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Why did the Cold War between the

superpowers emerge in the years to 1953?

• How and why have historians’ interpretations of the

causes of the Cold War differed?

• How valid are these different interpretations in seeking

to explain the causes of the Cold War?

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ate Who can we blame for the outbreak of the Cold War?

• Causes of the Cold War

TASK 1a: Write down as many causes as you can. Compare your list

with another student.

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ate Who can we blame for the outbreak of the Cold War?

TASK 1b: Choose one of the causes and write down three events you

might use to help you explain how it created the Cold War. Compare your

list with another student.

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ate TASK 2

• Read pp.49-51 and make notes on how far the USA was

responsible for the Cold War

• Read sources D, E and F on pp.51-2 and complete a chart

like the one below:

Source Reasons in the

source for US

hostility to USSR

(include quotes)

Information from

own knowledge

that supports

source’s view

Information that

can be used to

argue against the

source’s view

Source D (p.51)

Source E (p.52)

Source F (p.52)

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ate TASK 3

• Read pp.52-6 and make notes on Stalin’s motives for Soviet

expansion – use the section’s sub-headings to organise your

notes

• Read sources H, I and J on pp.57-8 and complete a chart

like the one below:

Source Reasons in the

source for the

causes of the

Berlin Blockade

(include quotes)

Information from

own knowledge

that supports

source’s view

Information that

can be used to

argue against the

source’s view

Source H (p.57)

Source I (p.57)

Source J (p.58)

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• Historians disagree about why the Cold War happened and

who is to blame. Complete the chart below using pp.58-61

What does

this school

argue?

When was

this view

current?

Why was

this view

formed?

Value of

this point

of view

Criticism of

this point

of view

Liberal School

Revisionist

School

Post-revisionist

School

Soviet School

pre 1991

Russian views

since 1991

TASK 4

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ate Which historical interpretation best explains why

the Cold War started?

• Read the Exam tip on p.63

• All viewpoints need to be tested for accuracy/validity

- Use your own knowledge to test the accuracy/validity of the

historian’s point of view

- Do not be frightened to disagree with historians – so long as you

explain why you disagree and give specific evidence

• Read handouts 16b Soviets Desire European Domination

and 16c Unit 3 B Question Mark Scheme

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ate TASK 5:

• Using Sources K, L, M and N, and your own knowledge, how far do

you accept the view of Source K that it was American foreign policy

that ‘crystallized the Cold War’?

• Read sources K, L, M and N on pp.61-2 and complete a chart like the

one below:

Source Arguments in the

source on the

causes of the Cold

War (include short

quotes)

Evidence from

own knowledge

that supports the

source’s argument

Evidence from

own knowledge

that challenges

the source’s

argument

Source K (p.61)

Source L (p.62)

Source M (p.62)

Source N (p.62)

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ate Who caused the Cold War – the USA or the USSR?

TASK 6: Write a detailed essay plan to the following exam-

style question:

• Using Sources K, L, M and N, and your own knowledge,

how far do you accept the view of Source K that it was

American foreign policy that ‘crystallized the Cold War’?

How to structure your plan:

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ate Who caused the Cold War – the USA or the USSR?

Your essay plan should include:

• Introduction:

– outline the interpretations in the four sources; end with your answer (‘signpost’)

• (Four) main paragraphs:

– lead with the sources that agree with a particular interpretation. (Look for

opportunities where you can cross-reference, i.e. spot where more than one

source agrees with an interpretation)

– identify their interpretation

– use own knowledge to explain why the historian puts forward this particular

interpretation

– use own knowledge to evaluate the interpretation’s validity. (Remember to

contrast the interpretation discussed in each main paragraph with the claim/view

in the question, i.e. US foreign policy crystallised the Cold War)

• Conclusion:

– ATQ, explaining why with supporting evidence and referring to the sources

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ate TASK 7:

• Use Sources S, T and U and your own knowledge. How far do you

agree with the view that Stalin’s foreign policy was a major

contributing factor to the emergence of the Cold War in the period

1945-50?

