Extreme care has been taken in preparation of this work. However, the editors, authors and publisher make no warranty or representation, expressed or implied, with respect to accuracy, completeness, or utility of the information contained in this document; nor do the editors, authors or publisher assume any liability with respect to the use of or reliance upon, or for damages resulting from the use of or reliance upon, any information, procedure, conclusion, or opinion contained in this document.

Edited by

JOHN O. BICKEL

THOMAS R. KUESEL

ELWYN H. KING

KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS BOSTONIDORDRECHTILONDON

Distributors for North, Central and South America: Kluwer Academic Publishers 101 Philip Drive Assinippi Park Norwell, Massachusetts 02061 USA Telephone (781) 871-6600 Fax (781) 871-6528 E-Mail <kluwer@wkap.com>

Distributors for all other countries: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group Distribution Centre Post Office Box 322 3300 AH Dordrecht, THE NETHERLANDS Telephone 31 78 6576 000 Fax 31 786576474 E-Mail services@wkap.nl> ..... • , Electronic Services <http://www.wkap.nl>

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Tunnel engineering handbook 1 edited by John O. Bickel. Thomas R. Kuesel and Elwyn H. King. -- 2nd ed.

p. cm.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-8053-5 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0449-4

e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-0449-4

I. Tunneling. I. Kuesel, T.R. II. King, Elwyn H. TA805.T82 1996 624.1 '93--dc20

Copyright © 1996 by Chapman & Hall Fifth printing 2004 by Kluwer Academic Publishers

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1996

Cover photo of Glenwood Canyon Tunnels, Colorado: © David Sailors, courtesy of Parsons Brinckerhoff

Cover design: Curtis Tow Graphics

96-17571 CIP

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell, Massachusetts 02061

Printed on acid-free paper.

This printing is a digital duplication of the original edition.

Dedicated in memory of

John o. Bickel 1896-1991

Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc.

Partner 1954-1968 Associated Consultant 1968 -1991

Principal Tunnel Engineer 1932-1991

Contents

Preface .......................................................................................... xiii

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Thnnel Engineering ...................................................... 1 Elwyn H. King and Thomas R. Kuesel

Tunnel elements 1 Details 2

Chapter 2 Thnnel Layout ........................................................................... 4 Elwyn H. King and Thomas R. Kuesel

Clearances for highway tunnels 4 Alignment and grades for highway tunnels 4 Clearances for railroad tunnels 5 Alignment and grades for railroad tunnels 5 Clearances for rapid transit tunnels 6 Alignment and grades for rapid transit tunnels 6 Controls on layout of underwater transportation tunnels 8

Chapter 3 Thnnel Surveys and Alignment Control ..................................................... 13 William S. Robinson

Current state of surveying technology 13 General surveying requirements and procedures 16 Tunnel geometry 23 Survey work during construction 25 Survey for construction of immersed tubes 34 Tunnel monitoring surveys 36 Representative projects 40

Chapter 4 Geotechnical Investigations ............................................................... 46 Harvey W. Parker

Geotechnical approach to tunnel design 46 Geotechnical challenges of the underground 47 Importance of geology 48 Phasing and timing 48 Teamwork, communications, and training 50 Soil classification for tunnels 51 Rock classification 54 Description of investigation techniques 59 Developing the investigation program 65 Tunnel monitoring and instrumentation 69 Guidelines for level of geotechnical effort 69 Geotechnical Reports 74

Chapter 5 Thnnel Stabilization and Lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80 Thomas R. Kuesel

Classifications 80 Principles of ground-structure interaction 84 Design considerations 86 Lining behavior under ground loads 87 Performance criteria for flexible ring design 87 Behavior of two-stage linings 89 Lining analysis 90 Behavior of rock reinforcement systems 91

vii

vin Contents

Tandem linings 94 Relation of design and analysis 95 Principles of tunnel stabilization and lining design 95

Chapter 6 Soft Ground "funneling ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97 James E. Monsees

Geotechnical investigations 97 Anticipated ground behavior 97 Soil stabilization and groundwater control 98 Grouting 10 1 Soft ground tunneling machines 107 Selection of soft ground tunneling machine 108 Soft ground tunnel support and lining 111 Surface effects of tunnel construction 111 Building protection methods 115 Practicalities of tunnel engineering 116 Seismic design of soft ground tunnels 118

