Twain on self-approvalTwain on self-approval

There is only There is only one impulseone impulse that ever moves a that ever moves a person to do thingsperson to do things

The impulse to “content his own spirit” and The impulse to “content his own spirit” and “win its approval”“win its approval”

When people perform intentional actions, When people perform intentional actions, their ultimate goal is always to obtain the their ultimate goal is always to obtain the approval and contentment of their own approval and contentment of their own ‘spirit’ (i.e., conscience, moral psychology)‘spirit’ (i.e., conscience, moral psychology)

Call this the Call this the Gospel of Self-ApprovalGospel of Self-Approval..

But what about unselfish But what about unselfish behavior and self-sacrifice?behavior and self-sacrifice?

As the Young Man is eager to point out, there As the Young Man is eager to point out, there are many cases where it appears that people are many cases where it appears that people are behaving unselfishly, that they are are behaving unselfishly, that they are sacrificing their own interest for the sake of sacrificing their own interest for the sake of other people.other people.

In these cases, people seem to be driven by a In these cases, people seem to be driven by a “golden impulse” of kindness and love.“golden impulse” of kindness and love.

So there is a tension between these cases and So there is a tension between these cases and the Gospel of Self-Approval.the Gospel of Self-Approval.

Some cases of (apparent) Some cases of (apparent) unselfishnessunselfishness

The old woman and the snowstormThe old woman and the snowstorm The frightened soldierThe frightened soldier Motherly loveMotherly love PhilanthropistsPhilanthropists Missionary workMissionary work Tipping hotel staffTipping hotel staff Women and children firstWomen and children first

Reinterpreting the casesReinterpreting the cases

The old woman and the snowstorm:The old woman and the snowstorm: the sight of the poor woman caused painthe sight of the poor woman caused pain if he hadn’t helped her, he would have felt terrible, if he hadn’t helped her, he would have felt terrible,

sleepless guiltsleepless guilt after he helped her, he felt very pleasedafter he helped her, he felt very pleased

The case involves a variety of feelings The case involves a variety of feelings (pleasant and unpleasant)(pleasant and unpleasant)

Such feelings come from our conscienceSuch feelings come from our conscience

The true motiveThe true motive These conscientious feelings were what These conscientious feelings were what

really determined the man’s decisionreally determined the man’s decision ““If I don’t help her, I will experience very If I don’t help her, I will experience very

unpleasant feelings of guilt”unpleasant feelings of guilt” ““If I do help her, I will experience very pleasant If I do help her, I will experience very pleasant

feelings of self-approval”feelings of self-approval” He didn’t help for He didn’t help for her sakeher sake; he helped her ; he helped her

for for his own sakehis own sake -- for the sake of avoiding -- for the sake of avoiding unpleasant feelings and obtaining pleasant unpleasant feelings and obtaining pleasant feelings.feelings.

Lincoln’s ReinterpretationLincoln’s ReinterpretationMr. Lincoln once remarked to a fellow passenger on an old-time Mr. Lincoln once remarked to a fellow passenger on an old-time mud coach that all men were prompted by selfishness in doing mud coach that all men were prompted by selfishness in doing good. His fellow passenger was antagonizing this position when good. His fellow passenger was antagonizing this position when they were passing over a corduroy bridge that spanned a slough. they were passing over a corduroy bridge that spanned a slough. As they crossed this bridge they espied an old razor-backed sow As they crossed this bridge they espied an old razor-backed sow on the bank making a terrible noise because her pigs had got on the bank making a terrible noise because her pigs had got into the slough and were in danger of drowning. As the old into the slough and were in danger of drowning. As the old coach began to climb the hill, Mr. Lincoln called out, "Driver, coach began to climb the hill, Mr. Lincoln called out, "Driver, can't you stop a moment?" Then Mr. Lincoln jumped out, ran can't you stop a moment?" Then Mr. Lincoln jumped out, ran back and lifted the little pigs out of the mud and water and back and lifted the little pigs out of the mud and water and placed them on the bank. When he returned, his companion placed them on the bank. When he returned, his companion remarked, "Now Abe, where does selfishness come in on this remarked, "Now Abe, where does selfishness come in on this little episode?" "Why bless your soul, Ed, that was the very little episode?" "Why bless your soul, Ed, that was the very essence of selfishness. I should have had no peace of mind all essence of selfishness. I should have had no peace of mind all day had I gone and left that suffering old sow worrying over day had I gone and left that suffering old sow worrying over those pigs. I did it to get peace of mind, don't you see?"those pigs. I did it to get peace of mind, don't you see?"

