trapper manual

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PREFACE

This manual is intended to improve yourknowledge of Minnesotas furbearers and to providethe basic information needed to trap them in aresponsible manner. In the manual is a discussion ofbasic techniques and how to avoid many of the mostcommon trapping mistakes. Trapping is not foreveryone and persons who trap, or who areconsidering trapping, must accept the responsibilitiesthat come with it. The manual will not make anexpert out of anyone and is not intended to.Expertise in trapping comes only with years ofexperience and long hours of thoughtful observationand study. This manual will provide an introductionto the biology and management of Minnesotafurbearers, and to the basics of using that resource

responsibly and safely. It is not intended toencourage or discourage anyone who might want totrap.

Unfortunately, much of the opposition totrapping today is the result of an unknowing publicand irresponsible acts by a few trappers. Althoughthere are some who will oppose trapping no matterhow it is conducted, there is no excuse for the

avoidable abuses resulting from lack of knowledgeby inexperienced and irresponsible trappers, whichserve to inflame public opinion against all trappers.

As fur prices increased in the 1970s and early1980s, so did the number of inexperienced trappers.In 1978, concerned members of the MinnesotaTrappers Association (MTA) in cooperation with theDepartment of Natural Resources (DNR) began astatewide program of voluntary trapper education.That program recognized that many inexperiencedtrappers were sincerely interested in trappingresponsibly, but they lacked any available source ofdirect information.

This manual is intended for use in conjunctionwith the MTA/DNR education program. In addition

to classroom sessions, the program includesequipment demonstrations and practical fieldexperience under the supervision of qualifiedinstructors. Although this manual can be used aloneas a reference or a self-instruction book, it will be ofmost value when used in combination with theeducation course.

OBJECTIVES

Individuals who study this manual andsuccessfully complete the education course will:

1) Have a greater knowledge and appreciationof natural environments and their associated

wildlife;2) Be aware of the history and heritage of

trapping and the fur trade;3) Have a basic understanding of the biology

and management of Minnesota furbearers;4) Be familiar with trapping and wildlife

regulations and their purpose;5) Know how to behave ethically in the

outdoors;6) Understand how to properly prepare,

maintain and use trapping equipment;7) Know the basics of trapping Minnesota

furbearers responsibly and effectively;8) Understand how to properly prepare, care

for, and use or market, fur pelts to realize

the greatest benefit with the least resourcewaste; and

9) Understand the basics of outdoors safety andsurvival.

These are ambitious goals. We cannot stressenough that this manual and the education course areonly a beginning. You are encouraged to check withyour instructor for sources of additional informationand to seek guidance from instructors or otherexperienced trappers at every opportunity. Above all,you will learn by doing. Take the time to analyze thereasons for your successes and failures and alwaysattempt to improve on your methods. No twotrappers do everything the same; they each develop asystem that works for them. The purpose of thismanual is to get you started on the right track in thislearning experience.


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HISTORY OF TRAPPING AND THE FUR

TRADE IN MINNESOTAIn addition to providing a

colorful glimpse of the heritageassociated with trapping inMinnesota, this brief history of thefur trade also provides a valuablelesson in the importance ofconservation principles when dealingwith renewable natural resources.

Trapping and the fur trade werethe most important influences in theearly exploration and settlement ofMinnesota. Although the firstexplorers came seeking a northwestpassage to the Orient and its goldand spices, they found wealth ofanother kind fur. Althoughlumber, minerals, agriculture andindustry would later assume themajor economic importance in whatis now Minnesota, it was fur thatlured the first explorers and tradersinto the wilderness.

In the 1600s as fur resources ineastern North America werebecoming depleted, the explorer-traders advanced westward throughthe Great Lakes, and northward upthe Mississippi River. This first

white men known to travel into whatis now Minnesota were the Frenchfur traders Pierre Radisson and Sieurde Groselliers who came fromQuebec in 1655 to explore and trade.When they returned to Montreal,they told of the riches in fur to befound in the Minnesota country.

Early French trappers andtraders followed the explorers and atfirst were independents, not workingfor any company. They were knownas courier de bois, or bushrangers, and would spend theirwinters in Minnesota and Wisconsintrapping and trading with theIndians. In the spring, they returnedto the Indian village of Mackinac, onthe narrow strait between LakesHuron and Michigan, where theytraded their furs for needed suppliesand trade goods.

By 1700, with the establishmentof French trading posts inMinnesota, the importance of theindependent couriers de bois fadedas fur company employees tradeddirectly with the Indians. The

voyageurs, or travelers, wereFrench Canadians employed by thefur companies to transport furs outof the wilderness and to transportsupplies and trade goods back to thetrading posts. These men wereknown for their stamina andendurance as they paddled andportaged their heavy canoes throughthe wilderness.

In 1731, Sieur de la Verendryearrived at the Grand Portage (at thenortheastern tip of Minnesota) andtraveled the canoe route up thePigeon River, across the border lakes(now the boundary betweenMinnesota and Ontario), and throughLake of the Woods to build Fort St.Charles on the Northwest Angle.Verendrye has been called thefounder of the fur trade in northernMinnesota, Manitoba andSaskatchewan. The posts heestablished extended the fur tradenorth and west to the Saskatchewanand Missouri Rivers.

This 1827 engraving of the American Fur Companys post at Fond du Lac is reproduced by permission of the Minnesota

Historical Society


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By the mid-1700s competitionbetween the French and British furcompanies was intense. The Britishgained control over the fur tradewhen France lost the French andIndian War to Great Britain in 1763.Although Montreal (Northwest FurCompany) and Hudson Bay(Hudsons Bay Company) were thecenters of the fur trade at that time,Grand Portage was an importanttrade center. In the spring, smallercanoes loaded with furs from thenorthwest outposts in northernMinnesota, Manitoba andSaskatchewan (and later Alberta),traveled southeast through the borderlakes.

At the same time larger freightercanoes loaded with trade goods and

supplies from Montreal headed upthe St. Lawrence and Ottawa Riversto North Bay and then across thetops of Lakes Huron and Superior.They met at Grand Portage. Thetraders and voyagers celebrated for afew days, exchanged their cargoes,and then made the return trips. Timewas very important because thesereturn trips had to be completedprior to freeze-up in the fall.

Although most of what is nowMinnesota became part of the UnitedStates after the Revolutionary War,the British continued trading hereuntil after the War of 1812. TheNorthwest Companys Pine City furtrading post was built in 1804. The

American Fur Company wasfounded by John Jacob Astor in1811 and it began trading inMinnesota. In 1816, Congresspassed an Act prohibiting foreignersfrom engaging in fur trade in theUnited States, giving the AmericanFur Company a monopoly on theMinnesota fur trade.

Fort Snelling was built at theconfluence of the Mississippi and theMinnesota Rivers in 1819, partiallyto protect the fur trade. At that time,the town of Mendota, just across theriver from the Fort, was the majorfur-trading center in Minnesota.

By 1820, there were alreadysigns that the beaver population in

Minnesota was being seriouslydepleted. Although disease, forestfires and even wolverines wereblamed for the decline, there is little

doubt that the unregulated harvestspurred by intense competitionbetween companies, was primarilyresponsible. The heyday of the furtrade in Minnesota was near an end,and trappers and traders beganconcentrating their efforts in theWest, where some areas of theRocky Mountains still containedabundant beaver populations.

By 1842, the era of themountain man ended when the furtrade collapsed with the demise ofthe American Fur Company. Silkhats had become the fashion,replacing those made from beaverfelt. By this time beaver populationshad been greatly depleted throughoutmost of their range in the UnitedStates.

Although we most often thinkof trapping and steel traps inconnection with the fur trade era, avariety of methods were used. Steeltraps had been invented in 15

th or16th century Europe, and they wereused in the 17th and 18th

It would be easy to blame thedemise of beaver and other speciesof fur bearers on simple greed, butthe intense competition, the lack of aconservation ethic and the lack ofregulations all contributed. Someefforts were made to curb thedecline, but they were too little andtoo late. In the Mid 1820s, HudsonsBay Company officials convincedthe Indians in the Rainy Lake area toprotect the beaver, but Indians fromanother region came in and took thebeaver from the resting lodges.

The effect of this competitive andunregulated taking was made evenworse because the beaver fur wasused primarily for the making of felt,

and there was little concern abouttaking prime pelts. Beaver were thustrapped year around.

centuryNorth America fur trade. But thesetraps were expensive and in limitedsupply. The early trappers and theIndians used any means at theirdisposal to capture beaver and otherfurbearers. These included shooting,netting, spearing, snaring, deadfalls,using dogs and even draining ofponds and the destruction of densand lodges. It was not until 1823,near the end of the fur trade era, that

Sewell Newhouse perfected themaking of steel traps withinterchangeable parts thus makingmass manufacture possible.

In the latter half of the 19th

The first organized attempts atfurbearer management in Minnesotadate back to 1867, when the statelegislature closed the mink, muskratand otter seasons from May throughmid-November. In later years,seasons were closed entirely for anumber of species. In 1931, theMinnesota department of

Conservation was formed (now theDepartment of Natural Resources) tomanage the states natural resources.

century habitat changes caused bylogging, uncontrolled fires,agricultural development anddrainage along with continuedtrapping and hunting by the newsettlers, further contributed to thedecline of some furbearer species.