Chapter 7 Rock "funnels Elwyn H. King

Classical concept 122 Changing concepts 125 Rock discontinuities 126 Rock movement 127 Water 128 Formation grouting 129 Rock reinforcement 130 Current concepts 131 Rock mass rating (rrnr) 134 Excavation methods 139 Effect of excavation method on design 141 Seismic effects 142 Use of explosives 143 Cast-in-place linings 145 Caverns 148 Leakage 151

122

Chapter 8 "funneling in Difficult Ground ............................................................ 153 Terrence G. McCusker

Instability 153 Heavy loading 164 Drill-and-blast tunneling 166 TBM tunneling 168 Swelling 172 Obstacles and constraints 172 Physical conditions 174 Observations 175

Chapter 9 Shafts ................................................................................ 177 Robert J. Jenny

Shaft excavation in soft ground 177 Excavation in soft, wet ground 181 Shaft excavation in rock 184 Lining of shafts 185

Chapter 10 Deep Shafts . .......................................................................... 187 Maurice Grieves

Shafts for tunnels and caverns 187 Alternatives to conventional drill-and-blast methods 188 Construction sequence 188 Conventional sinking equipment 191 The shaft sinking cycle 193

Shaft equipping 196 Ground stabilization 198 Blast design and the use of explosives 201 Raise drilling, blind drilling, and other alternatives 202

Contents ix

Chapter 11 Thnnel Boring Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 203 Harry Sutcliffe

Historical development 203 Excavation under external water pressure 205 Components of a modem TBM 205 Operation of the TBM 207 The TBM, temporary support, and pennanent lining 209 The decision to use a TBM 209 Selecting a soft ground TBM 210 Measuring TBM perfonnance 210 The learning curve 212 Variability in ground 213 Noncircular tunnels 214

Chapter 12 Shotcrete............................................................................. 220 Elwyn H. King

History 220 Quality assurance 223 Materials 223 Engineering properties 225 Wet or dry? 226 Preparation, mix, shoot, and cure 227 Testing 228 Design considerations 229

Chapter 13 Materials Handling and Construction Plant . ............................................... 231 A. A. Mathews

Basic transportation systems 231 Special muck transporting systems 239 Supplemental material handling systems 244 Vertical transport 248 Hoisting 252 Vertical conveyors 254 Utilities 255 Surface plant 262 Concrete plant 264 Shotcrete plant 266

Chapter 14 Immersed Thbe Thnnels ................................................................ 268 Ahmet Gursoy

General description 268 Conceptual considerations 269 Steel shell tubes 273 Concrete tubes 279 Weight control of tubes 280 Preparation of trench 281 Tube foundations 282 Joints between tubes 285 Backfill 289 Design of tubes 289

Chapter 15 Water Conveyance Thnnels ............................................................. 298 David E. Westfall

Friction losses 298 Drop shafts for vertical conveyance 298 Air removal 302 Gas buildups in sewer tunnels 304

x Contents

Control of infiltration and exfiltration 304 Lake taps and connections to live tunnels 308 Tunnel maintenance 309

Chapter 16 Small-Diameter 'funnels ................................................................ 311 David E. Westfall and Glenn M. Boyce

Basic procedure 311 Site investigations 313 Pits and shafts 313 Leading edge 314 Jacking pipes 316 Applications 318

Chapter 17 Cut-and-Cover Thonel Stmctures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 320 James L Wilton

Tunnel design-structural 322 Shoring systems 329 Common types of shoring walls 329 Common types of shoring wall support 332 Design of shoring systems 335 Performance of shoring systems 346 Decking 348 Excavation and groundwater control 349 Permanent shoring walls and support 352 Reinforced concrete materials and construction 353 Watertightness 357

Chapter 18 Safety Provisions ............................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 360 Robert J. Jenny

General safety rules 360 Localized operational hazards 361 First aid station 362 Fire hazards 363 Ventilation during construction 363 Handling and storage of explosives 364 Inactive headings 364 Compressed-air work 364 Decompression table explanation 367

