Legacy of Slavery and Indentured Labour

Linking the Past with the FutureConference on Slavery, Indentured Labour, Migration, Diaspora

and Identity Formation.June 18th – 23th, 2018 , Paramaribo, Suriname

Org. IGSR& Faculty of Humanities and IMWO, in collaboration with Nat. Arch. Sur.

Transnationalism Antillean and Surinamese students

Diaspora Conference

Wendeline Josefa Isabelia Flores

Abstract

Within discussions on migration, Diaspora and Identity Formation the role of student-migrants is often overlooked. Furthermore, little attention has been paid to the rich material culture they have left behind in the form of magazines. The current generation of Caribbean Intellectuals, however, could learn a lot from the young Caribbean Intellectuals that were active half a century ago. While studying in the Netherlands, Antillean and Surinamese students developed a form of long-distance nationalism. They made an intense study of their own culture, language, and history. They studied in the land of the colonizer, not merely to improve themselves, but to develop and decolonize their home countries. In the mid-1960s the writings of both the Antillean and the Surinamese students were inspired by what happened globally. Their inspiration came from Latin America and other parts of the Caribbean, like British Guyana. In the case of the student migrants, we can often talk of remigration and circular migration. Some of these former student-migrants are now also part of the Caribbean Diaspora in the Netherlands. The time these students spend in the Netherlands has been critical for the formation of their individual as well as collective identity. Through International Student Organizations these Surinamese and Antillean students also connected with other international students and formed transnational networks that need to be further researched. When these former students returned to Surinam and the former Dutch Antilles, they took prominent positions in education, politics, and businesses, where there had mainly been white Dutchmen before them. The group of Surinamese intellectuals that returned to Suriname in the 1960s has actively contributed to the independence of the country in 1975. It is crucial for the new generation of Caribbean Intellectuals to study these stories and learn from the experiences of the previous generation, as we still deal with so many of the same

1

struggles and often even look to the same ideologies for answers. This conference is an excellent opportunity to put this subject in a broader international perspective as sociological and historical research in colonial students has also been done in France and Britain.

Introduction

Already at the beginning of the 20th century, the first student migrants from Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles came to the Netherlands, but that was only a few. From the 1950s there was an increase in the number of those who came to the Netherlands to study. At the end of the 1940s, the first Antillean and Surinamese student societies had already arisen, but the number of associations also grew strongly in the decades thereafter. These associations often started issuing magazines, in which students could publish political, social and cultural expressions. The large arrival of migrants from the West did not take place until the 1970s when about 180,000 Surinamese came to the Netherlands, and in the 1980s, with the arrival of around 90,000 Antilleans and Arubans.1Of the Antillean and Surinamese students who came to the Netherlands in the 50s and 60s, most returned after completing their studies. It was never their intention to stay in the Netherlands, only to provide a better education in the country of origin with a thorough education.

Associations under the influence of students: Vereniging Ons Suriname and Wie Eegie Sanie

In 1948, the Surinamese Student Association (SSV) department Amsterdam was established. This association would continue to exist until 1961. Also in 1948, departments of this association were established in Delft and Leiden.2

In 1950, in Amsterdam Wie Eegie Sanie was established as a Surinamese cultural association in the Netherlands by a group of Surinamese students: Eddy Bruma, Jo Rens, Hugo Overman, Jesse Herrenberg and Jules Sedney. They would come together weekly. The cultural movement was led by Bruma. After his departure in December 1954, he was succeeded by W.A. Sarucco. These same young intellectuals were also very active in the Vereniging Ons Suriname in the 1950s. The younger generation took over the board of the sociability association Ons Suriname and struck a new path with board members such as Eugène Gessel, Bruma, Eugène Waaldijk, Sedney and Koos Pinas. Wie Eegie Sanie (WES) and Vereniging Ons Suriname (VOS) also worked together with the National Committee Suriname and the Amsterdam department of the SSV. For example, they jointly rejected the Kingdom Charter of 1954.3 During a meeting of VOS in 1951, a vote of no confidence against the current board was adopted. The old board resigned and was replaced by a progressive board consisting of

1 Bosma, Postcolonial Immigrants, p. 9-10.Gert Oostindie, Emy Maduro, In het Land van de Overheerser2 ‘Studenten Vereniging in Nederland’ in: De West: Nieuwsblad uit en voor Suriname (Paramaribo 22 mei 1951).

2

the aforementioned Surinamese students and Otto Huiswoud.4 There were also lectures by famous American 'blacks' for WES: the writers James Baldwin, Richard Wright and Langston Hughes, but also W.E.B. DuBois. And through Otto Huiswoud and his American wife they came into contact with what happened in the United States.

From the recently published thesis by Jos de Roo, Praatjes from the West, it becomes clear that in the 1950s Radio Nederland Wereldomroep (RNW) broadcasted several contributions from Wie Eegie Sanie. The influential Surinamese nationalist movement WES received monthly airtime to voice its ideas about language, cultural politics, and literature.5 Between 10 April 1951 and 14 May 1958, RNW broadcast 34 contributions from WES and two more reports on its activities. 6 In no other program section, according to De Roo, the responsibility for the content was placed so emphatically with the speaker and with the association on whose behalf it spoke as with WES contributions.7

These contributions were about the Surinamese culture and language and, in addition to publications, were the only regular activity of WES to the outside world. WES mainly focused on training activities aimed at political awareness based on a nationalist vision, increasing self-esteem, strengthening patriotism and getting to know one's own culture better.8

The movement went further than the Netherlands alone. For example, WES was founded by Hugo Overman and others in Suriname. And not only there, but also in other parts of the world, such as in New York, Aruba and Curaçao, WES departments were established.9