Furbearer harvests are nowmanaged through regulations andhabitat is protected and managed forfurbearers and many other wildlifespecies. Populations of mostMinnesota furbearers have recovereddramatically since the turn of thecentury, and no species is beingthreatened by over-harvest.

Minnesota trappers and hunterstoday take an annual harvest offurbearers, which is probably as highor higher than the average takeduring the fur trade era. Thedifference is that modern harvests

are managed on a sustained-yieldbasis, which can be continuedindefinitely, provided the habitatbase remains.


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MOTIVATIONSThere are a number of reasons

why people trap. For some it ismainly for money or out of a need toreduce wildlife damage, but for mosttrappers it is primarily for other lesstangible reasons. Several recentstudies, done in various parts of thecountry, have consistently shown thatmost trappers rate values such asnature enjoyment, challenge andrecreation above economic gain asreasons why they trap. Some of themotivations behind why peopletrapped are discussed in more detailbelow.

Economics. Although monetaryreturn is important to most trappers,those individuals who begin trapping

because they think it will be an easyway to make a fast buck soon findout otherwise. If the average trappertook his annual earnings, subtractedthe costs of traps, equipment andtransportation, and then divided theremainder by the number of hoursspent obtaining permission, scouting,preparing equipment, setting andchecking traps and handling andselling the fur; he would realize justhow low his hourly earnings reallyare. But for most, that doesntmatter. The attraction of trappinggoes far beyond the dollars earned.

Challenge and Recreation.Trappers, of necessity, must learn therequirements and habits of theanimals they seek in great detail. Arecent national survey found that

trappers were among the mostknowledgeable groups about wildlife,

and were also among the most

concerned for the preservation of

wildlife habitats.Not only does trapping require

detailed knowledge of animals, but italso involves long hours, physicallabor and the need to be out everyday, no matter what the weather. Atypical day on the trapline, even forpart-timers, begins before daylightwith trap checking and resetting, anddoes not end until well after darkwhen all furs have been properlytaken care of and equipment isprepared for another day. Successfultrapping is far more difficult than

many people realize. Fox trappers,for example, typically average onlyabout one fox per 100 trap nights (atrap night is one trap set for onenight). It sounds like hard work andit is; yet to those who understand andappreciate trapping, nothing is moresatisfying. If you lack the motivationand perseverance to do the workinvolved, day after day, regardless ofthe weather, then you shouldconsider taking another activity thatrequires less discipline.

Aesthetics and Heritage. Someof the motivations for trapping aredifficult to express, but are animmeasurable part of the experience.For some trappers, it is theknowledge that they are practicing askill, which dates back to the time of

their forefathers. For others, it isseeing the changing moods of nature experiencing frosty sunrises andglorious sunsets far removed fromthe rush of everyday life. There isalso a feeling of satisfaction andaccomplishment that comes frombeing able to identify animal sign at aglance, and to interpret what is seenwith a fair degree of accuracy.

Damage Control. Some peopletrap not so much because they wantto as because they have to.Landowners and livestock producersoften fall into this category.Although there are some methods ofpreventing or reducing wildlifedamage that do not involve removal

of animals, the fact remains that theonly practical solution to manyproblems is removing the animalsthat are causing it. Trapping remainsthe single most versatile andeffective tool for removing manytypes of problem animals.

Responsibility. No matter whatyour motivation for wanting to trap,we want to stress that you shouldnever set a single trap unless you arewilling to learn how and where to setit correctly and unless you are willingto check it promptly and regularly asrequired by law. There is no room inthe ranks of trappers for those whoare unwilling to accept thatresponsibility, or who are unwillingto respect and study the animals theyseek.


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ETHICS AND RESPONSIBILITY

Key ingredients for trappers who care about their sport

Many people view trappingand the use of fur ascontroversial issues. Much ofthis controversy stems frommisinformation andmisunderstanding on both sides.As trappers, we know that oursport is a legitimate use of anatural renewable resource, butwe often have trouble puttingthis in terms that nontrappers

can understand or appreciate.Few of us are accomplishedpublic speakers or trained inpublic relations. Nevertheless,we communicate a messageabout our sport and aboutourselves every time wemention that were trappers.

Demonstrating ethics andresponsibility while trappingsends many positive messagesthat nontrappers understand andappreciate more than anyexplanation. These values areunderstood universally and dontrequire extra time or specialtraining. Yet they tell peoplethat were proud to be trappers,we care about our sport and wecare about the resource wereusing.

You are your brothers keeper.

Your actions reflect either credit

or discredit on the thousands of

others who run traplines in

Minnesota and across the

nation.

Maintain Good Landowner

Relations

Obtaining permission to trapis more than the law. Its anopportunity to earn respect byrespecting landowners and theirproperty. Be polite andpresentable while asking forpermission. If its granted, take

time to make sure you knowwhere the property lines are sothat neighbors rights are upheldas well.

Ask the landowner or tenantif theyve noticed damage orother problems caused byfurbearers. Chances are that ifyoure taking time to askpermission from a particularlandowner, the property has

good habitat and high furbearerpopulations. Asking aboutdamage will help to reinforcethe point that trapping providesa service by reducing furbearerpopulations and the problemsthey can cause. By the sametoken, dont promise more thanyou can deliver.

As always, practice commonsense and courtesy by leavinggates the way you found them,walking or using a four-wheelerwhen fields and field roads aretoo wet to drive, and avoidingsets that might result innontarget catches.

Many trappers send a shortthank-you note to landownersand tenants. A holiday greetingcard can mean a lot as well.Offering to help with a chore ordropping off a pheasant or somevenison will do more than wordscan express.

Respect Other Outdoor

EnthusiastsAutumn and winter are a

popular time for many outdooractivities like hunting, hiking,bird watching and cross countryskiing. Taking the time to findout which activities are likely totake place on an area youre

trapping is the first step inavoiding any misunderstandingsbetween you, the landowner andothers sharing his property.

Most activities arecompatible with trapping anddont require further thought. Ifan area receives allot of huntingpressure, you can time your useof a property to avoid peaktimes that hunters tend to chooselike opening weekends andholidays. If this isnt practical,use the most selective traps andtrapping techniques to reduce

the chances of a non-targetcatch. Doing so will improveyour skills, image andsatisfaction.

Keep Familiar with

Improvements in Trapping

Equipment and Techniques

Nearly all trappers havelooked for better ways to do thesame job. While this usuallyinvolves years of refinement anda realization that simplemethods often work best, newdevelopments in equipment andmethods often have a place inspecific applications or evenbroader use.

Body-gripping traps likeConibears are a good example.Many trappers considered themgadgets when they were firstmade available. Today theyform the backbone of themuskrat and beaver trappingindustry.

Improving efficiency,selectivity and humaneness isnta new idea for the trappingindustry. Many time-honoredtechniques addressed thessconcerns about trapping.However, research anddevelopment are occurring at afaster pace today and require

more effort to keep abreast ofstate-of-the-art developments inequipment and methods.


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Keeping up-to-date with newdevelopments is easier todaythan it was in the past. Somesources are: trapper magazinesand newsletters, presentations attrapping conventions,instructional books and videos,and contact with other trappersat fur sales and conventions.

Some methods for improving

efficiency, selectivity and

humaneness

Use pan tension devices to avoidnon-target catches

Use extra swivels and center-mounted chains to hold moreanimals and reduce the chanceof injuries

Use modern positioningtechniques at dirt hole sets toincrease selectivity

Use short trap chains for mostland sets, especially thosetargeted for fox and coyote

Use guarded or stop-loss trapsfor muskrats in shallow water ordry land sets

Use dispatching methods thatare quick and humane

Use trap sizes that areappropriate for the target species pad catches are desirable forfox, coyote, raccoon and many

other animals because theycause fewer injuries

Use baits and lures that attracttarget species but not otheranimals

Use cage, box or species-specific traps near barns,outbuildings and other locationswhere domestic animals may bepresent

Use common sense in choosingset locations that maximizeopportunities to catch targetspecies and minimizeopportunities to catch otheranimals

Use secure methods of attachingtraps tailor methods to holdthe largest species you maycatch

Use traps with padded orlaminated jaws where the risk ofnon-target catches is high

Use discretion when settingbody-gripping traps

Use time to your advantage dont set more traps than youcan handle

Use early morning trap checksto reduce the time an animal isheld, reduce its chances ofescape and avoid theft of trapsand animals

Appreciate Perceptions ofNontrappers

Trappers who act responsiblyand ethically dont haveanything to hide. However, theyneed to appreciate the fact thatmost people know little ornothing about trapping.

Differences in backgrounds,cultures and experience cancause misinterpretation of yourwords, deeds and actions. Keepthis in mind whencommunicating withnontrappers. Put yourself intheir place if you want an honestevaluation of how youreportraying your sport. Make an

effort to communicate on theirlevel. Above all, remember thathigh standards of ethics andresponsibility form a messagethat cant be mistaken.

Always play the game fairly.

Your sense of accomplishment

and pride in your success will be

all the greater

Respect the ResourceEthical trappers respect the

resource they use. Part of thisinvolves making the most ofyour catch. Follow proper pelthandling procedures and take

pride in your work at all times.Look for secondary markets forcarcasses, castor and other by-products for baits and lureswhen possible. If not, disposeof them properly.