• Read sources S, T and U on pp.69-70 and complete a chart like the

one below:

Source Arguments in the

source on the

causes of the Cold

War (include

quotes)

Evidence from

own knowledge

that supports the

source’s argument

Evidence from

own knowledge

that challenges

the source’s

argument

Source S (p.69)

Source T (p.70)

Source U (p.70)

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ate Who caused the Cold War – the USA or the USSR?

TASK 8: Answer the following exam-style question on

pp.69-70 (you have 55 minutes):

• Use Sources S, T and U and your own knowledge.

How far do you agree with the view that Stalin’s

foreign policy was a major contributing factor to the

emergence of the Cold War in the period 1945-50?

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s Origins Of The Cold War

Three Major Western explanations for the Cold War

Orthodox (liberal) –product of aggressive/expansionist foreign policy of Soviet Union

Revisionist –result of provocation of USA

Post-Revisionist –accepts USA used economic power but also accepts Stalin an opportunist

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Origins Of The Cold War

Two stages of Russian explanations for the Cold War

Soviet School (pre 1991) –product of American Economic Imperialism

Russian Views (post 1991) –emphasizes Stalin’s foreign policy was more than just defensive; partly aimed at spreading communism

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s Key interpretations

Origins of the Cold War

Ideological Confrontation

Great Power Rivalry

Mutual Misconceptions

Opposing national interests

Dollar Diplomacy

Aggressive Government

policy

Soviet Aggression

US Aggression

Personalities

Stalin

Truman

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Key Interpretation: Ideological confrontation

• Ideological confrontation:

– Cold War inevitable conflict as capitalism and communism

fundamentally antagonistic

– Marxism-Leninism, official ideology of USSR, committed

Communist Party to world revolution to overthrow capitalism

– US economic success depended on free trade; Soviet economic

system rejected free markets and free trade

• Useful interpretation as explains East-West conflict before

Cold War …

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s Key Interpretation: mutual misconceptions

• Cold War came about due to mutual misconceptions and

different perspectives of the two superpowers

• Both superpowers motivated by desire to protect own

interests

• However, these actions misinterpreted as aggressive

policies designed to expand global influence

• E.g.,

– Soviet leaders saw Stalinisation of Eastern Europe as legitimate

actions to safeguard Soviet security; but US leaders interpreted

these actions as desire to dominate

– Similarly, Western initiatives, e.g. introduction of DM into Western

zone of Germany, viewed as provocative by Soviet leaders

• Therefore, Cold War developed due to series of

misunderstandings and overreactions

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Key Interpretation: opposing national interests

• Cold War came about due to traditional Great Power

Rivalry and opposing national interests

• Both superpowers motivated by desire to protect own

interests – natural process of international relations

• E.g.,

– Stalinisation of Eastern Europe was legitimate action to

safeguard Soviet security after cost of WWII

– US development of economic and military interests in Europe and

Asia was legitimate development of foreign policy as the

world’s leading power after WWII

• Therefore, Cold War a natural development of power rivalry

and neither side ‘to blame’

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s Key interpretation: US dollar diplomacy

• US economic interests main reason for development of Cold

War

– Superpower conflict due to US desire to have political and

economic dominance in Western Europe and Japan. So Marshall

Plan a form of ‘dollar imperialism’ as US economic aid dependent

on political compliance

– Cold War developed due to concerns of US politicians to avoid

repeat of Great Depression. So Truman’s desire to promote trade

with Western Europe and Japan really an attempt to stimulate US

economy through trade

– Truman encouraged superpower tensions to justify massive

government spending on armaments to stimulate US economy

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Key interpretation: Soviet aggression

• Cold War developed due to USSR determination to confront

US

– Communist takeovers in Eastern Europe

– Berlin Blockade

– Encouragement of communism in Asia (support for Chinese

communism, materiel support for North Korea in war)

