Translation Strategies2(Taken and adopted from Chesterman, 2000, pp 87 116, MEMES OF TRANSLATION) Translation Strategies Translation strategies to solve problems commonly encountered in a text:Syntactic Strategies (manipulate form):such as:Literal translation; b) Loan, calque; c) Transposition; d) Unit shift; e) Phrase structure change; f) Clause structure change; g) Sentence structure change; h) Cohesion change; i) Level shift; j) Scheme changeSemantic Strategies (manipulate meaning):a) Synonomy; b) Antonomy; c) Hyponomy; d) Converses; e) Abstraction change; f) Distribution change; g) Emphasis change; h) Paraphrase; i) Trope change; j) Other semantic changesPragmatic strategies (manipulate the message itself):a) Cultural filtering; b) Explicitness change; c) Information change; d) Interpersonal change; e) Illocutionary change; f) Coherence changeg) Partial translation; h) Visibility change; i) Transeditingj) Other pragmatic changes, such as naturalizing, too many words/too few words Analyzing the Translation using the Syntactic Strategya) Literal translationExample:We drink tea in the afternoon Kita minum teh sore harib) Loan, calqueExample:LoanPesawat Garuda 32013 lepas landas pukul enam kemarin.Flight Garuda 32013 took off at six yesterday.CalqueNowadays every student use computers in their schools.Sekarang setiap siswa memakai komputer di sekolah merekac) Transposition (word-class change)Example:Shift: verb propositionExample: One such tale concerns an elderly woman . Salah satu ceritera itu adalah tentang seorang wanita tua concerns: verb tentang : prepositiond) Unit shift {this is a term from Catford (1965). The units are morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence, paragraph). A unit shift occurs when a ST unit is translated asa different unit n the TT.Example:Unit of ST = clause; unit of TT = phraseThe change from clause phrase Do you have any idea what thisApakah kau tahu akibatnya ter- is going to do to your career? dap kairemu?(clause)(phrase)or from clause sentenceShe found that she was crying.Ia menangis.(clause)(sentence)e) Phrase structure changeThis strategy (or rather group of strategies) comprises a number of changes at the level of the phrase, including number, definiteness and modification in the noun phrase, and person, tense and mood in the verb phrase.Example:Students over the world are coming to the youth conference held in Colorado next year. Mahasiswa seluruh dunia akan datang ke konperensi yang diadakan di Colorado tahun depan.Students . pluralMahasiswa . singular (nomina tunggal)Thus there is a change in phrase structure, namely in number f) Clause structure change changes that have to do with the structure of the clause in terms of its constituent phrases. Various subclasses include constituent order (analyzed simply as subject, verb, object, compliment, adverbial), active versus passive voice, finite vs nonfinite structure, transitive vs intransitive. Example:The performance opened with a sad song. active Pertunjukan itu dimulai dengan lagu yang sedih. passive (pasif) g) Sentence structure changeThis group of strategies affects the structure of the sentence-unit, insofar as it is made up of clause-units. Included are changes between main-clause and cub-clause status, changes of sub-clause types etc. Example:This program will be sustained of which the government will assist with man power. main-clausesub-clauseProgram ini akan terus dipertahankan dan pemerintah akan membantu dengan sumber daya.main-clausemain-clauseThus the English complex sentence consists of main-clause and sub-clause The Indonesian translation is a compound sentence consisting of main-clause and main-clause.h) Cohesion changeExample:Weasley, you heard Professor Snape, cut up these roots. (source) Weasley, kau mendengar apa kata Professor Snape, potong-potong akar ini. (target)The complete English text should be:Weasley, you heard what Professor Snape said, cut up these roots. Thus there is an ellipsis of what said ; this component is left out to avoid repetition based on the previous text.In the translated text the ellipsis is added, namely apa kata Thus there is ellipsis and addition of CohesionThe other way round goes as follows:Deleting cohesionWeasley, kau mendengar apa kata Professor Snape, potong-potong akar ini. (source)Weasley, you heard Professor Snape, cup up these roots. (target)Explanation:Some component is left out in the English text, in full it shoud be:Weasley, you heard what Professor Snape said, cut up these roots. Thus what is left out what said is one of the cohesive resources called ellipsis of which in the source text is apa kata i) Level shift What is meant by levels is phonology, morphology, syntax and lexis. In a level shift, the mode of expression of a particular item is shifted from one level to another. An obviously influential factor here is the type of languages concerned, whether they ae more analytic or more agglutinative, for instance. Another factor is the role of intonation in some languages (e.g. English) this can express meaning (such as interrogativeness) which other