Wildlife laws are designed toconserve our fur resources whileallowing for responsible use.Become familiar with and obeyall regulations. Reportviolations to a ConservationOfficer. Violators are stealingfrom trappers and nontrappersalike, as well as giving the sporta bad name.

ConclusionYou may be the only trapper

that many people will ever

know. Leave them with a goldimpression by upholding highstandards of ethics andresponsibility in your words,deeds and actions. Be proud tobe a trapper and a goodrepresentative for others whoenjoy the sport.

Trappings rewards are great,

not only in the harvest of fur, but

in the very special satisfaction

gained from time spent afield.

Accept your share with gratitude

and dont waste a precious gift

Maintain GoodLandowner Relations

Respect Other OutdoorEnthusiasts

Keep Familiar withImprovements in

Trapping Equipment and

Techniques

Respect the Resource

Identify and record alltrap locations accurately

Pick up all traps as soonas you are finished

trapping

Cooperate with wildlifemanagement agencies


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FURBEARER MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

Furbearing mammals, like allother species of animals, aredependent on having adequate food,water, shelter and living space if theyare to survive. These basic life needsare commonly referred to ashabitat.Any given amount of habitat willonly support a certain number ofanimals. The number of animals thatthe habitat is capable of supportingon a year-around basis is called

carrying capacity.The carrying capacity depends

on the quantity, quality andarrangement of habitat factors, aswell as on the amount of crowdingthat the animal will tolerate. The

ability of the habitat to supportanimals varies with the seasons, andreaches a low in late winter inMinnesota. At that time, lack ofadequate food, shelter or otherresources can become a limiting

factor, which sets the upper limit onthe number of animals that cansurvive. For example, a marsh mayhave enough of everything to support1,000 muskrats in the summer andfall, but in the winter there may beonly enough food or deep enoughwater for 200. That means that theyear-around capacity is 200 and thatthe remaining 800 will die orpossiblydisperse (move out).However, even most of the dispersers

will ultimately die.Carrying capacity can be

compared to the volume of a bucket.When the bucket (habitat) has beenfilled, adding more to it simplywastes what is added. That is whymost stocking programs fail. As theseasons progress and food and shelterbecome more limiting, the populationis forced into a smaller and smallerhabitat bucket. Since this smallerbucket cannot support as manyanimals, the excess must die, oneway or another, or attempt to move

and find unfilled buckets. Theonly way to bring about a long-termincrease in the population is toincrease the size of the bucket(improve the quantity or quality ofhabitat).

Because the chances of survivalin the wild are uncertain, nature has

provided most species of animalswith the ability to produce far moreyoung than are needed to maintainthe population. This is natures wayof assuring that enough animalssurvive to replenish the breedingpopulation and to disperse intoavailable habitats. A portion of thisexcess, called theharvestable

surplus, is the amount that can betaken by people, without reducing thebreeding population. This is possiblebecause the trapping or huntingmortality (deaths) replaces orcompensates for some of the naturalmortality that would otherwise occur.

This harvestable surplus can becompared to the interest from asavings account. The interest(harvestable surplus) can be usedeach year without reducing theprincipal (breeding population).By adjusting the number of animalsremoved (for example, by seasons orlimits) the population can be allowedto increase, decrease or remain

stable. Use of the surplus providesrecreation, income, products, foodand employment, without depletingthe population. The populationremains to provide ecological,aesthetic and recreational values, andto produce the next years surplus.

Sometimes the best managementplan requires that a population beheld below its carrying capacity, forexample to prevent excessive wildlifedamage. Also, managementattempts to maintain levels above thecarrying capacity of the habitat areinvitations to environmentalproblems, disease and resourcewaste. Wildlife cannot be stockpiled.

Some species of furbearers canbe safely harvested at a higher ratethan others. It is nearly impossible toovertrap a prolific furbearer like themuskrat, which breeds at a young ageand has multiple, large littersannually. Muskrat populationstypically experience a 70 to 90percent turnover, whether they areharvested or not. Normally, up to 70percent of the muskrats present in thefall can be harvested without adetrimental population effect.Practically speaking, except on smallareas of restricted habitat, this 70percent level is difficult to achieveand overtrapping very seldom occurs.On the other hand, for an animal like

the fisher which does not reproduceuntil two years of age and which hasonly one small litter per year, aharvest rate of about 20 percentmight be the maximum that could besafely allowed. Wildlife managersmust take into account not only thebiology andpopulation dynamics ofthe species, but also the amount ofharvest pressure and how vulnerablethe species is to being caught. Furprices, trapping and hunting licensesales, accessibility of the habitat, andeffectiveness of the harvest methodsmust all be considered whenmanaging some furbearer species.


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FURBEARER MANAGEMENT INMINNESOTAThe Department of Natural

Resources manages Minnesotasfurbearer resources for the benefit ofthe citizens of the state. TheDepartment recognizes thatfurbearers have a variety ofecological, recreational, economicand aesthetic values, and that thosevalues can be positive or negative.Also, since values are determined bypeople, not nature, the same animalcan have a wide range of valuesdepending on the time, the place, andwho is being affected by it.

The goal of management is to

maintain a productive harmonybetween people and furbearer

resources for present and futuregenerations of Minnesotans. Thisgoal is accomplished by maintaininghabitats and controlling harvest sothat harvestable surpluses can beutilized, consistent with habitatdisease, wildlife damage, and thedesires and tolerances of people.

In order to responsibly managefurbearers, the Department monitorsfurbearer populations and harvests,sets regulations, maintains habitats,and enforces laws related tofurbearers.

Seasons. Seasons are based firstof all on their population impacts.No season, which would bedetrimental to the survival of aspecies in the state, is permitted.Once that biological requirement ismet, further decisions are basedprimarily on the concerns of peoplewho use, value or are affected by theresource. Recreational opportunity,fur primeness, damage problems,landowner concerns, non-harvestvalues, disease problems and all

other factors enter into thesedecisions, and opportunities forpublic input are provided.

Surveys. Harvest and fur pricesurveys are conducted for all speciesof furbearers in Minnesota. Inaddition, relative changes inpopulation densities are monitored byscent-post surveys for landcarnivores and by aerial surveys forbeaver. For species, which arehighly sensitive, exact figures aredetermined through pelt registration.For those species, carcasses are alsocollected from trappers and

information on sex ratios, ages andproductivity is used to model theirpopulations with the aid of acomputer. A number of specialsurveys are also conducted each yearto evaluate particular areas ofconcern.

Habitat. Although furbearersare often not the highest priority inmany habitat management programs,the fact remains that furbearinganimals are primary beneficiaries ofmany of these practices. This isparticularly true of wetland areas,which are prime habitat for muskrat,mink, beaver, raccoons, foxes andother furbearers. In fact, furbearersoften do so well on these areas thatconflicts develop with managementfor other species such as waterfowl.Forest management practices alsoinfluence furbearer populations, withsome species favoring earlysuccessional stages and othersfavoring later stages.

Enforcement. MinnesotaConservation Officers enforce thelaws relating to furbearers in all 87counties of the state. Of course they

have many more duties in addition tothe furbearer regulations, but they arealways interested in and concernedabout situations where violations areoccurring. It is important, however,for trappers to police their own ranksand to help enforcement officers byreporting violators. People who takefurbearers illegally are stealing fromthe honest citizens of the state.

Conservation and TraplineManagement. Furbearer regulationsare established for the entire state, orfor large regions of the state,depending on the species.

Conditions vary within such largeareas and it is up to the trapper topractice conservation on his owntrapline and to attempt to take only aportion of the surplus. This soundssimple, but is actually quitecomplicated because in many areas anumber of trappers and hunters arecompeting for the same resource onthe same area. Fortunately, trappingand hunting tend to be self-limitingfor many species. The time andeffort required to take these animalsexceeds the benefit long before theyare reduced to critically low levels.For other species which are not soresilient, regulations have to becorrespondingly more restrictive.

On areas where trappers haveexclusive or near-exclusive trappingprivileges, individual traplinemanagement is much more feasible.On these areas the trapper canmanage not only the harvest, but inmany cases the habitat as well. Bydoing so he can be assured of havinga relatively high-sustained harvestyear after year.


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MINNESOTAS FURBEARER RESOURCEMinnesota is blessed with a rich

and diverse furbearer resource.Because of Minnesotas geographicposition, the state has furbearersrepresentative of both northern andsouthern climates, and of prairies(and agricultural areas) and forests.

Minnesotas furbearer resourcehas a variety of positive values totrappers, hunters, landowners,campers, photographers and otheroutdoor users. Over the years, theeconomic value of the fur resource toMinnesota trappers and hunters hasbeen from $3 million to $20 millionannually. The other values are moredifficult to measure. There is no

doubt that the presence of beaver,otter, wolves and other animals addsimmeasurably to the aesthetic value

of outdoor experiences for manypeople.

Furbearers also sometimes havenegative values such as predation onlivestock by foxes or coyotes;destruction of sweet corn byraccoons; and flooding of roads,fields or forests by beaver. Althoughthe positive values of furbearingmammals far exceed their moredetrimental aspects, the damage thatthey cause costs hundreds ofthousands of dollars annually inMinnesota. Trapping is the singlemost effective, safe and importanttool for resolving these situations.Because the people who most benefit

economically from furbearers trappers and hunters are not oftenthe ones bearing the burden of the

costs livestock producers andfarmers it is in the best interest oftrappers and hunters to provideassistance with wildlife damageproblems whenever possible.