Vereniging Antilliaanse Studenten in Nederland (1948) and Noticiero (1951)

In 1946 the Association of Curaçao Students was established in Amsterdam, with Raul G. Römer as secretary.10 The first national Antillean student association was established in 1948 as an Association for Antillean Students in the Netherlands (V.A.S.I.N.). V.A.S.I.N. had departments in Amsterdam, Nijmegen, and Delft. In February 1952 the board of V.A.S.I.N. consisted of Sylvius 'Roosje' Roozendaal, Adhemar Hart and Alejandro Saleh. V.A.S.I.N. from 1951 also issued a magazine called Noticiero. In 1952 it was the task of the chairman of V.A.S.I.N. to keep in touch with the Antilleans studying at the time in the Netherlands. Noticiero was stenciled twice a week with the help of Sticusa and sent to all Antillean students in a hundred copies. The intention of the magazine was to promote the future co-

3 ‘Surinamers in Nederland: Dominion-status voor Suriname’ in: De Tijd: Godsdienstig-Staatkundig dagblad (’s Hertogenbosch 20 mei 1954) vol. 109 p. 8.4 Marshall, Surinaams Nationalisme p. 75.5 B.J. de Roo, Praatjes voor de West: De Wereldomroep en de Antilliaanse en Surinaamse Literatuur 1947-1958 (Amsterdam 2014) p. 9.6 B.J. de Roo, Praatjes voor de West: De Wereldomroep en de Antilliaanse en Surinaamse Literatuur 1947-1958 (Amsterdam 2014) p. 80.7 Praatjes voor de West, p. 87-88.8 Ibidem, p. 67.9 Ibidem, p. 84.Edwin Marshall, Het Surinaams Nationalisme p. 1.10 De Roo, Praatjes voor de West, p. 26.

3

operation between the six islands. The goal of the magazine was to reduce the distance of the Antillean students to the Antilles. The magazine would include the most important reports from the Antilles and from the Antillean press. Active members were the Curaçao born Sylvius Gerard Marie 'Boy' Rozendal and Henk Dennert who both studied in Amsterdam.11

De Westindiër (1952-1953)

De Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (1952-53) appeared every two weeks from June 1952 onwards. The first edition contained contributions from Prof. dr. Dr. R.A.J. van Lier, S.G.M. Rozendaal, E.A. Gessel, Eddy Bruma, Jan Voorhoeve, Hein Eersel, Henk Dennert, Jules Sedney and Truus Dijkstra. Professor van Lier wrote the Ten Geleide of the first issue. The magazine was edited by E. Th. Waaldijk. The first edition counted six pages, the subsequent editions four each. From March 1953, despite the initial intention to make a weekly magazine from the West Indies, it became a monthly magazine due to the default of subscription payments. Although this was a 'Surinamese Antillean magazine', the Surinamese contributions had the upper hand. This is also apparent from the composition of the editorial staff. 12

de Westindiër wished to focus on Surinamese and Antillean government affairs; Economic development in the West; Social relations; Cultural development in Suriname and the Antilles and cultural cooperation with the Netherlands; Current news; South and Central American, as well as Caribbean, political, cultural, ethnological and economic affairs, mainly with regard to the West Indies and the Netherlands; The relations between white and colored peoples in the world; The West Indian community in the Netherlands; The Dutch communities in the West Indies; Information for West Indian holiday and holiday goers in the Netherlands; Study information for Surinamese and Antilleans living in both the Netherlands and the West Indies; and Sports news.13

The editorial board of de West Indier have been carefully put together. On the one hand, 'keeping the national principle in mind', Surinamese, Antillean and European-Dutch members were attracted. On the other hand, account was taken of the different subjects and sciences that the editors in the magazine would like to highlight. Editor-in-chief was Eugenius Theodorus 'Eugène' Waaldijk from Surinam who graduated in Journalism and Press Science at the University of Amsterdam. He wrote several articles, mainly reports and interviews with regard to art, theater, and music. He spoke for the West Indian with singer and dancer Othella Strozier, he discusses the lecture 'I am a Negro' by Otto Sterman after the poem Negro (1922) by Langston Hughes, Lenora Lafayette's rendition of Aïda and her concert at Vereniging Ons

11 ‘Gouverneur Struycken en Noticiero’ in : Amigoe di Curaçao: Weekblad voor de Curaçaose eilanden (Willemstad 30 juni 1951).‘Noticiero’ in: Amigoe di Curaçao: Weekblad voor de Curaçaose eilanden (Willemstad 23 april 1952) vol. 69 no. 8411 p. 12 ‘De West-Indier’ in: Amigoe di Curaçao: Weekblad voor de Curaçaose Eilanden (Willemstad 19-06-1952) de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (Vrijdag 6 juni 1952) vol. 1 no. 1.13 ‘De gebieden waarop ons blad zich zal toeleggen’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (Vrijdag 6 juni 1952) vol. 1 no. 1 p. 1.