Hobbes’s ReinterpretationHobbes’s Reinterpretation““[Hobbes’s] brotherly love to his kindred has already [Hobbes’s] brotherly love to his kindred has already been spoken of. He was very charitable… to those that been spoken of. He was very charitable… to those that were true objects of his bounty. One time, I were true objects of his bounty. One time, I remember, going into the Strand, a poor and infirm remember, going into the Strand, a poor and infirm old man craved his alms. He, beholding him with eyes old man craved his alms. He, beholding him with eyes of pity and compassion, put his hands in his pocket, of pity and compassion, put his hands in his pocket, and gave him 6d. Said a [minister] that stood by - and gave him 6d. Said a [minister] that stood by - ‘Would you have done this, if it had not been Christ's ‘Would you have done this, if it had not been Christ's command?’ ‘Yea,’ said he. ‘Why?’ said the other. command?’ ‘Yea,’ said he. ‘Why?’ said the other. ‘Because,’ said he, ‘I was in pain to consider the ‘Because,’ said he, ‘I was in pain to consider the miserable condition of the old man; and now my alms, miserable condition of the old man; and now my alms, giving him some relief, doth also ease me.’”giving him some relief, doth also ease me.’”

Reinterpretation generallyReinterpretation generally

What is the ultimate goal of seemingly What is the ultimate goal of seemingly unselfish actions?unselfish actions? The goal The goal is notis not to help others to help others The goal The goal isis (1) to avoid feeling bad (guilt) and (1) to avoid feeling bad (guilt) and

also (2) to experience good feelings (self-also (2) to experience good feelings (self-approval)approval)

It’s all about your own feelingsIt’s all about your own feelings The ultimate goals of The ultimate goals of seeminglyseemingly unselfish unselfish

actions are actions are actuallyactually selfish. selfish.

Twain againTwain again People’s consciences are differentPeople’s consciences are different

Some people care about public opinionSome people care about public opinion Some people care more about their family’s Some people care more about their family’s

approvalapproval Some people care more about their moral Some people care more about their moral

convictionsconvictions This is why some people duel and others This is why some people duel and others

refuse to duel.refuse to duel. However they behave, they do it for the sake of However they behave, they do it for the sake of

avoiding guilt and obtaining self-approval.avoiding guilt and obtaining self-approval.

Huck Finn’s conscienceHuck Finn’s conscience

Huck was raised to believe that black slaves Huck was raised to believe that black slaves were the property of their masterswere the property of their masters

He thought it would be wrong to help them He thought it would be wrong to help them escapeescape

So when he helped Jim escape, Huck felt So when he helped Jim escape, Huck felt terrible -- his conscience tormented him and terrible -- his conscience tormented him and he thought he would go to hell for surehe thought he would go to hell for sure

Then he had an opportunity to turn Jim Then he had an opportunity to turn Jim back in to his ownerback in to his owner

Huck Finn’s conscienceHuck Finn’s conscience

But Jim had become his best friend, and he But Jim had become his best friend, and he couldn’t bring himself to betray his friendcouldn’t bring himself to betray his friend

So he decided not to turn Jim inSo he decided not to turn Jim in He decided he’d rather go to hellHe decided he’d rather go to hell And then he decided that, so long as he was And then he decided that, so long as he was

going to hell, he might as well be totally evil, going to hell, he might as well be totally evil, and go the whole hogand go the whole hog

How would Twain describe How would Twain describe this?this?