In addition to the values thatpeople place on furbearers, allwildlife species have a function innature. The ecological influences ofthese animals vary, and whether theirinfluence is beneficial ordetrimental depends solely on theperspectives of people, and not allpeople agree. Nearly everyone doesagree, however, that all species ofnative wildlife do have a place in theMinnesota wildlife community. We

all have a responsibility to wiselymanage those species so that they canbe perpetuated.

OPOSSUM(Didelphis virginiana)

Description:An adult opossum is about the

size of a large house cat, andresembles a cream to gray colored ratwith a pointed snout and a long,naked tail. The gray color is fromthe white guard hairs over black-tipped under-fur. The ears and tailare naked, and the ears are black atthe base and lighter at the tips. Thefemale has a fur-lined pouch on thebelly, similar to that of a kangaroo.The tail is prehensile and can be usedto grasp branches or other objects.

Biology:The opossum is the only North

American marsupial, and breeds inearly spring. After a gestation period(length of pregnancy) of only 13days, the partially developed young

are born and crawl up the belly toteats in their mothers pouch, wherethey attach and remain for about twomonths. About nine young surviveand by three months of age they canleave the pouch for short periods oftime. Some will ride on the femalesback by clinging to her fur, whileothers remain in the pouch. Theyoung become independent at aboutfour months of age.

Opossums have a looselydefined territory. Some confine their

movements to 40 acres while otherstravel constantly. They are primarilynocturnal (active at night), and spendthe day in a hollow tree, hollow log,brush pile, squirrels nest or other drysafe place. Opossums will eat almostanything, including carrion, insects,fruit, small mammals, birds(including poultry), and many otheritems. They are often attracted toroadsides where they feed on road-killed animals, including otheropossums. Having a relatively smallbrain, dominated by the olfactory(smell) regions, they are easilyattracted by sweet or foul odors.

Habitat:Opossum are found primarily in

the woodlots of southern Minnesota.The range map depicts only well

established populations and pioneersmay exist in low numbers in mostnorthern counties. The susceptibilityof their ears, nose and tail to frostbiteapparently limits them fromspreading farther north. Virtually all-adult opossums in Minnesota willhave evidence of frostbite on theirears and tails. Areas of mixedwoodland, brushland and croplandare good opossum habitat.

Sign:Opossum tracks are distinctive

especially the widely angled bigtoe of the hind foot. Opossumdroppings though, are not distinctiveand vary according to the type offood eaten.


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OPOSSUM. Continued

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Cubby, LivetrapTraps or trapping systems:

Small or medium doublespring body-gripping traps (#120, #220 orequivalent) in cubby or slotted box,livetraps 9 x 9 x 30 or larger.

Lures and baits: Almost anystrong-smelling food lure or bait willattract opossums, including taintedmeat, fruit or fish.

MUSKRAT(Ondrata zibethica)

Description:The muskrat is a rodent closely

related to the field mouse, andresembles it except for size.Muskrats weigh from one to threepounds, are dark brown in color, andhave a long, naked tail, which isflattened vertically. The muskratssmall front feet are used for holdingvegetation, and its large hind feet areused in swimming. The hind feet areunwebbed but the toes are fringedwith closely spaced stiff hairs, whichhelp to propel it through the water.The muskrat swims with its head,rump and tail exposed above thesurface of the water.

Biology:Muskrats are very prolific and

may breed from April to September.A female usually has two or threelitters per year, averaging six to eightyoung per litter. The gestationperiod is about 30 days and the firstlitters are born in May, about onemonth after ice-out. Young muskratsare on their own in three to fourweeks, and then usually establishterritories 10 to 60 yards from theirmothers den. Sometimes they travelseveral miles to find suitable habitatthat is not occupied by anothermuskrat. Except in rare instances,

young muskrats do not reachreproductive maturity until the springfollowing their birth.

Muskrats construct a den eitherin the bank or in a lodge, which theybuild in the water. When the den ison land, the muskrat may dig severalchambers, with the burrow entrancebelow the water level. In periods oflow water, it digs a tunnel or trenchto provide access from the den todeep water. The lodge is built frommud and aquatic plants such as cattailor bulrush, and is usually two orthree feet high and four to six feetacross. There is normally one drynest chamber dug out near the centerof the house with two underwater

entrances or plunge holes.Sometimes several nest chamberswill be constructed in a single large

lodge. The greatest lodge-buildingactivity is in late summer and fall. Inforested areas, muskrats do notnormally build their own lodge, butconstruct a den in the side of anactive beaver lodge. This den is aseparate chamber from the one usedby the beaver.

Feeding platforms may resemble

small lodges, but actually are looserafts of vegetation where muskratscan crawl out of the water and feed.In winter, muskrats often constructpush-ups, which are hollow frozenshells of submergent vegetationconstructed over a hole in the ice.These have no connection with thebottom substrate and are usuallyconstructed near the lodges.

During the fall, there is someoverland movement of muskrats,primarily due to the drying up ofshallow ponds, which forces themuskrats to look for larger wetlands,which still contain water. The large-scale movement in the spring, justafter ice-out, is related to the onset of

breeding activity. At this time,muskrats establish territories, whichthey defend by fighting off othermuskrats. Fighting may also occur iffood is scarce or population levelsare very high. But, for most of theyear, there is little fighting and anumber of muskrats share the sameden.

Muskrats occupy a small area,ranging only 100 to 200 feet fromtheir den. They are creatures of habitand use the same trails, feedingplatforms and toilet stations over andover. They are primarily vegetarians,eating the roots, shoots, stems,leaves, tubers and bulbs of aquaticplants, and other plants near the

waters edge. Cattails probably rankfirst as a food item in Minnesota.The muskrats diet may also be


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Muskrats construct a variety of structures. Push-ups are made

only after freeze up. Bank dens are used extensively in spring and

summer or, in some areas, year-around. Houses are built in the falland are used from then until spring, with less use in summer.

supplemented with clams, snails,crayfish, fish, frogs and even thecarcasses of other muskrats,especially in winter or whenvegetation is scarce. In forestedareas, muskrats will eat the bark ofpencil-sized twigs obtained frombeaver food caches in winter.

Habitat:Muskrats are almost entirely

aquatic and are found in marshes,streams, lakes, ditches and ponds wherever there is enough food andwater to support them. Areas withextensive stands of cattail arepreferred, although bulrush, sedge,arrowhead and wild rice stands baybe used to a lesser degree. The watermust be deep enough not to freeze to

the bottom (usually at least 2 to 3feet).

Sign:Muskrat sign is, of course, most

often found near water. In marshes,the presence of muskrats is usuallyindicated by the occurrence ofscattered dome-shaped lodges. Insome areas, where muskrats

primarily use bank dens, the burrowsare not obvious and it is necessary tolook for other signs of their presence.Evidence of feeding such as pieces ofplants floating in the water and thepresence of runs and channelsthrough vegetation are indications ofmuskrat activity. The small hand-like prints of the front feet and themore elongated hind feet, both withlong toes, are also fairly distinctive.The small brown pellet-likedroppings are about one-half inchlong and often found in feeding areasand on logs or rocks protruding fromthe water.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Feedbed, Trail, Bank

Hole, Channel or Runway, FloatingRecommended traps or

trapping systems: Conibear #110 or

#120 (or equivalent), #1 foothold(standard) or #1 or # 1 guarded(stop-loss) in shallow water orheavy vegetation areas.

Lures and baits: Usually notnecessary for muskrats. Apple slices,carrots or corn are effective baits.

Comments: Muskrat trapsshould be staked in deep water andthe heavier more durable #1 foothold used to make the set. Theweight of this trap is sufficient todrown a muskrat so no slide wire andlock is necessary in deep water. Ifthe vegetation is such that a trappedmuskrat may become entangles, or ifthe water is shallow, the guardedtype or body-gripping traps should beused.


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BEAVER(Castor canadensis)

Description:The beaver is the largest rodent

found in North America, with adultscommonly weighing 40 to 50 poundsand rarely reaching 70 or 80 poundsor more. It is highly adapted foraquatic life having large, webbedhind feet, and nostrils and earsconstructed with valves to keep waterout when the animal submerges. Thesecond claw on each hind foot is splitlengthwise and is used like a combfor grooming and to coat the fur withoil from its large oil glands. The furvaries from pale brown to almostblack, is very dense and, whengroomed with oil, will not soakthrough for several hours. The tail isvery large, scaled and horizontallyflattened, resembling a paddle.Beaver swim by propellingthemselves with their hind feetfolded back against their body, andwith only their head exposed abovethe surface of the water.

Biology:Beaver usually live as a family

group. The colony usually consistsof the adult pair and their young ofthe year (kits), plus the young of theprevious year (yearlings) . Breedingoccurs in the den in late January orFebruary, and an average of five kits

are born in May or June after agestation period of 110 days.Normally only one female per colonygives birth, although there have beena few instances where two adultfemales captured under the ice in thesame pond were observed to bepregnant. In the spring, before theyoung are born, the two-year-oldbeaver are normally forced from thecolony to disperse and establish theirown colony. It is these travelersthat can be captured quite easilyusing scent mound sets in the earlyspring along larger streams. Themovement continues into earlysummer. Some older beaver,referred to as bachelors, live alone

and do not have a dam.