languages express through morphology (e.g Finish) or wholly or partly through word order (e.g. German) or through silence such as from Indonesian to English)Example :Situation: You are sitting in a train with other people. It is lunch time and you take out your lunch box, Before you begun to eat, for politeness sake you say Mari makan (literally it means: lets eat) there is no English translation for this part as English people usually do not say anything to people around them if they begin to eat.So: Mari makan (Indonesian) translated (English]In this case the Indonesian sentence uses lexis but the English does not.Scheme changeScheme change strategies refers to rhetorical schemata, such as parallelism, alliteration and, in poetry, metrical rhythm and rhyming. Parallelism refers to the similar arrangement of a pair or series of relayed words, phrases or sentences (e.g. I like swimming, skiing and skating instead of I like swimming, to ski and skating), while alteration refers to the fact that several words in a row begin with the same letter (e.g. something smelled sweet). These are four possible scheme changes:(1) ST scheme A= TT scheme A (use the same scheme)Example:John likes swimming, surfing and sun bathing.John gemar berenang, berselancar dan berjemur di matahari(2) ST scheme A = TT scheme B (use a different scheme)Example:That house is exotic, expensive and extraordinary.Rumah itu istimewa, mahal dan luar biasa.ST scheme A = TT scheme 0 (delete the scheme)Example:As a governor of a metropolitan city Jokowi should be informative,Besides as a public official he also should be communicative, Furthermore as the head of a city with so many problems , he should be imaginative.Sebagai gubernur kota metropolitan Jokowi harus sering memberi penerangan, kecuali itu sebagai pejabat publik ia harus juga suka bersawala dua arah, selanjutnya sebagai penguasa sebuah kota dengan begitu banyak masalah ia harus dapat berkhayal.ST scheme 0 = TT scheme A (add a scheme)Example:A translator should be able to master both languages (the source language and the target language), those two languages should be understood well by him and he should have a computer skillSeorng penerjemah harus dapat menguasai kedua bahasa (bahasa sumber dan bahasa sasaran), dapat memahami nas yang diterjemahkan dan dapat menggunakan komouter. Analyzing the Translation using the Semantic Strategy Under semantic strategies Chesterman groups the kinds of changes which mainly have to do withlexical semantics, but also in cludes aspexts of clause meaning such as emphasis. Semantic strategies manipulate meaning. Several of these strategies derive from Vinay and Darbelnets concept of modulation. Semantic strategies consists of :Synonyme; b) Antonomy; c) Hyponomy; d) Converses; e) Abstraction change; f) Distribution change; g) Emphaisis change; h) paraphrase i) trope change; j) other semantic changesSynonymeThis strategy selects not the obvious equivalent b ut a synonym or near synonym for ot.e.g. to avoid repetition,Example: This research was conducted in 1997.Penelitian ini diadakan dalam tahun 1997.The research of 1997 was conducted satisfactorilyPenelitian tahun 1997 dilakukan dengan memuaskan. The Indonesian translation uses two near synonyms (diadakan , dilakukan) for the English phrae was conducted.AntonomyThe translation selects an antonym and combines this with a negation element.Example:For three days a discount of 30% was given for all kinds of clothes for ladies excluding evening dresses. Selama tiga hari diberikan potongan harga sebanyak 30% untuk semua pakaian wanita, tidak termasuk gaun malam HyponomyShifts within the hyponomy relation are common. In principle this strategy comes in three subclasses.ST supordinate => TT hyponymExample: Her garden is full of various roses, kambojas,Kebunnya penuh dengan beraneka and tulips.bunga yang berwarna-warni. roses, kambojas, tulips hyponyms bunga superordinate ST hyponym => ST supordinateExample:Learning languages is her hobbyBelajar bahasa Inggris, bahasa Jerman, bahasa Perancis, bahasa Jepang, bahasa Mandarin, bahasa Korea dsb, adalah kegemarannya languages = hyponym bahasa Inggris, bahasa Jerman, bahasa Perancis, bahasa Jepang, bahasa Mandarin, bahasa Korea=> supordinate ST hyponym X => TT hyponym Y Example:From managers until office boys in thatMulai dari para pemimpinoffice are members of the labor organization sampai pelayan kantor di 4paberik itu adalah anggota serikat buruh Here the translator has shift from managers and office boys into pemimpin and pelayan kantor. d) ConversesConverse are pairs of (usually) verbal structures which express the same state of affairs from opposing viewpoint, such as buy and sell.Example: Kindly note that the prices of those books are exclusive of postal charges.Mohon diperhatikan bahwa nilai yang tertera itu semata-mata harga buku saja, tidak termasuk ongkos pengiriman.Abstraction changeA different selection of abstraction level may either move from abstract to more concrete or from concrete to more abstractExample: Donation for the sunami disaster in Aceh came from all corners of the globeSumbangan untuk malapetaka sunami di Aceh dating dari seluruh penjuru duniaThe English source text ... corners of the globe is more concrete than the target text penjuru dunia.Distribution change *This is a change in the distribution of the same semantic components over more items (expansion) or fewer items (compression). Expansion dilutes the text somewhat.