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s Key interpretation: US aggression

• Cold War developed due to US determination to confront

USSR

– Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, US leadership of NATO seen

as USA asserting its power against Soviet influence

– US deployment of B-29 bombers in Europe in August 1948

interpreted as evidence of US aggression

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Key interpretation: Stalin’s personality

• Stalin’s personality as main reason for development of Cold

War

– His feelings of insecurity

– His desire to dominate

– His willingness to do anything to safeguard USSR’s future

• Compelling evidence from Soviet documents released after

end of Cold War (1991)

– Memos from senior Soviet ministers, e.g. Maxim Litvinov, “There

has been a return in Russia to the concept of security in terms of

territory – the more you’ve got the safer you are”

• Stalin’s suspicions played a role in his Berlin policy

– He believed resurgent Germany posed significant threat to

USSR’s security

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s Key interpretation: Truman’s personality

• Truman’s personality as main reason for development of

Cold War

– Need to show strength to separate his presidency from FDR’s

legacy

– Mistrust/dislike of Stalin

– Open to persuasion by anti-communist and military-industrial

domestic pressures

• Personal policy intervention – Truman Doctrine

– Overly aggressive and provocative towards USSR?

– Attempt to rollback communism in Korea

How to answer Section B questions well …

Good Luck

Section B is about the origins of the Cold War between 1944 and 1953.

1) To answer these questions you must know in detail all the relevant main events – see textbook

chapters 1 and 2 – between 1917 and 1953 that help to explain how and why the Cold War

came about.

2) You must also be able to debate the different interpretations about the origins of the Cold War

– see textbook chapter 3. E.g.:

i) Can the Cold War be explained as ideological confrontation?

ii) Was the Cold War a traditional great power rivalry (sometimes this interpretation might

be referred to as ‘national interests’ or ‘geopolitics’)

iii) Was it simply a matter of Soviet or American aggression?

iv) Or finally, did it come down to personalities, i.e. uncompromising and inflexible leaders?

Suspicion and misperception?

(1) Here you should consider the roles played by Truman and Stalin's foreign policy, i.e.

the debate over Stalin's motives for expansion

3) The sources should lead the debate, i.e. you must identify the interpretations offered by the

sources. (These are the interpretations that the examiner wants you to debate when you

answer the question, i.e. when you discuss the claim in the question.)

a) The exam is most likely to contain three sources.

i) Within these sources there is always a clear debate, usually the sources will:

(1) Either present three separate interpretations

(2) Or, two will present separate interpretations and one will present a mixture of more

than one interpretation.

(3) Either way, you will need to show where the sources agree and disagree, i.e. cross

reference.

b) The sources need to be carefully analysed for their interpretation.

i) Explain what the interpretation is and

ii) Explain why it is being held (here you bring in your own knowledge to support the

interpretation – see 4 below).

c) But remember, it is not just a matter of generally debating why the Cold War started. You

must answer the question, i.e. debate the interpretations offered by the sources in relation

to the question, in other words stay focused on the question.

4) Your own knowledge should develop the debate in the sources.

a) This requires you to:

i) Have an in-depth knowledge of the relevant main events – see textbook chapters 1

and 2.

ii) Select the most appropriate events to, firstly, support then, secondly, challenge the

interpretations. In other words, you must debate (argue for and against) each

interpretation, do not forget to explain how the events support/challenge the

interpretation.

iii) Evaluate the interpretations. This means you must decide which interpretation you think

is the most valid based on your understanding of the main events, i.e. which

interpretation do you agree with and by ‘how much’?

(1) Obviously, as there is an interpretation in the question then this is the interpretation

you must weigh against the alternative interpretations, found in the sources.

(2) Evaluation should take place in every paragraph not just the conclusion. When

evaluating, you are measuring how far/to what extent you agree with the

interpretation and explaining why you hold this view.