Beaver are one of the fewanimals capable of manipulating theirenvironment. They build dams onstreams and small flowages to createa pond with a stable water level. Thedam is constructed of sticks and mud,mixed with a few rocks if available.

The upstream or pond, side issmoothly plastered with mud.Contrary to popular belief, the beaverdoes not use its tail as a trowel toapply mud to the dam. It servesprimarily as a support while cuttingtrees and as a rudder whileswimming. All members of thefamily, except kits, help keep thedam in repair. A lodge, or house,varying in size from 6 to 40 feet indiameter depending on the number ofbeaver in the colony, is built ofsticks, tree limbs and mud, andcontains a nest chamber, which hasits entrance under water. Burrowsare often dug into the banks of thepond and used as resting areas.

When suitable banks are present,such as on large rivers or drainageditches, beaver will not build a lodge,but will construct a bank den instead.

The entrance to the den is underwater and the tunnel leading to itmay be 12 to 15 feet long.

In the spring and summer, beaverfeed mainly on small twigs andaquatic plants such as a water lily,cattail roots, sedges and on corn

stalks or other terrestrial plants foundnear the waters edge. Beginning inlate August, tree and brush cuttingactivity increases dramatically, and afood pile, or cache, is constructednear the lodge by anchoringbranches, shrubs and small trees inthe bottom of the pond. This activitypeaks at the time of leaf fall. Thiscache, which usually consists ofaspen, alder, willow, and birch,provides the green bark which servesas the late fall and winter foodsupply.

Beaver are very territorial andforce away any beaver, which doesnot belong to the colony. The adultsmark their territory by creating scent

mounds, or mud pies, on the bankor dam and depositing their scent, orcastor, on these mounds.

Beaver can be found along anybody of water that is deep enough forconstruction of a lodge or bank den,or any water flowage that can bedammed to create suitable waterconditions. Because of theirtendency to dam narrow flowages,they often create problems and causeconsiderable damage by blockingroad culverts, drainage ditches orstreams flowing through pastures.When they dam the outlet of certainlakes, the lake levels may beincreased 1 to 2 feet causingflooding of docks, boat houses, the


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BEAVER, Continued

killing of trees adjacent to shore, andthe killing of wild rice beds.

Sign:Beaver cuttings and construction

activities (dams, lodges, floodedareas, food piles) are the mostobvious signs of their presence. Thelarge, webbed hind foot track is alsoquite distinctive and can be foundalong the dam or at the base of slidesor runways where the animals enteror leave the water to fell trees anddrag brush.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Scent-mound, Den

Opening, Open-Water and Under-IceBait, Runway, Spillway, Channel andSnare Sets.

Recommended traps andtrapping systems: Large body-gripping traps (#330 Conibear or

equivalent) in water sets only, foothold traps #3, #4, #5 or 750s andslide locks, snares.

Lures and Baits: Commerciallures or beaver castor are goodattractants, particularly in the spring.The castor is scraped from the castorgland of a previously trapped beaver,and mixed with mineral oil toprovide a thick liquid solution. Freshaspen (popple) twigs or branchesmake good bait, especially in thewinter under the ice.

Comments: Open watertechniques generally are blind sets inrunways or channels or utilize castorscent or bait. Foothold traps are setan inch or two under the water and alittle off-center if a front foot catch isdesired. Traps should be set a littlefarther way and in 8 to 10 inches ofwater if a rear-foot catch is desired.Traps no smaller than #4 or #14should be used when using the rearfoot technique.

All open water trapping donewith foothold trapsmust utilizedrowning wires and sliding locks.Anchor the bottom of the wire in atleast 3 feet of water with a largerock, a sack full of rocks, or a similarheavy object, or fasten the drowningwire to a long pole and jab it firmlyinto the mud. Do not underestimatethe strength of a beaver. A 40-poundbeaver is quite capable of dragging a15 or 20 pound weight out of 3 feetof water. Use plenty of weight to

anchor the drowning wire.In open water situations where

adequate water is not available fordrowning, some trappers use largebody-gripping traps almostexclusively since snapped traps andwring-offs are virtually eliminated.Trap-shy beaver are less likely to becaptured using the body-grippingtrap, however, since in many sets apart of the trap must protrude abovethe water. It is also more difficult tohide these traps from othertrappers.

Under-ice techniques generallyutilize bait or are blind sets made inden entrances or channels. Afoothold trap sent on the bottom ofthe pond near a vertically placed,green aspen pole usually catches thebeaver by the hind foot. A foothold

trap placed on a platform fastened toa dead pole, and situated a foot ortwo below the ice usually catches thebeaver by the front foot. This set isbaited with a green aspen branchattached to the pole immediatelyabove the trap.


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RACCOON(Procyan lotor)

Description:Raccoon are well-known for their

distinctive black mask and ringedbushy tail. Their coat has a grizzledappearance, with overall colorranging from gray to chocolatebrown. The average adult weighs 15to 25 pounds, with occasional largeanimals reaching as much as 35pounds.

Biology:Raccoon breed from February 20

April with a gestation period of aboutnine weeks. An average of two to sixyoung are born in a hollow tree, logor other protected den. The youngremain with the female until fall andmay den with her through the winter.Normally, a raccoon may range oneor two miles from its main den.

Raccoon are most active at nightand are natural explorers with a

curiosity thatcan be used tothe trappersadvantage.

Raccoons gointo partialhibernation inwinter, eitheralone or ingroups, but theybecome activeduring warmspells andthaws. They areomnivorous andeat a widevariety of foods. During latesummer and fall, they eat largequantities of fruits, grains andacorns. They are efficient predators,

feeding upon nesting birds, eggs,fish, frogs, crayfish and insects.

Sign:The raccoon has a very

distinctive and easily identifiabletrack. Often, only the front of therear foot pad and the long, slendertoes will show and the heel will notbe visible except in soft mud, sandor snow. The scats are cylindricaland usually have little or no taper.The droppings may occasionally befound on limbs, logs or stumps.

Habitat:Raccoons are highly adaptable

animals and are found over most of

the U.S. and southern Canada. Theyare often found along streams, lakeshores, and marshes, but they also

live in upland areas. Although theyare good swimmers, they usually stayin shallow water. Raccoons arecommon in suburban areas and

around farms.

Trapping Tactics:

Sets: Pocket, Obstruction, SpringRun, Cubby, Raccoon Box, DirtHole, Slanted Pole, and Cage Trapsets

Recommended traps or trappingsystems: Doublespring bodygripping sizes #120 or #220 Conibear(or equivalent) in cubbies or raccoonboxes; foothold sizes #1 guarded(stop-loss), #1 coilspring, #11longspring, or #2 longspring with alarge movable drag (like a tree limb)or a slide lock and drowning wire;cage or box traps at least 10 x 12 x32.

Lures and baits: Raccoons areattracted to a wide variety ofcommercial and homemade lures and

baits including fish, chicken, aniseoil, fish oil, honey, apples andpastries.


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RED FOX(Vulpes vulpes)

Description:Red fox have a thick pelage thatvaries from shades of red to sandygold, with a lighter belly and blackfeet. The backsides of the ears areblack. The animal has a white throatand chin, and a large, bushy white-tipped tail (at least a white-tippedhairs can nearly always be found).Variations in color include black (allblack except for a white-tipped tail),silver (black with white-tipped guardhairs, giving the overall appearance ofsilver), and cross (normal red with adarker patch running along the backand across the shoulders forming across). These genetic variationsmay appear in the same litter. TheSamson fox is genetically inferior,and represents the partial or total lossof the guard hairs. The average redfox weighs 8 to 10 pounds.

Biology:Red fox reproduce in their first year.Breeding occurs in late January orearly February, and the gestationperiod is 53 days. An average of fivepups are born in late March or earlyApril, often in a renovated den ofanother animal such as a woodchuckor badger. The pups stay with theadults until early fall, when dispersal

begins. This fall shuffle is used toadvantage by trappers who catchmany of these dispersers. Thisdispersal period usually begins inOctober and it may continue throughmost of the winter. Some foxes neverdisperse, and others disperse later inthe winter or as adults.The red fox, like most predators, isan opportunist, which is quick totake advantage of any food available.Small mammals such as mice,rabbits and ground squirrelscomprise the bulk of the red foxsdiet. A fox will often cache uneatenfood under litter or bury it is a holeto be eaten later.Red fox tend to be solitary animals

and always hunt alone. They do notnormally use a den except whenraising their young. During winter, a

red fox will curl up on the snow usingits tail to cover its nose and feet.The red fox is primarily crepuscularbeing most active at dawn and dusk.Foxes have an average home rangevarying from one- to four-squaremiles.

Habitat:The red fox is extremely adaptableand thrives under a variety ofconditions. It is common throughoutMinnesota and is abundant in boththe forest and farmland zones. Redfox often hunt in grassy fields oralong fence lines where smallmammals are abundant. They daymay be spent curled up on a hillsidewith good visibility to observepotential danger. Fox avoid areaswith established coyote populations,although some will be found in areasbetween coyote home ranges.