4

Suriname, the forgotten legacy of the singer, poet and humorist Johannes Carolis Kruisland, the tour of artist Nola Hatterman and the first lustrum of the Foundation for Cultural Cooperation (StiCuSa).14

Eugène Albert Gessel opened his section in the first issue of the West Indians with an article about the Surinamese people's representation'. Gessel was teacher of profession in Suriname and had studied State Design in the Netherlands. During his editorship in the West Indian, he studied History in the Netherlands. In de West Indier, he would write a series of articles about the constitutional history of Suriname. He also wrote an article about the recent complications in Surinamese politics. In 1953 he wrote a series of articles about Minister Kernkamp, Minister of Overseas Territories in the third Drees cabinet (1952-1956). This minister would later be responsible for the establishment of the Statute for the Kingdom whereby Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles became independent territories within the state union.15

Eddy Bruma studied law when he started writing in de West Indier. He wrote an introductory article about Law and Freedom in the opening issue.16 In the third issue, he started with his series of contributions on the development of the Surinamese legal system.17 He discusses in this series the transplantation of a European legal system to Suriname and the concordance principle. During this time, Bruma also wrote the play The Birth of Boni.18 In the play, among others, Frits Pengel and Otto Sterman played. In September 1952 members of Wie Eegie Sanie visited the Frisian Leeuwarden. The Surinamese and the Frisians pursued the same goals: maintaining and strengthening popular culture. The magazine Tsjerne then issued a Surinam issue, containing Surinamese work translated into Frisian and an illumination of Suriname's language policy. Subsequently, members of WES came to Leeuwarden to give an image of their language pursuits and to perform the play The Birth of Boni and to play

14 E. Th. W. ‘Vijf jaar Sticusa. Stichting voor de Culturele Samenwerking besloot haar eerste lustrum’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams. Antilliaans blad (juni 1953) vol. 1 no. 20 p. 1. E. Th. W. ‘Ik ben een Neger’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 7 november 1952) vol. 1 no. 11 p. 3. E. Th. W. ‘Een praatje met Othella Strozier’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 3 oktober 1952) vol. 1 no. 9 p. 1.15 E.A. Gessel ‘Den Haag – New York – Willemstad – Paramaribo retour of De lotgevallen van een Nederlandse minister… “die van goeden wille” was (Drama in vier bedrijven)’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad vol 1, no. 15- E.A. Gessel ‘De recente verwikkelingen in de Surinaamse politiek’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad. Vol 1. No. 10 p. 1 (vrijdag 17 oktober 1952) E.A. Gessel ‘Van Particulier Wingewest tot Gelijkwaardig Rijksdeel’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams Antilliaans blad , vol. 1 no. 1-9, 12, 18, (juni-oktober 1952).16 Eddy Bruma, ‘Recht en Vrijheid’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 6 juni 1952) vol. 1. No. 1 p. 3. 17 Eddy Bruma, ‘De ontwikkeling van het Surinaams Rechtsstelsel’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 4 juli 1952) vol. 1 no. 3,4,5, 10, 17 .18 ‘Geslaagde eerste opvoering van “De Geboorte van Boni”. Stampvol Minverva-paviljoen davert van succesvol optreden’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad.

5

Surinamese music. Bruma is said to have spoken the following words during this meeting: "We are not Europeans and will never be. European culture can never become our property. We can only be ourselves and here we have found people who are also fighting for what makes people human, namely their own culture ".19

Student Dutch Language and Literature at the University of Amsterdam Jan Voorhoeve was a linguistic and literary assistant at de West Indier. Voorhoeve was born in Djombang, Indonesia and made a trip to Surinam as a student of Professor Hellinga in the late 1940s for the study of the Surinamese language, with which the Sranantongo was meant. Voorhoeve wrote a series of six articles about the Surinamese language. Voorhoeve was also the instigator of the close contacts that the Surinamese maintained with the editors of the Frisian literary forum De Tsjerne. In de West Indier, Voorhoeve wrote an article about the Frisian search for a solution to the problem of language in education. The Frisians also inspired him to write an article about a National Educational Experiment, in which he addressed two questions: 'How do we become a united Surinamese people?' and 'What does the Surinamese need in his life'. Surinamese, according to Voorhoeve, could also learn from the Indonesians during their search for their own Surinamese cultural forms. Voorhoeve was also active within WES, where he developed proposals for the spelling of Surinamese together with others.. 20

Christiaan Hendrik 'Hein' Eersel was the editor for Education Affairs of de West Indier and in that role would discuss the development of Surinamese education. In Suriname, Eersel was a teacher and in 1952 he studied Dutch Literature at the University in Amsterdam. In his first article, Eersel describes Suriname's search for its own school system now that the country considers the 'colonial era as closed and wants to take its own place in the world'.21 Also in his next two articles, he describes the biggest problem in Surinamese education in those years: Suriname works with a Dutch school system and Dutch educational material. In the seventh edition of the West Indian, Eersel starts a section about something or someone from Surinamese history, 'that is worth knowing and can help us give a true and just national

19 ‘Surinamers vinden de Friezen: Eerste optreden van Surinaamse culturele beweging in Leeuwarden’ in: De Tijd: Godsdienstig – Staatkundig Dagblad (’s Hertogenbosch 30-09-1952).20 J. Voorhoeve, ‘De Toekomst van het Surinaams’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 6 juni 1952) vol. 1 no. 1 p. 3-4. J. Voorhoeve, ‘De Friese Proefscholen. Fries-Surinaamse analogie’ in: De Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 19 september 1952 en vrijdag 3 oktober 1952) vol. 1 no. 8-9. J. Voorhoeve, ‘Een Nationaal Onderwijsexperiment’ in: De Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 21 november 1952) vol. 1, no. 12, p. 3. J. Voorhoeve, ‘Het Volkslied van de Indonesiër’ in: De Westindiër: Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 5 december 1952) vol. 1 no. 13 p. 3.21 Ch. H. Eersel, ‘De Surinaamse jeugd kijkt vol verwachting de toekomst tegemoet’ in: de Westindiër: Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 6 juni 1952) vol. 1 no. 1 p. 4.