(3) In your conclusion, you must reach a final decision that directly answers the question

and which is based on your evaluation in your main paragraphs. This is called a

reasoned judgement, i.e. you must explain and support your final decision.

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Unit 3 Part B examination skills checklist

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• Read the question (RTQ) carefully

– Identify the instruction

• How far do you agree with the view ...

– Identify the topic area

• The origins/development of the Cold War between ...

– Identify the key words

• The claim/argument/interpretation ...

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• Read the sources very carefully

– Identify the interpretation (point of

view/opinion/argument)

• At least one of the sources will agree with the claim in the

question

– Identify the historiographical position

• Ignore if unsure

– Identify short quotes to suggest both the above

• A technique to help you understand the source and select good

quotes is to place a forward slash (/) wherever there is a

punctuation mark (, ; : . ? !)

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• Identify areas of agreement/disagreement between

the sources’ interpretations

– Use different coloured pens to help you quickly cross-

reference

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• Evaluate the validity of the sources’ interpretations

– Use own knowledge to check the

accuracy/completeness of each source’s interpretation

• identify own knowledge to explain why the author puts

forward the interpretation in the source, i.e. to support the

quotes you’ve identified above; this is showing that you

understand what the interpretation is and why it is held

• identify own knowledge you can use to suggest the author’s

view might not be completely valid, i.e. to challenge/disagree

with the quotes you’ve identified above

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• Answer the question (ATQ)!

Unit 3 Section B question planning checklist

Good Luck

1. Read the question carefully

a. Identify the instruction

i. How far do you agree with the view ...

b. Identify the topic area

i. The origins/development of the Cold War between ...

c. Identify the key words

i. The claim/argument/interpretation ...

2. Read the sources very carefully

a. Identify the interpretation

b. Identify the historiographical position if you can, don’t worry if you cannot

c. Identify short quotes to suggest the interpretation

i. A technique to help you understand the source and select good

quotes is to place a forward slash (/) wherever there is a

punctuation mark (, ; : . ? !)

3. Identify areas of agreement/disagreement between the sources’ interpretations

a. Use different coloured highlighters to help you quickly cross-reference

4. Assess the validity of the sources’ interpretations

a. Use your own knowledge to check the accuracy/completeness of each

source’s interpretation

i. identify own knowledge to suggest why the author puts forward

the interpretation in the source, i.e. to support the quotes you have

identified above; this is showing that you understand what the

interpretation is and why it is held

ii. identify own knowledge you can use to suggest the author’s view

might not be completely valid, i.e. to challenge/disagree with the

quotes you have identified above

5. Answer the question!

Use Sources S, T and U and your own knowledge. How far do you agree with the view that Stalin’s foreign

policy was a major contributing factor to the emergence of the Cold War in the period 1945-50?

Source S

It is difficult to say what would have happened if the west had responded positively to Stalin’s last initiative

on the German question (a call for a neutral, united Germany). It might have led to German reunification

sometime in the 1950s and to a considerable easing of cold war tensions in Europe. On the other hand, it

might have led to greater uncertainty and instability as there was no guarantee Germany would have

remained neutral or disarmed for long. As western diplomats and politicians often pointed out to the Soviets

in the 1950s, there were advantages for Moscow in West Germany’s inclusion in the western bloc. As the old

saying has it: NATO was established to keep the Americans in, the Russians out and the Germans down! But

this sanguine perspective was not shared by Stalin or by his successors as Soviet leader, whose view of the

German question was formed by their experience of the Great Patriotic War and by their continuing dread of

the re-emergence of a powerful and aggressive Germany.

Even as the cold war raged, the idea of a revival of the Grand Alliance to contain Germany still had its allure

in Moscow, not least for Stalin who had been very reluctant to relinquish the project of postwar co-

operation with the west. In January 1949 Stalin responded positively to a question from an American

journalist about whether he would be prepared to meet Truman to discuss a ‘peace pact’ – an American-

Soviet non- aggression agreement. In Europe Stalin sought peace and a resolution of the German question.