Sign:Red fox tracks are usually more orless in a straight line and the hindfoot is narrower and more pointedthan the larger front foot. The heelpad is narrow and particularly in

winter, little of the heel pad will showthrough the thick hair, which coversthe foot. Red fox scats are variableand are similar to those of the othercanids, although noticeably smallerthan most coyote scats.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Dirt-hole, Scent-post, Flat set,Trail set (snow)

Recommended traps or trappingsystems: Foothold #1 , # 1 or #2with short chains (if staked) and goodswivels at the trap and at or near thestake. If drags or grapples are usedfor fastening, extension chains of atleast 3 to 4 feet should be attached.Snares are effective, in zones wherelegal.

Lutes and baits: Commercial lures,

fox urine, tainted meat baits, and, inwinter, skunk musk are all effectiveattractants for fox.


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GRAY FOX(Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

Description:The gray fox is slightly

smaller than the red fox, weighingan average of 6 to 8 pounds. Itspelage has a coarser texture than ared fox, and is colored by alternatebands of black and white on theguard hairs. There is reddish brownfur on the underparts of the body. Thebushy tail is gray with a ridge ofcoarse, black hair along the top and onthe tip.

Biology:Gray fox breed in late January

or early February, with a gestationperiod of about 53 days. Three orfour pups are born in April in a densimilar to that of a red fox. Theyoung disperse in late summer andfall, but travel shorter distancesthan do young red foxes.

Although the gray fox has adiet similar to that of a red fox, iteats more plant material. Unlikethe red fox, it readily climbs treeswhen pursued. The gray fox is shy

and seldom seen and usually ismost active at night. During theday it rests in dense thickets. Thehome range of the gray fox issmaller than that of the red fox.

Sign:The gray fox track is smaller and

rounder than that of the red fox and,except for the claw marks, might bemistaken for that of a bobcat.Scats are similar to those of the redfox.

Habitat:

Gray fox primarily inhabitdeciduous forest areas of central andextreme southeastern Minnesota,although they occasionally may befound in almost any area of the state.They prefer more dense, brushy coverthan do red fox, and avoid both openand northern forest areas. Gray foxand red fox are rather intolerant of oneanother, but since their specific habitatpreferences often separate themspatially, they often occupy the samegeneral areas. There are no records ofthe two species crossbreeding.

Trapping Tactics:The same tactics used for red

fox will work for grays, the onlydifference being that the sets must be

in or near woody cover, which is thegrays preferred habitat.


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TIMBER WOLF(Canis lupus)

Description:The timber (gray) wolf is the

largest member of the dog family; twoto three times the size of the coyote.Most of Minnesotas wolves are gray

in color, but black, cream, and reddishindividuals also occur. Male wolvesweigh about 80 pounds (about 10pounds heavier than females).Wolves of 100 pounds or more occurrarely, and are considered very large.

Biology:The wolf pack is a family group

consisting of a pair of breeding adultsand their young of one or more years.Only one female in a pack breeds eachyear, generally in February. After anine-week gestation, an average of sixpups are born in an underground den,which is often used for several years.In early summer, the pups are movedto open areas or rendezvous sites,

where the pack congregates. By fall,they are large enough to hunt with thepack. Young wolves may leave thepack when they become sexuallymature in their second winter.They then attempt to find a mate, andmay form a pack in an area not yetused by other packs.

Individual packs defendterritories of 50 to 120 square miles(usually not more than one wolf per10 square miles), and the members ofthe pack usually restrict their huntingand feeding activities to that area.Most wolf packs in Minnesotacontain five to eight individuals,although as many as a dozen mayrarely be present.

In Minnesota, wolves eat avariety of large and small animals,but white-tailed deer make up about

80 percent of their diet. Beaver areoften taken in the spring and summer,while deer, and a few moose, aretaken more frequently in winter. Inareas of mixed farms and forest,domestic livestock are sometimepreyed upon.

Habitat:

Wolves prefer the large,extensive forest areas of northernMinnesota. Their densities occur inthe forested portions of the northernpart of the state where deer populationdensities are high and humanpopulation densities are low.Although the wolf populationstatewide has probably increasedslightly in recent years, their numbersin Lake and Cook counties(particularly the BWCA) havedecrease because of the declining deernumbers caused by maturing forestwhich is poor deer habitat. Wolfpopulations have been expanding inrecent years into areas of forest mixedwith farming areas.

Signs:Wolf tracks are similar to those

of a large dog and are more than twicethe size of the average coyote track.The droppings are similar to those ofcoyotes, but generally larger.

Trapping Tactics:The timber wolf is classified as a

threatened species in Minnesota bythe United States Secretary of theInterior, and by the State ofMinnesota. It is against the law totrap or kill this animal. Accidentalcapture should be reported at once.


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COYOTE(Canis latrans)

Description:The coyote, sometimes known

as the brush wolf, resembles asmall, lean German shepherd. Itsgray fur is long, coarse and heavy.Typically, its underparts are lightgray to white, with the remaininghairs broadly banded with black. Itstail is bushy and disproportionatelylarge. The coyotes ears are longand erect and it carries its tail lowwhen running. Adult coyotes average25 to 30 pounds in weight, but adultmales may rarely weigh up to 44pounds.

Biology:Coyotes breed in late January and

February, with a gestation period of63 days. An average of 5 to 7 pupsare born in April or early May in aden, dug in loose soil or enlargedfrom one dug by another animal. Thepups stay with the adults until autumnor mid-winter, when they disperse tofind their own home territory.

Deer (most often in the form ofcarrion), snowshoe hare and mice arethe coyotes favorite food. Butcoyotes are very opportunistic andwill eat whatever food is available,such as fruits or berries in latesummer, and occasionally sheep or

poultry.Coyotes tend to be solitaryanimals or live in small family groups.They are most active during eveningand before dawn and normally movetwo to three miles a night. Adultmales have large territories (15-25square miles) in which they travel, butadult females occupy areas of six- toten-square miles.

Sign:Coyote tracks are oval in shape

and the toenail marks, when present,tend to hook inwards. They canusually be distinguished from dogtracks, which are rounder and havedeeper nail marks pointed outwards.

Like all members of the dog family,the coyotes front foot is larger thanthe hind foot. Coyote scats are quite

variable but are usually large, stronglytapering and contain much hair, boneor seeds.

Habitat:In Minnesota, coyotes usually

live in transitional lands, which are acombination of farm land and forest,but they can survive will in openprairie or dense forest. Coyotes preferto hunt in grassy fields or along theedges of fields for mice, and spend thedaytime in forested areas. They arerare in areas occupied by gray(timber) wolves because the graywolves will not tolerate their presence.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Dirt-hole, Scent post, Flat

set, Trail set (snow)Recommended traps or trapping

systems: Foothold traps sizes #1 ,#3, #3N, #4 with short chains (if

staked) and with good swivels at thetrap and at the stake or in the middleof the chain. If drags or grapples areused, 3 to 4 foot or longer extensionchains should be added. Snares areeffective where legal.

Lures and baits: Commerciallures, coyote urine, tainted meat baits,gland lures and skunk essence aregood for attracting coyotes.


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WEASELS

LONG-TAILED(Mustela frenata)

SHORT-TAILED(Mustela erminea)

Description:Weasels are relatively small, long

bodied animals with short legs. Three

species occur in Minnesota (long-tailed, short-tailed, and least), but onlythe long-tailed and short-tailedweasels are of value in the fur trade.Although both species may be foundthroughout the state, the long-tailed ismost common in the southern half,while the short-tailed is mostcommon in the northern two-thirds ofthe state. Long-tailed weasels areabout 18 inches long including a 6-inch tail. The smaller short-tailedweasels are about 13 inches overall,with a 3- or 4-inch tail. Most of theyear, weasels are dark brown with awhite throat and belly, but in late fallthey turn completely white except fora black-tipped tail. These white peltsare known as ermine in the furtrade.

Biology:Weasels mate during the summer,

but, as with many members of theweasel family, they exhibit delayedimplantation, and the young embryosdo not begin developing until latewinter or early spring, several monthsafter breeding occurs. Litters of fourto eight young are born in April orMay. Weasel dens are lined with thefur of mice they have killed and arefound in rock piles, old buildings,burrows, and hollow logs or stumps.Weasels mainly prey on small

mammals up to the size of rabbits,but some birds are taken. Like theclosely related mink and fisher,weasels are efficient killers. Theirsharp canine teeth pierce the skullsof their prey. Where prey is

abundant, weasels may kill morethan they can eat, caching excessprey items. Weasels eat their entireprey and do not suck the blood asmany people believe. However,when surplus killing occurs many oftheir prey may only show wounds inthe head or throat with no signs offeeding.

Habitat:Weasels prefer brushy areas mixed

with tall grass, such as brushy fencerows, willow swamps, beaverflowages, or recent cutover areas.They may occasionally occupy moreopen country, especially around woodpiles, barns or old buildings.

Sign:Weasel tracks are usually paired and

the tracks will be spaced about a footapart. In deep snow the spacing willoften be irregular alternating long andshort, and sometimes weasels willtravel under the snow for shortdistances. Scats are long, slender anddark brown or black in color.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Cubbies or weasel boxes

Recommended traps or trappingsystems: The #110 or #120 conibearor similar sized body-griping traps set

inside cubbies or boxes work well forweasels, especially if equipped with atreadle type trigger. A #1 longspring trap can also be set as akilling trap for weasel in the openingof a small cubby or a tin can if one

jaw is propped in a vertical position.Lures and baits: Weasels areattracted by fresh, bloody baits suchas chicken or rabbit heads, the freshmeat of a muskrat or beaver, and bydead mice. Weasel musk is anexcellent trapping lure that can beused for other animals as well. Minkmusk is also a good weasel lure.