6

pride'.22 This series starts with a book review of 'Maria Sibylla Merian', a poem by Bertus Aafjes, followed by a discussion of the person Merian, an artist, and scientist who stayed in Suriname in the 17th century. The second and final article in the series was about Johannes King, a ‘Bosneger’ from the Matuari on the upper Saramacca who wrote several works in the Sranantongo in the second half of the nineteenth century.23

Jules Sedney, who was then a student in Economics, began his contributions to de West Indier with a series of three articles on economic development in Suriname: 'Some aspects of economic development in Suriname during the last years.'24 After a study trip of several months to Suriname, he published a series of articles under the name 'Notes to the Ten Year Plan' in the West Indies, a subject on which he will be promoted in 1955.25

Two Antillean students, despite the Surinamese upper hand in the editors, often contributed to de West Indier: Henk Dennert and Silvius Rozendaal.

Dennert studied Economics in Amsterdam at the time, but had a great literary interest and provided an Antillean literary section for de West Indier. He started his contributions in the first issue of de West Indier with an article about the literary life in the Netherlands. Antilles, in which he reflects the history of literary magazines in the Netherlands Antilles. In his second contribution, he discusses a book by Adriaan Hulshof (pseudonym of Johanna van Ammers-Küller) and the danger it brings when a recognized writer gives a description of a country to which she has traveled. Dennert later discusses the literary work of Antilleans such as Luis Henrique Daal, John the Pool and Pierre Lauffer.2627

Dennert also wrote about increasing tourism as a threat to Curaçao's own character.28 In the tenth issue of de West Indier he and Rozendaal announce the founding of Circulo Patriotico by some Amsterdam students.29 One of the aims of this circle was the purification of one's own language. Their ultimate goal was to recognize and promote their own Antillean culture. In this context, they considered it a prerequisite, the recognition of their language. In the tenth

22 H. Ch. Eersel, ‘Zo was ons land, ons volk…’ in: de Westindiër: Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 5 september 1952) vol. 1 no. 7 p. 2.23 H. Ch. Eersel, ‘Zo was ons land, ons volk…’ in: de Westindiër: Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 19 september) vol. 1, no. 8 p. 2.24 J. Sedney, ‘Enkele aspecten van de economische ontwikkeling in Suriname gedurende de laatste jaren’ in: De Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad ( juni-juli 1952-) vol. 1 no. 1-325 J. Sedney, ‘Enkele critische aantekeningen bij het tienjarenplan’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad november-december 1952) vol. 1 no. 12-1426 Henk Dennert, ‘”Viajar y Escribir” Een jonge Curaçaoënaar uit zich in het Spaans’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 19 september 1952) vol. 1 no. 8 p. 2-3.27 Henk Dennert, ‘”Del Curazao que se va” van John de Pool’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 19 december 1953) vol. 1 no. 14 p. 3.28 Henk Dennert, ‘Toeristen en Monumenten’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (Vrijdag 19 september 1952) vol. 1 no. 8 p. 3.29 Henk Dennert, ‘Een literaire prijsvraag in de Nederlandse Antillen?’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 17 oktober 1952) vol. 1 no. 10 p. 1 en 4.

7

number, he discussed Cry, the beloved country,30 the book from 1948 by South African author Alan Stewart Paton. In the thirteenth issue, Dennert makes a plea to pay more attention to the education of the Antillean child.31 He advocates for schools, in which the First three years would be taught in Papiamento. He would also like to see the cuentas di Nanzi, whether or not in Papiamento, being taught alongside or instead of the famous Dutch fairy tales. He sees a vital role for Antillean students to this end.

Silvius Rozendaal, student Political and Social Sciences at the University of Amsterdam, was given one general section about the Netherlands Antilles; where this concerned various separate parts for Suriname. In his first series of three articles, he reflects on the development of the Netherlands Antilles in the social, economic and political fields.32 While Dennert continues to contribute every two weeks, Rozendaal only returns in the tenth issue with an article about the Circulo Patriotico. Rozendaal explains how this student association was born from the desire to work on the promotion of its own Antillean culture and cultural awareness of the Antillean people.33

Students from the West and the Foreign Student Service (1951)

In 1951, the Foreign Student Service (FSS) was founded with a threefold goal: taking care of the foreigners studying in the Netherlands; bringing these foreign students into contact with the Dutch university and student community and the population; and bringing international students into contact with Dutch cultural and social life.34’ The FSS did this by, among other things, providing information and providing facilities for cultural events. The 'foreign students' also included students from Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles, who formed the largest groups of foreign students besides the Indonesian students. The Antillean and Surinamese students also had contact with students from Indonesia through the FSS. The FSS took over a large part of the SSV's tasks, partly because it had more public finances. The FSS organized excursions, sports tournaments, language lessons and study trips, received students from abroad and mediated in their accommodation. In August 1952 about 15 'West Indians', including Waaldijk and Frits Moll, took part in a study conference of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris. This trip went out of the FSS. 35

30 Henk Dennert, ‘Op de drempel van morgen. Don’t cry, beloved country’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 17 oktober 1952) vol. 1 no. 10 p. 1-231 Henk Dennert, ‘Het Antilliaanse kind’ in: de Westindiër: Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 5 december 1952) vol. 1 no. 13 p. 3.32 S.G.M. Rozendaal, ‘De Nederlandse Antillen’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (Haarlem juni-juli 1952) vol. 1 no. 1-3. 33 S.G.M. Rozendaal, ‘Naar een eigen Antilliaanse cultuur. Wat wil de “Circulo Patriotico”?’ in: de Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (Haarlem oktober 1952) vol. 1 no. 10 p. 1.34 ‘De Foreign Student Service bestaat 10 jaar’ in: Gereformeerd gezinsblad (zaterdag 16 december 1961) vol. 18 no. 2780 p. 3.35 ‘Met de F.S.S. naar Parijs. UNESCO Studie-conferentie voor in Nederland studerende buitenlandse studenten’ in: De Westindiër. Surinaams-Antilliaans blad (vrijdag 15 augustus 1952) vol. 1 no.6 p. 1-4

