international competitiveness as well as can be more politically manageable than economy-wide binding emission tar-gets. Especially if sectoral targets are inten-sity targets (metered in tonnes CO2/person-km or tonnes CO2/freight-km) defined by benchmarks of a high-performing technol-ogy, sectoral approaches can instigate a race to the top and give competitors incen-tives to develop the most efficient product or service. For this high-performing bench-mark will force competitors to follow.

Thus, mobilising — private or public, domestic or international — finance for investment in a transport NAMA could be highly effective if combined with a bi- or multilateral agreement on sectoral coop-eration or crediting mechanism.

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3.2.1 Multilateral funds

Multilateral funds are international institutions that provide finance by international donors, earmarked in this case specifi-cally for climate change purposes. They vary widely in scale, scope and their objectives. The funds outlined below have a special relevance for the transport sector.

The Global Environment Facility (GEF) serves as an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC. Sustainable urban transport projects are an emerging focus of its interven-tions. The GEF’s aim is to facilitate market transformation for sustainable mobility in urban areas. In its current replenishment period (2010–2014), the promotion of energy-efficient, low-car-bon transport and urban systems is one of their focal areas, with planned investment of USD 250 million, and further mobilisation of USD 1.2 billion. The GEF projects are developed by host coun-tries in cooperation with 10 GEF Agencies. An application can be made by submitting a Project Identification Form (PIF) to the GEF secretariat through a GEF Agency with an endorsement letter of the Operational Focal Point of the host country.

The Inter-American Bank’s Sustainable Energy and Cli-mate Change Initiative (SECCI) is a regional initiative for Latin America and the Caribbean that aims at increasing investments in energy efficiency technology and renewable energy (esp. bio-fuels), access to international carbon finance, and mainstreaming adaptation in Latin America. It comprises two SECCI funds (SECCI IDB and SECCI Multi-Donor Fund) that operate in parallel and may fund the same activity. One of the goals of the funds is to also leverage capital from other sources. To date, there are no activi-ties in the transport sector that are funded by this initiative, but energy efficiency and biofuel projects are imaginable.

Box 3.3

Key references

For more in-depth details on the different funding mechanisms, and how to gain access to the financ-ing they supply, please refer to:

GIZ’s Technical Document #5 “Accessing Climate Finance for Sustainable Transport: A practical overview” (Binsted et al., 2010), Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP). Available at: http://www.sutp.org.

http://www.climatefinanceoptions.org by UNDP and the World Bank.

3.2 Overview of funding mechanisms

This section briefly introduces the different mechanisms, dis-tinguishing between multilateral and bilateral support. Table 3 gives a broad and non-exhaustive overview on currently existing multilateral and bilateral funding mechanisms and the type of interventions and modes they support.

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Table 3.3: Overview of possible finance sources and support

Source of climate finance Nature of support

Type of intervention supported Modes supported

Gra

nts

Loan

s

Tech

nica

l Ass

ista

nce

Conc

epts

and

Pla

ns

Infr

astr

uctu

re

Ope

ratio

ns a

nd M

anag

emen

t

Tech

nolo

gy T

rans

fer

Capa

city

Bui

ldin

g

Road

Rail

Urb

an P

ublic

Tra

nspo

rt

Non

-mot

oris

ed tr

ansp

ort

Global Environment Facility x x x x x x x x x x x

IDB Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Initiative

x x x x x x x x x x x

IDB Infrastructure Fund x x x x x n/a x x

ADB Climate Change Fund x x x x x x x x x

ADB Clean Energy Fund x x x x x x x x x x

Clean Technology Fund x x x x x x x x x x x

Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility x x x x x x x n/a

Global Climate Change Alliance (EU) x x x n/a x x x x x

Hatoyama Initiative (Japan) x x x x x x x x x x

International Climate Initiative (Germany) x x x x x x x x x x

Source: Binsted et al., (2010), modified

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The Inter-American Bank’s Infrastructure Fund (InfraFund) is another regional funding mechanism for Latin America and the Caribbean by the IDB that aims at the development of sustain-able infrastructure projects in the region. It is complemented by the SECCI funds (see above). It has a grant window for the preparation of projects and the promotion of investments in infrastructure, and has the specific goal to finance (pre-)feasibility studies of sustainable transport projects, such as recent studies for Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and non-motorised transport in Rio de Janeiro.