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MINK(Mustela vison)

Description:Wild mink are dark brown to black,

and usually have a white spot underthe chin. Adult males weigh about 3pounds, and females less than 2pounds. Like most other members ofthe weasel family, mink have smallround ears, a pointed nose, a longneck and body and short legs.

Biology:

Mink breed in February, but becauseof delayed implantation, the fertilizedegg does not attach to the uterine walland begin developing until theweather is favorable to the litterssurvival later in the spring. After a31-day gestation, five or six young areborn in dens made in debris piles,hollow logs, abandoned muskrathouses, or burrows. The female andyoung remain together until latesummer when the young begin todisperse. The female remains close toher dens and hunts a territory she cancover in two or three days. Themales home range is much larger,and a particular area may be coveredonce every week or two. Males are

very territorial and will not tolerateother male mink in their area,particularly during the breedingseason. They may even kill youngmink in the den.

Mink eat muskrats, fish, frogs,salamanders, snakes, waterfowl andeggs, and also prey on smallmammals such as mice and rabbits.They are efficient hunters andfrequently cache surplus food in theirdens. Mink are mainly nocturnal, butfrequently move about during theday. They are almost equally athome on land or in the water. Whilehunting, they inspect every hole,brush pile, hollow log or any foodproducing cover along their route of

travel. They are creatures of habit,and visit the same places on each tripthrough an area.

Mink have well-developed scent, ormusk, glands, and can release astrong odor, similar to the odor of a

skunk, when alarmed or injured.They also discharge their scent tomark territory boundaries and duringcourtship displays.

Habitat:Mink are shoreline dwellers and

so are most often found near streams,ditches, lakes, marshes or swamps.While hunting or dispersing, theymay travel considerable distancesfrom those wetlands.

Sign:

Mink generally leave pairedtracks at 12- to 23-inch intervals,although they may also assume anopen gait with all four feet separated.Mink occasionally toboggan on snowor dive under it for short distances.In soft mud, they leave a distinctround cat-like track with five toesand toenail marks. Mink scats are

longer than those of weasels and areusually dark and long.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Obstruction (blind) set,

Spring set, Pocket set, Channel setRecommended traps or trapping

systems: Number 120 or similardouble spring body-gripping trap(do not use a #110 or other singlespring body-gripping trap for minkin non-drowning sets because they

are not strong enough to kill minkeffectively), foothold traps withdrowning slide lock (#11 doublelongspring, #1 or #1 coilspring, # 1 jump or longspring).

Lures and baits: Commercial

lures, fish oil, and fresh muskrat orfish bait are effective for trackingmink.


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BADGER(Taxidea taxus)

Description:The badger is a member of the

weasel family and is a medium-sizedheavy bodied animal. Adult females

average about 17 pounds and adultmales average 24 pounds. Badgershave a wide flattened body, shortpowerful legs and a short bushy tail.They are adapted for digging, havinglarge front feet with massive clawsover an inch long. They areMinnesotas most fossorial(burrowing) furbearer. The fur onthe upper parts is grizzled gray andblack with a slight yellowish tinge.The underparts and the short tail areyellowish. A white stripe runs fromthe nose to the crown of the head andtapers off on the neck or back. Thebadger has white cheeks and anelongated black spot in front of eachear. The feet are black.

Biology:Badger breed in August or

September. After a delay of aboutfive months, implantation of theembryos occurs. Following a five-to six-week development period, anaverage of three young are bornsometime from March to June in aden 2 to 6 feet below ground. Theyoung stay with the female until fall,when they disperse.

The badger catches prey such asground squirrels, pocket gophers andmice by digging them out of theirdens. The badger digs a burrow,uses it for a time, and them moves on

and digs another one. Theseburrows, and the accompanyingmounds of dirt, are quite often aproblem in hayfields and pastures,

but if they are located alongfence rows or field edges,they are valuable becausemany of them are used asdens by other animals suchas rabbits and fox.

Badgers are activemainly at night, spendingthe daytime underground.Body fat is stored duringlate summer, which servesas an energy reserve for the

coming winter. Badgers do nothibernate, but they do spend most ofthe winter sleeping under ground,occasionally coming out on anespecially warm day.

Although they do not spray like askunk, badgers will release a strong,musk odor from a pair of anal scent

glands when disturbed.Badgers live throughout most ofMinnesota, preferring open prairieand pasture land where burrowingrodents are common. They also willlive in mixed forest-farmland areas,but are rare in areas with extensiverocky or boggy soils.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Burrow Entrance Set, Dirt-

hole Bait Set, Scent-post SetRecommended traps or trapping

systems: #220 conibear or similarsize body-gripping trap inside burrowentrance; #1.75 or larger footholdwith long chain fastened to a longstake or a drag/grapple.

Lures and baits: Most baits andlures used for fox and coyote willalso attract badger.

Comments: Avoid setting ininactive burrows these arefrequently used by rabbits, skunksand other animals. Avoid shortchains or short stakes because thebadger may dig out the stake andescape.

Sign:The most obvious indication thatbadger are present is the occurrenceof tunnels, dug in open areas andfields, with a large mound of dirt infront of them. Often the badgers willexcavate several shallow tunnels atthe same site when digging out agopher, and these series of tunnelsand mounds of dirt may cover anarea the size of a car. Badger tracksare sometimes mistaken for coyotetracks, but can be distinguished bythe five toes, and the claw marks ofthe front feet, which are well in frontof the toe marks. Badgers normallycover their droppings or leave themunderground.


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RIVER OTTER(Lutra Canadensis)

Description:Otter are large semi-aquatic

members of the weasel family thatweigh up to 24 pounds. They have along cylindrical body with short fur,short ears, and a thick tail, whichtapers gradually to the tip. The fur isa rich, glossy brown to black alongthe back, and pale brown or gray onthe belly, on the throat and aroundthe mouth. The otters strong,streamlined body and webbed feetmake it an agile swimmer.

Biology:Adult otter may mate for life.

After mating in late spring or earlysummer, an average of two orthree young are born the followingspring in April or May, followinga period of delayed implantation.The den may be an abandonedbeaver lodge, bank hole or hollowlog. The young stay with theparents until next spring.

Otter are very adept at catchingsmall fish and minnows, withrough fish comprising most of theotters diet. Crayfish, frogs,turtles, muskrats, and smallreptiles are also eaten. Otter

regurgitate fish bones and scales attoilet areas spaced along theirroutes of travel. Often, these toiletareas occur at beaver dams.

Otter have large territories,which cover many miles ofshoreline or stream course. Theyalso travel overland from onewater body or stream to another.Their territories are marked ontwisted tufts of grass with scentsecreted from their anal glands.

Sign:Otter sign in snow is often

distinctive, with otter alternatelyrunning and sliding leaving a dot-dash pattern. The tracks aregenerally paired, but may beseparated at slow gaits. Otter signalong streams and shorelines is oftenconcentrated at hauling out placeswhere matted and twisted grass anddroppings will be found. Otter signis also often concentrated on beaverlodges and dams.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Slide and Trail Set (water),

Channel Set, Toilet SetRecommended traps or trappingsystems: Number 220 or 330conibear (or equivalent) traps or

foothold Some trappers use freshbeaver meat or fresh whole fish as abait for otter.

Lures and baits: Lure if usedat all, is used sparingly withotter musk being best. BeaverCastor will also work. Sometrappers use fresh beaver meator fresh whole fish as bait forotter.

Comments: Otter are strong,wary and trap shy. Trapsshould be placed in the waterand concealed. Channel orbeaver run sets result inmany accidentally caughtotter, especially runs onbeaver dams, and should beavoided during closed otter seasons(especially in spring). Otters arefully protected in southernMinnesota.

Habitat:Otter can inhabit nearly any

wetland area, primarily rivers,small streams, lakes, and beaverponds. They prefer remote areasaway from frequent humandisturbance.


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STRIPED SKUNK(Mephitis mephitis)

Description:A member of the weasel family,

the striped skunk is black with awhite stripe on is forehead, a whitepatch on top of its head, and twowhite stripes that begin at the neckand extend back toward the hipregion. The length of these stripes isquite variable. The large, bushy tailis mainly black, but is mixed withwhite to varying degrees. Skunksare wide-bodied, with a relativelysmall head. Most striped skunksweigh 4 to 10 pounds.

The spotted skunk, or civet cat,is smaller and shaped much more likea weasel than the striped skunk, withnormal weights being 1 to 3 pounds.It is black with a white spot on itsforehead and interrupted whitestripes over its back and sides. Thebushy tail has considerable white,especially at the tip.