8

Encuentro Antillano (1957-1959)

Encuentro Antillano. Organ of Antillean students in the Netherlands was a stenciled magazine, founded in 1957. The official language of the stenciled magazine was Dutch. The content was written by students and included poems, among other things. Also, it contained political messages and news from Curaçao, Aruba, Suriname, and Venezuela. Julian A. Abraham a student in Psychology and member of V.A.S.I.N.’s Amsterdam department edited the magazine, alongside G.T. 'Boy' Fraai, a student in the Arts; C.B. Römer, a student in Mathematics and Physics and E. Frank Martinus Arion, a student in the Arts. The editors wanted to continue with this magazine where V.A.S.I.N. had ended with Noticiero. 36 From Frank Martinus several Dutch and Papiamento-language poems and short stories appeared in Encuentro; he has the most contributions in the magazine. Encuentro contained more news items than opinion pieces. Nevertheless, the release of Encuentro was not without a struggle. Already after the publication of the first issue, angry reactions were submitted.

Notable is the number of female Antillean students who speak in this magazine; you hardly see this with other magazines. In these cases the women were nurses or social workers. At the end of the 1950s, Rotterdam, Groningen, and Breda did not yet have their associations, and the Antilleans were eagerly looking for a form of mutual contact. Therefore the magazine also contains many reports from Antilleans who, together with only a few others, represent the Netherlands Antilles in their place of residence. The Antillean students are also informed, albeit to a much lesser extent, about the situation on the windward islands.

In the third issue, it is announced that by Raul Römer lectures Papiamento will be taught at the University of Amsterdam. The editors are curious if other universities and educational institutions are going to follow and whether the Dutch people will show interest.37

In the third issue also the report of a conversation between Mr. H.L. Braam, head of the Government Information Service in Curaçao and V.A.S.I.N. department Amsterdam. In this conversation, two concrete proposals were made to promote recognition of the Antillean student. This was firstly the regular appearance of a bulletin from the government for information about the political, economic and cultural situation in the Antilles. Secondly, the establishment of a student council, which could form a link between government and student. This council could be the mouthpiece of all Antillean students and students in the Netherlands regarding their studies and related matters.38 The establishment of this council would ultimately, as described in the next section, only take place a few years later.

Mamjo (1961-1963)

Edwin Marshall, Het Surinaams Nationalisme, p. 65.36 Notisiero. [Nieuwsblad, nieuwsbrief, nieuwsdienst, berichtgever].37 A. Warren ‘St. Eustatius, “The Golden Rock”’ in: Encuentro Antillano. Orgaan van Antilliaanse studerenden in Nederland vol. 1 no. 3 p. 9.38 G.F. ‘Gesprek tussen de heer H.L. Braam, hoofd der Regeringsvoorlichtingsdienst te Curaçao, en de V.A.S.I.N., afdeling Amsterdam’ in: Encuentro Antillano. Orgaan van Antilliaanse studerenden in Nederland vol. 1 no. 3 p. 10-11.

9

Mamjo was a publication of the Surinamese Student Association (SSV). The first edition of Mamjo appeared in 1961 with Mr. J. Leefmans (editor-in-chief), R.R. Venetiaan and W.L. Man A Hing as the editors. The magazine appeared four times a year and was issued by the Central Board of the SSV. This central management consisted of P.S.R. Radhakishun, H.R. Lim A Po, and W. van Aalst.39

The Chief Executive of the SSV expected that the magazine would be a medium for the Surinamese students to convey thoughts about problems they were confronted with.40 Mamjo was the successor to the magazine Apinti a stenciled magazine, which according to the editors of Mamjo probably appeared in the spring of 1952, edited by F. Moll in Amsterdam. According to the editor, Mamjo was first and foremost 'the forum’ that people have longed for. The forum where one provides information and exchanges thoughts with one another. The first issue is not representative of the rest of the expenditure, because it is a report of the Spring Conference organized by the SSV in Wassenaar in April 1961. The speakers at this conference were: Prof. dr. Dr. W. Brand about the 'Problems related to the decolonization process in the world'; Dr. J. Einaar about 'The history of the Suriname - Netherlands relationship'; Prof. dr. R. van Lier about 'Current social problems concerning the relationship between Suriname and the Netherlands' and Dr. C. Bruyning who summarized the whole.

From the second issue, the students themselves spoke. For example through contributions by John Leefmans, Rudi Frank Kross, Julius Defares., Herrve, W.L. Man A Hing, H. R. Lim Apo, Krumanty, Ch. A. Rosheuvel, J.D. van der Meulen, G.E. Sprang, M. Slory en R.R. Venetiaan.

In the second issue, the SSV shared the developments concerning international contacts with other student associations. For example, the SSV held a conference in Paris in July 1961 with the Union des Etudiants Guyanais.

Most of the contributions in Mamjo were by John Leefmans. His first contribution is an article about the racial issue as a critical Surinamese problem. He with this calls on Jean-Paul Sartre, among others. He also quotes Richmond about discrimination. He then cites Berry's four categories of rationalization and justification of racial antipathy and discrimination.41

The second contribution of Leefmans is entitled 'Towards a Surinamese Literature? Publishing is an art '. In this article, he discusses the importance of good Surinam publishing houses and printing companies. "To Surinamese literature?" Gets a sequel in the third issue of Mamjo. In the fourth issue, Leefmans discusses the poetry collection 'Krén Klim' by Eugène W. Rellum. Leefmans is particularly enthusiastic about the poems in Sranan. A number of the Dutch-language poems primarily remind him of 'North American awareness-negro poetry, 39 Mamjo (Leiden 1961) vol.1 no. 1.40 Het Hoofdbestuur van de Surinaamse Studenten Vereniging, in: Mamjo (Leiden 1961) vol. 1 no. 1 p. 1.41 J.L., ‘Een en ander over Raciale Verhoudingen’ in: Mamjo (Leiden oktober 1961) vol. 1 no. 2 p. 2-7.