[expansion or reduction/ compression (Nida and Taber)]Example:We can, of course, also forward the documentation to you by mail.Tentu saja, kami dapat meneruskan berbagai dokumen tersebut kepada AndaThe English source text uses forward by mail is translated into Indonsesian using only the word ,,, meneruskan without further explanation of the manner of forwarding, thus there is a compression or reduction of the text Emphasis changeThis strategy adds to, reduces or alters the emphasis or thematic focus, for one reason or another.Example:The governor of Jakarta announced the increase of parking fees in a communicative way.The governor of Jakarta announced the increase of parking fees in such a way that it is very understandable to all people. Explanation... communicative way = more emphasized by stating very understandable ,,, ParapraseThe paraphrase strategy results in a TT version that can be described as loose, free, in some contexts even under-translated. This is a typical strategy for the translation of idioms, for instance, for which no corresponding idiomatic expression can be found in the TLExample:Make up your mind where you want to continue your study, UI or Gunadarma. Tentukan kamu ingin melanjutkan di UI atau Gunadarmatrope changeThis strategy, or rather set of strategies, applies in the translation of rhetorical tropes (i.e. figurative expressions). Correspondingly, three main subclasses of strategy can be distinguished here {(1) (3)}.ST trope X = TT trope X. For instant, a ST metaphor is retained at a metaphor in the TT.Example:Corruption is a disease that is usually found in a new emerging country.Korupsi adalah penyakit yang biasanya muncul dalam negeri yang baru tumbuh ST trope X =TT trope Y. Here the general feature of figurativeness has been retaned, but the realization of this feature is different, so that for instance an ST metaphor might be translated as ne based on a different tenor, or as some other trope altogether.Example :Gado-gado is a tasty Indonesian side dish liked by many people.Gado-gado mempunyai rasa Indonesia yg digemari oleh banyak orang. In the English ST and the Indonesian TT the emphasis is different, the ST gives emhasis on the word Indonesian, while in the TT the emphasis is on the word rasa.ST trope X = TT trope 0 (none). In this TT the figurative element is dropped altogether.Example:Dufan is a paradise for childrenDufan merupakan tempat yang sangat digemari anak-anak. The metaphorical use of paradise in the English ST is dropped in the Indonesian TT. Other semantic changesThese would include other modulations of various kinds, such as change of (physical) sense or of deictic direction, ExampleAnalyzing the Translation using the Pragmatic StrategyBy pragmatic strategies Chesterman means those which primarily have to do with the selection of information in the target text, a selection that is governed byb the translators knowledge of the prospective readership of the translation. If syntactic strategies manipulate form, and semantic strategies manipulate meaning, pragmatic strategies can be said to manipulate the message itself. These strategies are often the result of a translators global decisions concerning the appropriate way to translate the text as a whole.a) Cultural filteringThis strategy is referred to as naturalization, domestication or adaptation; it describes the way in which the source language items, especially cultural-specific items, are translated as the target language cultural or functional equivalents, so that they conform to the target language norms. The opposite procedure, whereby such items are not adapted in this way but e.g. borrowed or transferred directly, is thus exoticization, foreignization or estrangement. Example 1:The president of the university is going to give explanation about the new financial policy. Rektor universitas itu akan memberi keterangan tentang kebijakan baru mengenai keuangan.In America usually the head of the university is called president, in Indonesia he/she is called rektor.Example 2:Greetings! I am pleased to see that we are different.Salam! Saya senang mengetahui bahwa kita berbeda.This is the natural way in the Indonesian language Explicitness changeThis change is either towards more explicitness (explicitation) or more implicitness (implicitation). Explicitation is well known to be one of the most common translatorial strategies. It refers to the way in which translators add componenets explicitly in the TT which are only implicit in the ST.Example:The articles you order will be sent cash-on-delivery (COD) by post to your address.Berbagai barang yang Anda pesan akan dikirim dengan cara bayar tunai di tempat melalui pos ke alamat Anda.In the Indonesian translation