Biology:Mating occurs in late February or

March and, after a gestation period ofabout 63 days, an average of sixyoung skunks are born in May. Bothspecies of skunk are well known fortheir odoriferous defense

mechanisms. They can spray anattacker up to 15 feet away, four tosix consecutive times, with a bitter,stinging yellow fluid (mist). Stripedskunks can be observed wanderingabout at any time of the day, but tendto be most active at night, while thespotted skunk is almost totallynocturnal. Both species areomnivorous and prefer mice, insectsand their larvae, fruits and berries,carrion, frogs and eggs. They areeffective predators on the eggs andyoung of ground nesting birds.Spotted skunks are less common andmore secretive than striped skunks,often living undiscovered on farms,while the striped skunk very rarely

climbs trees, the spotted skunkcommonly climbs trees in search offood and to escape enemies. Spotted

skunks den and rest in dark placessuch as ground burrows or under old

buildings.In early winter, skunks den up

and become inactive, but they do notactually hibernate. Mid-winter warmspells bring them out for huntingforays. Several skunks (sometimeseight to 10) often occupy the sameden in winter, especially the females.Males den up later in the winter thanthe females, and normally den bythemselves. In more southernlocations, spotted skunks sometimesremain active throughout the year.

Habitat:Although the striped skunks can

be found statewide, they are mostabundant in semi-open country with

a mixture of small woodlots, brushpatches, pastures, cropland, fencerows, brush piles, old buildings andfarm yards. The spotted skunk(spilogale putoria) historicallyabundant in the state is nowconsidered extirpated. They prefersimilar habitat, but are found only inthe southern half of the state. Loss ofnative prairie and changing farmingpractices may be primarilyresponsible for the decline in spottedskunks.

Commonly thought of inassociation with prairies, spottedskunks actually are closely associatedwith agriculture, particularly small

farms. Spotted skunks are usuallyfound around old buildings and grainstorage facilities infested with miceand rats. Spotted skunks spread

northward from the southern plainsfollowing the coming of farming to

the Midwest prairies. They werefirst reported from Minnesota in1892 and reached northernMinnesota by 1933.

Spotted skunk populations inMinnesota peaked in the 1940s, andthen declined drastically. At thesame time, spotted skink numberswere decreasing all over theMidwest. No one knows for surewhy. Increasing farm size andefficiency, along with a decrease inon-farm grain storage were probablyat least partially responsible. Thesuddenness of the decline at aboutthe time DDT was coming intowidespread use suggests thatpersistent pesticides may have also

been involved, particularly sinceinsects are spotted skunks primarysource of food in summer.

Although several Midwesternstates have closed the season on theseanimals, such closures have shownno benefit to spotted skunk numbers.


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MARTEN(Martes americana)

Description:The marten is a tree climbing

member of the weasel family, aboutthe size of a mink. The fur is anungrizzled red to yellow brown,somewhat darker on the back, andbecoming blackish on the tail. Thehead and face are light tan and thereis usually a light orange spot on thechest. Adult males usually weigh 2to 3 pounds and females average 1 to 2 pounds.

Biology:Marten breed in mid-summer

(JulyAugust). After a period of

delayed implantation and about onemonth of pregnancy, three or fouryoung are born from March to May.A tree den is preferred.

Marten are primarily nocturnaland solitary hunters. They are activeboth on the ground and in trees.When traveling on the ground, theyseldom actually touch the ground,but hop from one fallen log toanother. They are opportunist icfeeders, and prey on a variety ofsmall to medium-sized mammals,such as mice (voles), chipmunks,squirrels and snowshoe hares. Insummer they also eat berries, insectsand birds. In the winter, martennesting sites are always below thesnow surface, but in summer theymay use the crowns of conifers,hollow logs, brush piles or burrows.

Habitat:In Minnesota, marten

are found in the forest ofthe northeastern parts ofthe state. They preferlarge areas of mature toover-mature uplandconifer and northernhardwood forest,especially where largeamounts of fallen timberare present. Their rangehas been expandingwestward in recent years.

Sign:Marten tracks may

be confused with those of a largemink or smaller fisher. The walkingstride of marten is usually 6 to 9inches, but the paired tracks ofbounding marten may be from 1 to 4feet apart. Marten scats are about the

same size as mink and similar inshape to weasel and mink. Insummer, berries and fruit may bepresent in marten scats, but generallynot in those of mink.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Cubbies, Leaning Pole sets

Recommended traps or trappingsystems: Livetraps, Number 120 orsimilar sized body-gripping traps,foothold #1 , snares.

Lures and baits: Commercial lures,skunk essence and beaver castor areattractive to marten. Fresh bait suchas beaver can also be usedeffectively. Marten are easilytrapped. In areas where marten arecommon, livetraps can be usedeffectively to set for high valuemales. Care should be taken not toplace too many sets where restrictivelimits are in effect because overlimitscan be taken easily. If these animals

are captured and cannot be released,they should be salvaged and turned into the state after first contacting aConservation Officer and receivingpermission to possess and transportthem.


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FISHER(Martes pennanti)

Description:The fisher is a member of the

weasel family, resembling a verylarge mink. It weighs as much as ared fox, but has much shorter legs.The males weigh between 10 and 14pounds, which is about twice the sizeof females. The fur of a fisher is agrizzled dark brown and approachesblackish on the rump and tail. Onlarge males, the entire head,shoulders, and the back of the neckare yellowish in appearance becausethe guard hairs in these areas arelight tan with dark brown tips. Manyfisher have white spots on the chestat the base of each front leg.Although smaller, female fisher areusually darker and more uniform incolor than the males and their fur ismore valuable.

Biology:Fisher breed in March or April,

and adult females breed shortly aftergiving birth. The fertilized eggsexhibit delayed implantation and donot start developing until January orFebruary of the following year.One to five young fisher are born inApril in a hollow tree, log, or rockcavity. The young leave the female

in early fall to find their own hometerritory.Fisher are extremely agile and

active predators. Excellent treeclimbers, they can outclimb martenand red squirrels. They prey uponsnowshoe hare, mice, squirrels,porcupine, and also feed uponcarrion, particularly that of deer.Although they have a reputation forpreying on porcupines, snowshoehares and other small mammals aremuch more important in their diet inMinnesota. Fisher will also eatinsects and berries.

Fisher range over 7 to 10 squaremiles, traveling at anytime of day ornight. Males have larger ranges than

females. Individual animalsfrequently use well-defined hunting

trails. When feeding on alarge food items such as adeer carcass, fishermay confine theiractivities to the immediatevicinity of the food sourcefor a period of severaldays. Fisher are solitary,except during thebreeding season and whenyoung are with thefemales. The fisher givesoff a foul musk odor when disturbed.

Habitat:Fisher prefer larger areas ofcontinuous forest, particularly oldertimber stands. They are adaptableand can live in a variety of foresttypes, but they avoid open areas.They prefer the edges of coniferstands when these are adjacent tostands of deciduous trees. Hollowtrees, rock crevices, slash piles,abandoned beaver lodges in dryponds, and old porcupine dens arepreferred denning sites.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Cubbies, Leaning Pole

setsRecommended traps or trapping

systems: Number 220 or similarsized body-gripping traps, foothold#1 , # 1 or #2 snares.

Lures and baits: Commercial

lures, skunk essence and beaveressence are attractive to fisher.

Fresh bait such as beaver can also beused effectively.

Signs:Tracks of small fisher may be

confused with those of large marten.Both resemble the offset pattern of amink. The walking stride of fisher isabout 13 inches for males and about9 inches for females. When jumpingor bounding, fisher generally averageover 24 inches per jump and theymay lope with all four feet separatedor bound with front and hind feetnearly superimposed. The droppingsare similar to those of marten, butlarger. Like marten, they maycontain the remains of berries orfruits in the summer. Sometimesfisher scats will contain porcupine

quills.


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BOBCAT(Felis rufus)

Description:An adult bobcat stands about 20

to 30 inches at the shoulder andweighs 15 to 40 pounds. Short blacktufts, up to an inch long, are found onthe eartips. Extending from the earsto the chin is a white, black and grayruff. The bobcats fur is light fawnto rust brown in summer, andgenerally gray in winter. The bobcatis named for its 6-inch bobtail.The tip of the bobcats tail is blackabove and white below.

Biology:Bobcats breed primarily in

February and March, although theycan breed anytime between Januaryand June. They have a gestationperiod of about 50 days and mostyoung are born in May. Two to fourkittens are born in an abandoned denof another animal, a windfall withtangled roots or branches, or evenunder the foundation of a vacatedbuilding. The young stay with thefemale until some time during winter,when they disperse to find their ownterritories.

Bobcats are very secretive, andare active mainly at night. They havelarge home ranges, often exceeding8- to 10-square miles. Bobcatsnormally hunt alone while crossingand recrossing their territories. Their

main foods aresnowshoe hare,deer, mice,small birds andporcupine.Bobcatsoccasionally killdeer as fawns insummer and asadults in winterby compressingthe windpipe.They areopportunists butare almostentirelycarnivorous andthey do not likerotten or taintedfood. When

food is plentiful, bobcats may gorgethemselves and then not feed againfor days.

Habitat:Bobcats prefer heavy brush areas

in and around large lowland coniferstands, such as cedar, black spruce,or tamarack. These areas are alsoinhabited by their main prey, thesnowshoe hare.

Trapping Tactics:Sets: Cubby, Dirt-hole

Recommended traps or trappingsystems: #1 - #3 foothold traps,#220 conibear or equivalent body-gripping trap.

Lures and baits: Commercialgland lures and baits are available orlures can be made using beaver

castor, skunk essence, oil of catnip orfish oil.

Comments: Bobcats a

trapper manual

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