10

expressions of' négritude.' In 'To a new beginning,' a short article in the column 'Chronicle and Commentary' in the last issue of the first year of Mamjo, Leefmans discusses the developments regarding the formation of the federal West Indies. In the first issue of the second year, he writes about the foundation for the promotion of Caribbean theater: Caribiton. The theater company consists of Surinamese and Antilleans, led by Loet Steenbergen. In the fourth part of 'Towards a Surinamese Literature?’ Leefmans discusses Dutch-language Surinamese literature by some authors.

In the third issue of Mamjo, Leefmans opens with an article he had wanted to offer to Vox Guyane; the editors of the resulting New West Indian Guide, however, found it too long to publish in their magazine. And so 'De Akademie van Fort Zeelandia' appeared in January 1962 in Mamjo. The article describes Leefman's 'dream,' own institutions for higher education for students from the former colonies. The essence of his dream is that a center of science and culture is founded in Fort Nieuw Amsterdam or Fort Zeelandia. According to Leefmans, it must be a place that 'in the name reflects close links with the past, as a sign that we are mature and the reaction to the colonial period is beyond.'

Antillean Student Council (1962)

In 1962 the Antillean Student Council (ASR) was established in Leiden. This was decided in 1961 at a meeting in Nijmegen through the management of the various associations of Antillean students in Delft, Nijmegen, and Leiden. The ASR would form an overarching body for the various existing organizations and be responsible for representing the interests of the Antillean students and representing the Antillean student in the Netherlands. The ASR was to represent the interests of Dutch Antillean students who were studying at a Dutch institution for university education and were members of an association of Antillean students recognized by the general board of the foundation. These included the following: Antillean Student Association 'Omnia ad Societatem Antillianam (OASA), established in Leiden in 1960; Association of Antillean Students Nijmegen (CANOA); Association of Antillean Students in Delft (VASD); Union di Antiyano Studiando na Amsterdam (UASA), association of Antillean students in Amsterdam, founded in 1964; Tilburg Antillean Circle (T.A.K.), Asociacion Estudiantil Antillana Eindhoven; Cadushi, association of Antillean students in Utrecht, based in 1964.42

Kakiña (1963-1965)

In 1963 Kakiña was published as a monthly magazine for Antillean students and students in the Netherlands. The ASR published Kakiña in Leiden and the editors and directors were formed by Antillean students located in all university cities in the Netherlands. The magazine discussed topics such as discrimination, Papiamento, studying in the Netherlands, Antillean identity, an Antillean nation, exhibitions, poetry (in Papiamento), education and economics, in which the articles were written both in Dutch and in Papiamento. These subjects were dealt 42 ‘Uit de Antillen’ in: Nieuw Suriname: Surinaams nieuws- en advertentieblad, jaargang 7, nr. 2023 (8 augustus 1961) p. 2.Wendeline Flores, Kambio. De roep om verandering van Antilliaanse studenten in Nederland (Amsterdam 2012) p. 14-15.

11

with in the form of articles, interviews, letters, editorial documents, opinion pieces, and poems.

For the distribution and stenciling, Kakiña had been dependent on the Cabinet of the Minister in The Hague, known as the Antillenhuis. At that time Willem Frederick Meinhardt Lampe was the Minister. At the conclusion of the agreement in which it made its support to the magazine, the Antillenhuis had stipulated that Kakiña was not allowed to comment on matters of a political nature in its articles. This led to conflict when it appeared that the editors had a different interpretation of politics than the Antillenhuis. The Antillenhuis eventually even refused to place two articles with, according to them, political scope.43

Kambio (1965-1968)

In February 1965 the first issue of Kambio. Portabos Independiente Antijano appeared. Kambio was founded to follow Kakiña, and many of the editorial staff and permanent authors of Kakiña also formed the editors of Kambio. The group of Antillean students who saw the interference of the Antillean House as censorship had decided on this magazine. Kambio has in part also continued where Kakiña has ended. The same subjects returned. Kambio, however, had much more freedom to express her own many and often harsh criticisms; for her survival, she was only dependent on her readers.44

Although the editors themselves consisted of intellectuals, Kambio wanted to engage with the working class. Kambio did not have the primary purpose of influencing politics on Curaçao itself. The editors wanted to make Antillean students aware that they had to be socially committed to being able to do something for their community. The magazine was of the opinion that the Antillean students had to give back more to the community than just their specialism. The editors wanted to gain a greater social involvement among the Antillean students. Except for the poems, Kambio was primarily written in Dutch.

Most articles in Kambio were written about Latin America and the Latin American revolution. The editors thought that more attention should be paid to this area that is much closer to the Netherlands Antilles than the motherland. Political policy and political participation in the Netherlands Antilles are the second most discussed topic in Kambio.