Chapter 19 Fire Life Safety ....................................................................... 369 Norman H. Danziger

Background 369 BART 369 Highway tunnels 372 Rapid transit tunnels 378 Mainline railroad tunnels 381 Fire suppression systems 382 Sprinkler systems 382

Chapter 20 Thonel Ventilation ................................................................... " 384 Arthur G. Bendelius

Highway tunnels 384 Railroad tunnels 406 Rapid transit systems 414 Simulation 421 Test program 422 Equipment and facilities 424 Control and monitoring systems 435 Ventilation during construction 436

Contents xi

Chapter 21 Thnnel Lighting ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 439 Peter A. Mowczan

Lighting of highway tunnels 439 Definition of terms 439 Tunnel lighting nomenclature 440 Tunnel classification 441 Physiological considerations in tunnel lighting design 441 Entrance lighting 443 Luminance level in the tunnel interior 444 Exit lighting 445 Lighting of short tunnels 445 Lighting of long tunnels 446 Tunnellining 451 Tunnel lighting luminaires 451 Maintenance 452 Emergency lighting 453 Lighting of transit tunnels 453 Lighting of railway tunnels 453 Design computations 454

Chapter 22 Power Supply and Distribution .......................................................... 455 Elies Elvove

Peculiar electrical requirements of tunnels 455 Types of tunnels 456 Electrical loads 456 Lighting load 456 Power load 457 Tunnel ventilation fan load 457 Miscellaneous loads 457 Voltage selection 457 Distribution voltage 458 Primary distribution systems 458 Service bus arrangements 459 Secondary distribution system 460 Standby power supply 460 Un interruptible power systems (UPS) 461 Standby power distribution system 461 Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) 461 Data transmission system (DTS) 462 Auxiliary systems 462 Grounding and bonding 462 System grounding 462 Equipment grounding 462 Grounding electrodes 463 Stray current and cathodic protection 463 Raceway systems 463 Design 463 Materials 463 Major equipment 464

Chapter 23 Water Supply and Drainage Systems ..................................................... 467 Arthur G. Bendelius

Water supply system 467 Water supply design criteria 467 Water source 467 Water mains 468 Hose stations 470 Protection of exhaust fans 470 Fire pumps 471 Drainage system 473 Drainage design criteria 474

xii Contents

Open approach drainage 475 Tunnel drainage 476 Drainage pump stations 476 Drainage pumps 477 Water treatment 480 Flood protection 481 Drainage of rail tunnels 482

Chapter 24 SurveiUance and Control Systems for Highway Thnnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 485 Richard J. Naish

Surveillance and control systems 485 Overview of available technology 485 Traffic control concepts 487 Field hardware 490 Control center 493 System selection 496 Design and implementation 496 Operation and maintenance 497

Chapter 25 Thnnel Finish .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 499 Stanley Lorch

Suspended ceiling systems 500 Ceiling veneers 504 Tunnel sidewall finishes 505 Sidewalks 506 Equipment niches and doors 508 Roadway design 508 Tunnel finish materials 508

Chapter 26 Service Buildings and Ancillary Spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 512 Stanley Lorch and Hanan Kivett

Ventilation buildings for ducted tunnels 512 Program requirements 514 Underground rail transit stations 517

Chapter 27 Thnnel Rehabilitation .................................................................. 520 Henry A. Russell

Tunnel rehabilitation inspection methods 520 Tunnel rehabilitation repairs 528 Concrete repair 528 Crack repair 534 Metal repairs 536 Brick masonry repair 537 Segmental tunnel liners 537 Construction costs 538

Chapter 28 'funnel Construction Contracting . ....................................................... 541 Thomas R. Kuesel

Differing site conditions clause 542

Preface

The first edition of the Tunnel Engineering Handbook was conceived and personally guided by John O. Bickel. It was a labor of love and perseverance, distilling the experience of a 50-year career in tunnel engineering. When it was published in 1984, John was keenly aware of its deficiencies and im­perfections. Nonetheless, he was impelled to release it for publication by the knowledge that it filled a vacuum in engi­neering literature. At that time, no text covered planning, de­sign, construction, and operation of all types of tunnels­soft ground, hard rock, cut-and-cover, and immersed tubes (or "sunken tubes" in the convention of the time).