The Asian Development Bank’s Climate Change Fund (CCF) provides grants, technical assistance and co-financing to ADB’s developing member countries. The CCF supports energy-effi-cient transport projects through its Clean Energy Working Group (CEWG), in particular infrastructure and capacity building pro-jects. In the past, projects to decrease energy consumption or to increase energy efficiency were financed, as well as demonstra-tion projects for GHG mitigation through urban mass transport systems. As the CCF was created with the aim to fully integrate climate change into the ADB’s development work, it is likely that opportunities for funding will increase further in the future.

The Asian Development Bank’s Clean Energy Fund (CEF) aims at supporting policy, regulatory and institutional reforms in Asia to improve energy efficiency and climate security of its members by building strategic, long-term, multi-partner cooper-ation. Financing includes trust grants, project-specific financing, knowledge provision and exchange amongst others. In transport, the CEF has funded technical assistance and energy improve-ments in the railway sector and capacity development on emis-sions and energy use.

The World Bank’s Clean Technology Fund (CTF) is one of the two funding mechanisms under the World Bank’s Climate Invest-ment Funds. Its aim is to promote scaled-up financing for the demonstration, deployment and transfer of low-carbon technol-ogies. The CTF may fund the development of project preparation documents, investment plans and projects through grants, loans and risk mitigation instruments. In the transport sector, it can fund in particular interventions aimed at improving energy effi-ciency and modal shifts to support long-term GHG reductions. It needs to be noted that all of the CTF’s current allocation (as of March 2011) of USD 4.4 billion is already committed, so currently there is no opportunity to gain new support for NAMAs if the fund does not receive additional replenishment.

The World Bank’s Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility (PPIAF) was created to act as a catalyst to increase pri-vate sector participation in emerging markets. It provides techni-cal assistance to governments to support the creation of a sound, enabling environment for private service provision. It has pro-vided technical assistance for the creation of public-private part-nerships (PPPs) for improved infrastructure. It aims to expand its program to develop policy strategies, action plans and regulation to attract private sector finance in low-carbon, climate-resilient infrastructure PPPs. In the transport sector, PPIAF has financed studies on the impact of climate change on Africa’s transport sector, as well as assistance in the formulation of a strategy for the development of Cote d’Ivoire’s transport infrastructure with a view to private sector involvement.

Specifically for the financing of NAMAs the World Bank Carbon Finance Unit developed NAMA Bonds in the range of sev-eral USD 100 million each. Bonds are debt finance and allow

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3 governments to borrow money on the global finance market for certain purposes if the government (or some other donor) guar-antees a certain fixed return on investment. If the investments in NAMAs financed with the funding from the bonds do not meet the expectations and are not able to recover the full investment plus interest, the government guaranteeing a certain return on investment has to pay for the loss. The advantage for the devel-oping country government, however, is to earn the revenue in case of a successful and financially profitable NAMA, and in case of a financially failed NAMA to disburse the public funds not upfront but successively when the losses occur over time. So far plans at the World Bank for NAMA bonds include several Latin American countries.

The EU’s Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA), managed by the European Commission, was created to ‘lead EU support and co-operation’ with the most vulnerable developing countries in achieving the Millennium Development Goals. It provides financial and technical support in order to deepen the climate change policy dialogue between the EU and developing coun-tries, to increase support for selected countries’ priority measures in adaptation and mitigation, and to integrate climate change issues in their development strategies. Especially in this area, there may be future opportunities for NAMA development. The GCCA does not explicitly promote transport projects and pro-grammes at the moment, but is based on the EU’s action plan on climate change and development, which includes transport as one of its priority areas.