Aksikomite di Antiano na Ulanda (1969)

In 1969, a group of Antillean students in the Netherlands founded the Aksikomite di Antiano na Ulanda (AKA). This action committee was spying on companies like Werkspoor, Fokker and Bronswerk to investigate the working conditions of the Antillean workers there. They also questioned the role of the Antillenhuis. The Antillean Contact Center (ACC) officially opened its doors on Tuesday 18 March 1969 at the Rozengracht in Amsterdam. In the center,

43 Wendeline Flores, Kambio. De roep om verandering van Antilliaanse studenten in Nederland p. 1644 Kambio. Portabos Independiente Antijano anja 1, no. 1 (februari 1965) p. 1. Kambio anja 2, no. 1 (april 1966). Kambio anja 3, no. 1 (maart 1967). Kambio anja 1, no. 6 (oktober 1965).

12

there was a meeting room for about 30 people. The Antillean student association UASA regularly used this space. In the center, there was an Antillean social worker's office every Tuesday evening to advise interested parties.45

Kontakto Antiyano (1969-1981)

In April 1969, the first issue of Kontakto Antiyano appears. What is striking about the first issue of this small bulletin is that the majority is written in Papiamento. 'Esaki ta un corant di nos y pa nos'. Possibly they found that a magazine for and by Antilleans also had to be written in Papiamento. KA is a publication of the ACC. KA focuses mainly on the life of the Antillean in the Netherlands. For example, there are announcements of parties and celebrations, upcoming flights to the islands, office hours of an Antillean social worker, sports competitions, etc. That does not mean that the bulletin is outside politics. However, there is a different focus at the start of the magazine. The magazine has a fixed form with recurring headings that are completed in three languages: Papiamento, Dutch or English. These are also the official languages on the Netherlands Antilles. Most articles in KA cannot be assigned to an author.46

One of the founders and founders of KA and the ACC was Jan van de Schoor. Van de Schoor was appointed as a chaplain of the Antillean workers in the mid-sixties. He organized a series of training and contact weekends and gave the impetus to the establishment of the ACC in March 1967. In 1966, Van de Schoor served as the advisor in a 'Commission for Antillean Workers.' He also had a share in the creation of the National Welfare Foundation for Antilleans (LSWA) and the Nanzi Foundation. KA devoted an article in 1973 to his farewell to the ACC.47

Trinta di Mèi is an event that took place just after the establishment of KA and had far-reaching consequences for Antillean society. It is therefore not surprising that KA is repeatedly reverted to this event.48 Antiyas Liber organized a protest march from the Peace Palace to the Antillenhuis at the Badhuisweg in Scheveningen, where a letter was delivered

45 Ulbe Bosma, Terug uit de Koloniën (Amsterdam 2009) p. 115-117. ‘Antilliaans Contact Centrum in Amsterdam’ in: Amigoe di Curaçao: Weekblad voor de Curaçaosche eilanden vol. 86 nr. 57 (8 maart 1969 Willemstad) p. 6. ‘Oostvogel medewerker Ant. Contact centrum’ in: Amigoe di Curaçao: Weekblad voor de Curacasche eilanden vol. 86 nr. 82 (Willemstad woensdag 9 april 1969) p. 446 Kontakto Antiyano, jrg. 1 no. 1 (april 1969) p. 1. Wendeline Flores, Kambio. De roep om Verandering van Antilliaanse Studenten in Nederland (Amsterdam 2012) p. 58-59.47 ‘Afscheid’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 9 (Amsterdam februari 1973) p. 15-16.48 ‚30 di mèy: Fin di abusu’ in : Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 1 (Amsterdam april/mei 1972) p. 37-39.’30 di mey. Lucha di klase obrero I independensha di Antiya’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 5 no. 2 (Amsterdam mei 1973) p. 1-5.

13

for the Antillean Prime Minister. The SSU and the SSV in Wageningen also showed protests. In the trial against the riots at the Antillenhuis in The Hague there are also a lot of protests.49

Various articles about education appear in KA. For example, the section 'Our Schooling ....' deals with the relationship between education and culture. This is discussed from the perspective of Fanon's work. Also, they have elaborately discussed the role of language in education in the colonies.50

Various forms of racism and discrimination were brought to the attention, for example through an article about homosexuality on the Antilles. Cyril Berkel writes a column in 1971 about the presence of racism, not only in the Netherlands but also in the Antilles itself. Also, the article 'Rasismo Antiyano' told about racism in the Antillean community. In 1972 an article was published that described the history of racism and slavery by the works and ideas of Du Bois, Nkrumah, Baldwin, Malcolm X, Fanon, Carmichael, Walter Rodney, and Garvey.51

Independence (struggle) was another recurring subject. First of all, it concerned the road to freedom for the Antilles. Several articles also appeared in which independence struggles of others were set as examples. Written about were Amilcar Cabral and the independence movement of Guinea-Bissau, Cheddi Jagan and the independence struggle of Guyana. 52

Characteristic of KA, compared to previously discussed journals, is the changing role of students and organizations. The number of associations and organizations is increasing, but more are being set up as welfare organizations. You notice this by the name changes of organizations and also the vacancies that occupy an essential place in the magazine. Due to the increasing migration of Antillean workers to the Netherlands, they also have a more prominent role in the magazines and associations. Various articles about the Antillean workers and strikes appear in KA.53

49 ‚Protest rond proces‘ in: Vrije stem: onafhankelijk weekblad voor Suriname’ no. 739 (14 februari 1970) p. 2. ‘Zenden van mariniers lokt veel protest uit’ in: Nieuwsblad van het Noorden vol. 82 no. 126 (Maandag 2 juni 1969) p. 3.50 ‘Our schooling….’ In: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 5 no.1 (Amsterdam maart/apri 1973) p. 9-11.51 ‚Racism & Slavery. In memory of our ancestors’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 3-4 (Amsterdam, juli/augustus 1972) p. 21-26. Cyril, ‚Race Problem in the Antilles’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 3 no. 7-8 (December 1971) p. 28-29. Rasismo Antiyano’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 1(Amsterdam, april/mei 1972) p. 1-4. ‘HANDS UP!!..racist’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 9 (Amsterdam februari 1973) p. 9-12.52 ‘Nos mester siña di nan !!’ in : Kontakto Antiyano vol. 5 no. 1 (Amsterdam maart/april 1973) p. 1-4. ‘Independensya: Pa ken?’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 3-4 (juli/augustus 1972) p. 1-3.53 Cyril, ‚Antillean Workers‘ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 3 no. 9 (januari 1972) p. 11.‘Reminiscence of the ’51 LAGO-Strike’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 1 (Amsterdam, april/mei 1972) p. 31-36.‘Antillean workers’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 5 no. 1 (Amsterdam maart/april 1973) p. 5-6.