In military competition with the United States his policies were reactive and restrained. Although on

occasion he rattled his sabres, he talked constantly and consistently about peaceful coexistence with

capitalism. The one exception to this pattern of restraint was the Korean War of 1950-53.

From Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars (published in 2006)

Source T

Stalin’s goal was not to restore a balance of power in Europe, but rather to dominate that continent as

thoroughly as Hitler had sought to do. He acknowledged, in a wistful but revealing comment in 1947, that

‘had Churchill delayed opening the second front in northern France by a year, the Red Army would have

come to Paris’. Unlike Hitler, however, Stalin followed no fixed timetable….Nor would he write off diplomacy

in securing his objective…

Stalin’s was, therefore, a grand vision: the peacefully accomplished but historically determined domination

of Europe.

From John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War (published in 2005)

Source U

It is tempting to lay total blame for the Cold War on the delusions of Stalin and his lieutenants. A closer look

at the Cold War from the Soviet side reveals, however, that they were not the only culprits in the conflict.

We cannot disregard other complex factors, such as the crass nature of power politics, choices of US and

British policy-makers, and the deeper causes of hostility and mistrust between dictatorship and democracy

in an uncertain world. Stalin, notwithstanding his reputation as a ruthless tyrant, was not prepared to take a

course of unbridled unilateral expansionism after World War II. He wanted to avoid confrontation with the

West. He was even ready to see co-operation with the Western powers as a preferable way of building his

influence and solving contentious international issues. Thus, the Cold War was not his choice or his

brainchild.

From Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War (published 1996)

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aKey Interpretation: US Domestic Politics

• Links development of Cold War to US domestic politics

• Specifically:

– Role played by Republicans and Democrats in Truman’s

administration and Congress

– Attempts to win public support by exploiting Cold War fears

• Evidence:

– China Lobby blamed Truman for ‘losing China’

– Forced Truman to adopt more aggressive stance against

communism …

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a

Assess the reasons why the Korean War is an issue

of historical controversy

TASK:

Yellow cards contain differing interpretations on the origins of

the Korean War.

Blue cards contain some knowledge that will help assess the

validity of the interpretation.

• Can you match them?

• Which are the most convincing interpretations?

• Can you prioritise them?

• Explain why – using your own knowledge

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aHow far do you agree that ‘Stalin was primarily

responsible for the outbreak of the Korean War’?

Use sources P, Q and R, on p.67, and your own

knowledge

• Source P

• Interpretation?

• Quotes to

demonstrate

interpretation

• How valid? Use

own knowledge

to support and

challenge

• Source Q

• Interpretation?

• Quotes to

demonstrate

interpretation

• How valid? Use

own knowledge

to support and

challenge

• Source R

• Interpretation?

• Quotes to

demonstrate

interpretation

• How valid? Use

own knowledge

to support and

challenge

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a

Historiographical debate: what caused the Cold

War?

TASK:

• Read Source O. What problems face the historian studying the

causes of the Korean War?

• Do you agree with Bruce Cummings ‘no one and everyone was

responsible’ for causing the Korean War? Who are the possible

culprits?

• How far does this interpretation differ from that in Source P and

Q?

• To what extent does Source Q agree with the view offered by

Source R of the reasons for the Korean War?

‘The Kremlin has clearly and consciously risked a World War.’ Alsop

Stalin agreed to supply military and technical assistance to Kim but said he would not intervene to support him if the war went badly.

‘Syngman Rhee precipitated the war, deliberately provoking an attack from the North in order to force the US government to give more aid.’ I.F. Stone

Stalin concluded in April 1949 that, ‘The South Korean regime was determined to launch an attack on the North sooner or later and it was important to forestall the aggression.’ Syngman Rhee was as determined as Kim was to reunify the peninsula and there had been a series of border clashes, killing hundreds, in the months preceding the war.