the phrase dengan cara is explicitly stated , while in the English source text it is left implicit. Implication is the opposite change: bearing in mind what the readers can be reasonably expected to infer, the translator leaves some elements of the message implicit.Example:If you need anything, the flight attendants on board the plane will be glad to help you.Bila Anda memerlukan sesuatu, para pramugari akan dengan hati membantu.In the Indonesian text the phrase on board the plane is left impolicit.Information changeInformation change is the (Shaffner, 2001) addition of new, relevant, and non-inferrable, information or omission of irrelevant information; with addition and omission often listedas separate translation strategies in the literature and used in the annotations (p.31).Example:Membutuhkan waktu 150 menit naik kereta api ke Bandung (ST).From Jakartait takes only 20 minutes by train to go to Bandung.It is not mention yet in the text that the starting point is Jakarta, for some readers the addition of Jakarta might be a relevant information.Hari ini cerah, kaum dewasa mauoun anank-anak main ke lapangan main sepak bola, bola voli, dan kasti.The weather is fine,adults amnd children go out to the field to play football,and volley ball.Kasti, a game of throwing a ball to the target (the opponent player) was/is played by children outdoor, at least in Jawa, not many people are familiar with it, that is why it is omitted.Interpersonal changeThis strategy effects the overall style of the text, making it more/less formal/less technical etc.Example 1:Dear passengers Para penumpang yang terhormat The English norm expresses solidarity, while the Indonesian norm expresses the high status of the addressee. Ilocutionary changeIllocutionary changes (changes of speech act), are usually linked with other strategies too. For example, changing the mood of the verb from indicative to imperative or from reporting to a command, or from direct to an indirect speech.Example:What is he doing there?Dipertanyakan apa yang dia kerjakan di sana.Coherence changeThe coherence change is similar to the cohesion change in the syntactic strategy. While cohesion change has to do with a single sentence or paragraph, coherence change involves changes in the logical arrangement in the text. It may include rearranging, combining or splitting paragraphs.Examples of this strategy would demand much space, which is the reason that there is no example given here.Partial translationThis covers any kind of partial translation, such as summary translation, transcription, translation of the sounds only, translation of song lyrics and poetry, etc., in which cases the degree of fidelity to the original text can be quite low.Example:Visibility changeThis refers to the intrusion of the translator in the original source text of which he has translated. The translator is thus visibly interposed between the original author and the reader, and the author is accordingly backgrounded (temporarily). An extreme example of this change in translators transparency is in the postmodern Russian novel by Jevgeni POPOV, translated into Finish as Aaton aatttona (literally, On the eve of the eve) by Jukka Mallinen, himself a well-known literary figure in St Petersburgs circle. At one point in the novel, the hero travels from Russia to Helsinki, which is portrayed as a haven of peace and opportunity and personified in the figure of one Uncle Jukka. The point is that this Uncle Jukka is without a doubt Jukka Mallinen, the translator, whom POPOV has just incorporated as a character in the very novel which Mallinen will translate. To many of the original Russian readers , this post-modern role-play (that of Mallinen) is presumably absent; but to Finish readers the translator (Mallinen) is most obviously present and visible. TranseditingTransediting is a term suggested by Stetting (1989) to refer to the fact that the original text is often in need of extensive editing. sometimes radical re-editing that translators have to do on badly written original texts: it includes drastic re-ordering, re-writing at a more general level thatn the kinds of changes covered by the strategies so far mentioned. In other words this term refers to the fact that the original text is often in need of extensive editing. This leads to the reorganization of the information, rewording, and making changes that go beyond those covered this far( Bergen, date anonym, p.124).Other pragmatic changesOne example would be the layout: we see below that the layout is in two parallel columnson a sngle page, with the TT on the right. SOURCE TEXTPAGETARGET TEXTBut no tears flowed now.Cindy would let the sky cry the rest of her tears.2Namun tak ada air mata yang mengalir sekarang.Cindy akan membiarkan langit menangisi sisa kepedihan hatinya. ST: But no tears flowed now. Cindy would let the sky cry the rest of her tears.TT: Namun tak ada air mata yang mengalir sekarang. Cindy akan membiarkan langit menangisi sisa kepedihan hatinya.We can see that the layout has been changed. The ST is on top, while the TT follows on the next line.