14

Surinam and Surinamese organizations also show up in KA. In December/January, 1973/1974 attention is paid to the National Consultation Body of Surinamese Organizations in the Netherlands (LOSON) and its magazine Wrokoman. In the same issue, the political developments in Suriname are discussed in response to the victory of the National Party Combination in the 1973 elections.54 In December 1971 Frank Booi wrote the article 'Kooperá ku Surnam tambe!' In which he stresses that it should not be forgotten that Surinamese and Antilleans are fighting the same battle against imperialism. Booi is also very impressed by the work 'Wij slaven van Suriname' by Anton de Kom and discusses a few passages.55 Anton de Kom returns in the article about the Anton de Kom month that was held in February 1973 by various Surinamese organizations. There is also a demonstrable exchange with the editors of Surinamese magazine Opo Kondreman and the SSU. In April / May 1972 the editorial staff of KA published a Papiamentu translation of a Dutch article about the Guyana from the OK of February 1972. In 1972, KA published a 'Kommunike' that was drawn up in The Hague on 30 March 1972, in response to the 'secret' deliberations of the Kingdom Commission concerning the future status of the two colonies overseas. In this communiqué, some twenty Surinamese and Antillean (student) organizations demand the full sovereignty of Suriname and the Antilles and reparations for three centuries of economic exploitation and disruption of the Antilles and Suriname.56

KA was in close contact with the Antillean organizations and associations in the Netherlands. In each issue of the magazine, the section 'Informashon' provided them with space to make announcements and share important information. KA attempted to give a complete 'topographic inventory of Antillean organizations in the Netherlands' in the summer of 1972. On a map of the Netherlands, they showed the locations of 26 Antillean organizations in this issue.57

Conclusion

In this article, three decades of Antillean and Surinamese student journals were discussed. For this text a selection had to be made and not all journals were included. A number of clear differences and similarities have emerged between Antillean and Surinamese students (journals). In the 1950s we see that Antillean and Surinamese students work together. We see

‘Kon barata Reynolds lo kumpra Aruba??’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 5 no. 1 (Amsterdam maart/april 1973) p. 23-25.54 ‘Na de Verkiezingen’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 5 no. 8/9 (december/januari 1973/1974).55 Frank Booi, ‘Kooperá ku Surnam tambe!’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 3 no. 7-8 (december 1971).56 ‘Kommunike’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 1 (april/mei 1972) p. 21-22. ‘Luna di De Kom tambe ta di nos’ in : Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 9 (Amsterdam februari 1973) p. 1-2. ‘Guyana’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 1 (Amsterdam april/mei 1972) p. 15-17.‘Guyana ons buurland’ in: Opo Kondreman. Orgaan uitgegeven door de Surinaamse Studenten Unie vol. 6 no. 5 (Leiden februari 1972) p. 13-15.57 ‘Staat u er ook bij?’ in: Kontakto Antiyano vol. 4 no. 3-4 (Amsterdam, juli/augustus 1972) p. 13-15.

15

them writing together in the Westindian magazine. They organize joint conferences and appear in front of the radio. They founded similar associations: Wie Eegie Sanie and Circulo Patriotico. In the 1960s we see politicization in the Surinamese and Antillean journals. The students think it's time for radical changes; Kambio even let this come back in the title of the magazine. In this period, the cooperation between the Antilleans and Surinamese seems the least. By the end of the 1960s, radicalization reaches a peak. The students write about global developments. They are anti-imperialistic. Money is collected to build up the motherland. There is not only support for the working class, but there is also cooperation with them. In Opo Kondreman, Watapana and Kontakto Antiyano we see that language remains an important element. We also see here that the Antillean and Surinamese students work together and follow each other's developments closely.

This paper has shown that there is undoubtedly a postcolonial debate among the Antillean and Surinamese students. The question, however, is to what extent these criticisms have ended up with a Dutch audience and to what extent this criticism has ended up outside the intellectual circles at all. The students were busy with systematically exposing the colonial situation. They followed postcolonial debates in other parts of the world and also had international contacts to a limited extent. Already in de West Indier, Antillean and Surinamese students speak out against the consequences of Dutch colonialism, and they continue to do so in Kontakto Antiyano. In the mid-sixties, the students also started to get outside intellectual circles. However, they focus in particular on the country of origin or Antillean and Surinamese migrant groups in the Netherlands. This contributes only slightly to the postcolonial debate that must be waged by the entire Dutch society.

In this study, various possibilities emerged to put the subject in an international perspective. Sociological studies of colonial students, such as those of Betty Sedoc-Dahlberg, have also been carried out in countries such as France and Great Britain. A comparison between these different sociological studies is not yet known to me. Encounters with other colonial students were on visits to international congresses, such as the World Youth Festivals and via Foreign Student Service. Several sources also mention the visits by James Baldwin, Richard Wright, W.E.B. Du Bois, and others to the Antillean and Surinamese students in the Netherlands.

16