Almost from the time of original publication, John set out to organize a second edition, which could correct the defi­ciencies of the first. In the 10 years that this project has ges­tated, there have been many advances in tunneling. It is the intent of this edition to reflect these advances, as well as to amplify the coverage of areas that were omitted or slighted in the first edition and to update the previous material that remains pertinent.

Accordingly, the second edition includes eight completely new chapters-Tunnel Stabilization and Lining, Tunneling in Difficult Ground, Deep Shafts, Water Conveyance Tun­nels, Small-Diameter Tunnels, Fire Life Safety, Tunnel Re­habilitation, and Tunnel Construction Contracting. The origi­nal two chapters on soft ground tunneling and shield tunnels have been merged into one, as have the two on cut-and-cover and subway construction. All the remaining chapters have been updated, and most have been extensively rewritten.

The title remains Tunnel Engineering Handbook, but John always recognized that you could not "engineer" a tun­nel properly without considering how it might be con­structed and for what purpose it was intended. So the first five chapters cover matters that are primarily the concern of the tunnel designer. The next twelve treat the wide spectrum of tunnel construction methods, but all with relevance to the matters a tunnel engineer needs to understand and consider in the layout and design of a tunnel project. The next seven chapters deal with the operating systems for transportation tunnels-all the things needed to transform a hole in the ground into a useful, convenient, and safe public facility.

Tunnels age, even as do tunnel engineers. But the life of a tunnel frequently extends beyond a human life span, and so a chapter has been added on tunnel rehabilitation, to discuss

how old tunnels may be rejuvenated, and how their useful lives may be extended.

Finally, although this book is not about tunnel construc­tion contracting, a short chapter has been added to explain the evolution and philosophic basis for some unique provi­sions of modem tunnel construction contracts.

This book was written for a broad spectrum of readers, ranging from engineers seeking technical guidance to owners and other decision makers hoping to glean a better under­standing of alternatives. To serve this audience better, we have opted not to include an index in the second edition. In­stead, we have prepared an annotated table of contents, which provides a detailed guide to the many subjects contained herein. In the text itself, the authors have included cross­references to others chapters as appropriate. It is out hope that this combination will help readers locate information more quickly than a traditional, keyword-based index would.

The preparation of this book has involved the dedication and perseverance of many individuals. It could not have been completed without the unflagging support of Parsons Brinckerhoff, and especially the encouragement and pa­tience of its president, James L. Lammie, who stuck with the enterprise when it seemed becalmed or lost. We appreciate his generating the wind that filled our sails and finally brought us into port. But we would never have made it with­out the tireless and skillful production editing of Nellie Ne­grin Finnegan and Karen Tongish, who corralled our dis­tracted and procrastinating chapter authors, coaxed and badgered their manuscripts, and converted a huge pile of raw drafts into a coherent, readable text.

John Bickel did not survive to complete the work on the second edition, but he left a strong beacon that has lighted the way for his successors. All of us who have labored on John's legacy have striven to uphold the high standards to which he held us. This book is a memorial to his inspiration, and a tribute to his vision.

Tunneling brings man into confrontation with the infinite variety and complexity of nature. A professional career in tunneling leads to appreciation of several aphorisms:

• Nature is always smarter than some of us, and sometimes smarter than all of us.

xiii

xiv Preface

• A little learning is a dangerous thing.

and, from a Chinese fortune cookie:

• Listen to advice, but make your own decisions.

This handbook endeavors to collect the best advice cur­rently available from the most experienced professionals in the field of tunneling. It is in no sense to be treated as a cookbook or to replace the judgment of knowledgeable engineers with regard to specific applications to specific projects. Neither the editors, the chapter authors, nor the

publishers assume any liability for application or misappli­cation of any material in this book to any public or private undertaking, nor do they warrant or guarantee the "correct­ness" of any statements or opinions expressed herein, in any specific situation.

Caveat emptor.

Thomas R. Kuesel Charlottesville, Virginia

Elwyn H. King San Francisco, California