3.2.2 Bilateral funds

Bilateral climate funds are set up by country governments in order to directly finance climate change adaptation and mitiga-tion activities in other countries. Especially the financing mecha-nisms of Japan (Hatoyama Initiative), Germany (International Climate Initiative, German Climate Technology Initiative), and the United Kingdom (Department for Energy and Climate Change) have the financial muscle to be relevant for GHG mitigation in the transport sector, and consequently for the funding of NAMA proposals. However, there may be additional funding opportuni-ties for transport NAMAs in the context of developed countries’ development cooperation activities that are not channelled through dedicated climate funds.

Japan’s Hatoyama Initiative aims at supporting develop-ing countries that are already in the process of reducing their emissions, and at those that are especially vulnerable to climate change. It is a comprehensive package that includes both private and public sector financing, including Official Development Assistance (ODA). Funding is provided through grants, loans, technology transfer and technical assistance. As yet, there is no information whether the Hatoyama Initiative has covered trans-port projects, but as decisions on which projects are funded are taken on a bilateral basis, the transport sector may be covered if developing countries request support for it.

The German International Climate Initiative (ICI) was created to support climate change adaptation and mitigation activities in countries in transition, developing countries and emerging economies. Thematic foci of the ICI are the promotion of climate-friendly economies, adaptation to climate change impacts, and

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the preservation and sustainable use of natural carbon sinks. The ICI supports many energy efficiency and renewable energy projects, the majority of which involve capacity building. There is also a set of innovative pilot projects, and a growing number of policy advisory projects. The ICI supports transport sector projects and activities in the fields of technology transfer, policy advice, research co-operation, capacity building, training, devel-opment of strategies, and energy efficiency measures. It also supports the development of MRV for GHG reduction measures in the countries it cooperates with, e.g. the development of moni-toring systems.

Additionally to the ICI, Germany launched in 2011 the German Climate Technology Initiative (DKTI) by the Federal Minis-tries for Economic Cooperation and Development and for the Environment and implemented in collaboration by GIZ and KfW. Over the coming years several billion Euro (from emissions allow-ance auctioning) are earmarked for the DKTI. In contrast with the ICI’s support for building capacities and developing innovative climate financing models and technologies, DKTI rather finances up-scaling of tested approaches at a sectoral or national level. DKTI collaborates closely with the private sector and develops markets in emerging economies and developing countries. One of the focal issues of the DKTI will be low-carbon mobility.

The United Kingdom’s Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC), created in 2008, perceives climate finance as a strategic issue in the future global finance market place. To keep London’s financial district in the world’s leading position, the United Kingdom must develop innovative instruments for climate finance. To this end DECC launched the Capital Markets Climate Initiative investigating debt and equity mechanisms in

climate finance. DECC will invest vast amounts of fresh money into climate change mitigation mainly domestically but also abroad. They provide 3 billion British Pound as Fast Start Finance, more than 2 billion British Pound for development and up-scaling of CCS, renewable energy, and renewable heat, and they set up a Green Investment Bank for funding public-private partnerships and demonstrating that the transition to a low-carbon economy is technically doable and financially viable, thereby raising ambi-tions of countries in the UNFCCC negotiations.

Box 3.4

Further reading

n CCAP (2008) ‘Sectoral Approaches: A Pathway to Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries’, Interim Report, Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP). Avail-able at: http://www.ccap.org/docs/resources/560/CCAP-sectoral%20interim%20report%20final%20012209.pdf.

n CCAP (2011) ‘Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries by Developing Countries: Architecture and Key Issues’, Center for Clean Air Policy. Available at: http://www.ccap.org/docs/resources/823/NAMAs%20by%20Developing%20Countries%20-%20Architec-ture%20and%20Key%20Issues.pdf.

n CPI (2011) ‘The Landscape of Climate Finance’, Climate Policy Initiative (CPI). Available at: http://climatepolicyini-tiative.org/publication/the-landscape-of-climate-finance.