‘Stalin was the instigator of the war, but not to bring Russia and China closer together, but to put pressure on China.’ H Salisbury

Stalin informed Mao of Kim’s decision to launch an invasion. In 1950 they signed a treaty of friendship. Although Stalin was very suspicious of Mao’s version

of communism which focused on the peasantry and only gave limited economic aid to Mao there was no way Stalin was going to risk a 3rd world war just to put pressure on China.

‘Kim Il Sung was the initiator of the war. He was desperate to unify the peninsula. Stalin urged him to think it over as he had his doubts’ Khrushchev

Stalin was prepared to let Kim Il Sung attempt to unify the Korean peninsula as by 1950 he was feeling more confident for a number of reasons. China was communist; the USSR had detonated its own bomb and Acheson’s ‘defensive perimeter’ speech had appeared to leave out South Korea from areas of particular American interest. Stalin therefore calculated that the US would not get involved but also told Kim Il Sung, ‘If you get kicked in the teeth, I shall not lift a finger.’ He was not prepared to risk war with the West over the reunification of Korea

‘The attack upon Korea makes it plain beyond all doubt that communism has passed beyond the phase of subversion to conquer independent nations and will now used armed invasion and war. If we let Korea down, the Soviets will keep right on going and swallow up one piece of Asia after another.’ Truman

‘The responsibility for the war lies firmly with the North, who was acting under instructions from Stalin to spread communism.’ D Rees

Kim pestered Stalin to give him permission to attack South Korea. It was only in April 1950 that Stalin finally agreed to Kim’s plan. Stalin had built up the military strength of North Korea and therefore was responsible for giving Kim the means to fight the war, but the desire was Kim Il Sungs. Kim had the will and Stalin provided the means.

‘Stalin was far too cautious to risk a war with America. He played the part of facilitator

rather than originator of the war’ K Weathersby

The minutes of a meeting between Stalin and Kim Il Sung in March 1949 reveal that

Stalin gave the impression that he did not approve of an invasion by North Korea. For example he avoided making any commitment of troops to support Kim. However by April 1950 Stalin was more secure and informed Kim that there had been ‘a significant strengthening of the socialist camp in the East.’

‘The Korean War was a local war that drew in the superpowers. ‘ B Cumings

America’s policy of containment was crucial in escalating the conflict in Korea. The US were determined to prevent the spread of communism and with NSC 68 had suggested that in fact communism should be rolled back where appropriate.

‘Domestic pressures on Truman forced him to take a hard-line response to the conflict in Korea, therefore turning a civil war into a cold war conflict.’

A Historian

The Republicans were furious that they did not win the election in 1948 and were incredibly bitter. They accused Truman of being soft on

communism and the McCarthy witch-hunt was evidence of the force of public concern (and the power of the media).

‘Stalin was not blind to the benefits of a secure Korea but was not prepared to risk a war with America to achieve it. He

was therefore prepared to support Kim, but did not direct him to invade’ T Hamilton

Stalin supported Kim’s invasion because a united, communist Korea would secure the Soviet Union’s borders, threaten

Japan which was a new American ally and also place at their disposal South Korea’s extensive supply of lead which was in very short supply in the USSR at this stage.

‘Some historians have suggested that the Truman administration must have set the whole thing up. Were the North Koreans somehow manoeuvred into attacking South Korea as the necessary excuse for US rearmament?’ JL Gaddis

NSC 68 proposed a massive increase in military spending. Truman agreed with the proposals but was aware that implementing them would mean higher taxes and cuts in welfare. As a result of the invasion of S Korea however, nearly every recommendation was put in place and US spending on the military rocketed from $13 billion to $50 billion. While the military-industrial complex must have been pleased, there is no evidence at all that the US manipulated the N Koreans into attacking the South.