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3 n IETA (2010) ‘Green NAMA Bonds’, International Emis-

sions Trading Association (IETA). Available at: http://www.ieta.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=423:green-nama-bonds-summary-note&catid=24:position-papers&Itemid=91.

n UNDP (2009) ‘Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries: Key Issues for Consideration’, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

n UNDP (2011) ‘Catalysing Climate Finance – A Guidebook on Policy and Financing Options to Support Green, Low-Emis-sion and Climate-Resilient Development’, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Available at: http://content.undp.org/go/cms-service/download/publication/?version=live&id=3259611.

n UNEP (2011) ‘Bilateral Finance Institutions & Climate Change. A Mapping of Public Financial Flows for Mitiga-tion and Adaptation to Developing Countries in 2010’, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Avail-able at: http://www.uneptie.org/energy/finance/pdf/Mapping%20report%20final.pdf.

n Ward, M. (2010) ‘Engaging Private Sector Capital at Scale in Financing Low Carbon Infrastructure in Developing Countries’. Available at: http://www.gtriplec.co.nz/assets/Uploads/papers/psi_final_of_main_report_full_ver-sion_31_may.pdf.

n Dalkmann, H. and Brannigan, C. (2007) ‘Transport and Climate Change’: Sourcebook Module 5e, Sustainable Urban Transport Project (SUTP), GIZ, Eschborn. Available at: http://www.sutp.org.

n Drakenberg, O. and Cesar, E. (2009) ‘Old, new and addi-tional funding for environment and climate change – the role of development cooperation’. Available at: http://www.sida.se/Global/Nyheter/Final_Environment_and_climate_change_financing_and_the_role_of_develop-ment_cooperation%20-%20spr%C3%A5kgranskad.pdf.

n Ecofys (2010) ‘Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries - Insights from example development ’. Available at: http://www.ecofys.com/files/files/report_ecofys_nama_overview_eng_04_2010.pdf.

n Ecofys (2011) ‘Annual Status Report on Nationally Appropri-ate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries (NAMAs)’. Available at: http://www.ecofys.com/en/publication/161

n European Climate Foundation (2008) ‘Scaling-up Climate Finance’.

n European Climate Foundation (2010) ‘From Climate Finance to Financing Green Growth’.

n EC (2009) ‘Stepping up international climate finance: A European blueprint for the Copenhagen deal’, European Commission (EC). Available at: http://www.eu-un.europa.eu/documents/en/090910_COMM_Blueprint_Clim_Chg.pdf.

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References

L Bradley, R. Baumert, K.A., Childs, B., Herzog, T. and Pershing, J. (2007) ‘Slicing the Pie: Sector-Based Approaches to International Climate Arrangements, Issues and Options’, World Resources Institute (WRI), Washington DC. Available at: http://pdf.wri.org/slicing-the-pie.pdf.

L UN (2011) ‘Report of the Secretary General’s High-Level Advi-sory Group on Climate Change Financing’, United Nations (UN). Available at: http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/climatechange/pages/financeadvisorygroup/pid/13300.

L UNEP (2009) ‘Catalysing low carbon growth in developing economies - Public finance mechanisms to scale up private sector investments in climate solutions’, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Available at: http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/catalysing_low-carbon_growth.pdf.

L Wuppertal Institute (2010) ‘Nationally Appropriate Mitiga-tion Actions of Developing Countries: Definitions, Issues and Options’. Available at: http://www.jiko-bmu.de/files/basis-informationen/application/download/pp-namas-fin.pdf.

L Wuppertal Institute (2011) ‘Current Developments in Pilot Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing Countries (NAMAs)’. Available at: http://www.jiko-bmu.de/files/basisinformationen/application/pdf/pp_namas_wuppertal_institute.pdf.

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