Probably he’d say that Huck had two parts Probably he’d say that Huck had two parts of his mind competingof his mind competing one part was what Huck recognized as his one part was what Huck recognized as his

conscience (telling Huck to turn Jim in)conscience (telling Huck to turn Jim in) the other part was making him feel bad when he the other part was making him feel bad when he

thought about what a good friend Jim wasthought about what a good friend Jim was Huck’s conscience was divided, and in the Huck’s conscience was divided, and in the

end, he went with the stronger partend, he went with the stronger part Huck did what he did in order to have as Huck did what he did in order to have as

little guilt as possiblelittle guilt as possible

Summing up TwainSumming up Twain

When you do something that helps other When you do something that helps other people, the only reason you do it is so you can people, the only reason you do it is so you can avoid the unpleasant feelings that come from avoid the unpleasant feelings that come from your conscience, and so you can obtain the your conscience, and so you can obtain the pleasant feelings that come from your pleasant feelings that come from your conscienceconscience

It’s all about your own feelingsIt’s all about your own feelings

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Hobbes.htmlhttp://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Hobbes.html

An uncompromising materialist: he thought An uncompromising materialist: he thought that everything that happens is just the that everything that happens is just the mechanical operations of material bodies in mechanical operations of material bodies in motionmotion

He claimed to be a good Christian -- but he He claimed to be a good Christian -- but he thought even God was made out of matter!thought even God was made out of matter!

It wasn’t until age 40 that he discovered and It wasn’t until age 40 that he discovered and fell in love with geometryfell in love with geometry

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

He wanted to set psychology and law on the He wanted to set psychology and law on the firm foundation of mechanical sciencefirm foundation of mechanical science

And he wanted to use geometrical methods to And he wanted to use geometrical methods to do it (start with definitions, and then derive do it (start with definitions, and then derive theorems and laws)theorems and laws)

He is most famous for his book He is most famous for his book LeviathanLeviathan, , which focuses on psychology, politics, law, which focuses on psychology, politics, law, and Scripture.and Scripture.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

He argued that while men are originally free He argued that while men are originally free and equal, they must put themselves under an and equal, they must put themselves under an absolute monarch in order to avoid the absolute monarch in order to avoid the conflicts and dangers of anarchyconflicts and dangers of anarchy a combination of liberalism and totalitarianisma combination of liberalism and totalitarianism

But why would there be so much conflict But why would there be so much conflict without government?without government? Because human beings are selfish to the coreBecause human beings are selfish to the core

Hobbes’s psychology of actionHobbes’s psychology of actionObjects have effects on usObjects have effects on us

sometimes we have sometimes we have desiredesire for them, sometimes for them, sometimes we have we have aversionaversion from them from them

whatever causes desire in me, I will call ‘good’whatever causes desire in me, I will call ‘good’ whatever causes aversion in me, I will call ‘evil’whatever causes aversion in me, I will call ‘evil’ The terms ‘good’ and ‘evil’ have meaning only The terms ‘good’ and ‘evil’ have meaning only

in reference to desires or aversionsin reference to desires or aversions From this you can derive all human passions From this you can derive all human passions

(hope, despair, fear, courage, anger, kindness, (hope, despair, fear, courage, anger, kindness, etc.)etc.)

Human diversityHuman diversity

Different people desire different thingsDifferent people desire different things But what explains this?But what explains this? Some desires are natural -- food, excretionSome desires are natural -- food, excretion Other desires come with experienceOther desires come with experience Especially from education and upbringingEspecially from education and upbringing And people are always changingAnd people are always changing

Voluntary actionVoluntary action

A great variety of endeavors compete within A great variety of endeavors compete within the humanthe human

They can be balanced and summed against They can be balanced and summed against each othereach other

The last endeavor standing (Hobbes calls it the The last endeavor standing (Hobbes calls it the willwill) causes an action) causes an action

Because the action came from the will, it is a Because the action came from the will, it is a voluntary actionvoluntary action

Hobbes on PowerHobbes on Power

PowerPower is nothing but the ability to obtain some is nothing but the ability to obtain some future apparent goodfuture apparent good that is, the ability to obtain something you think that is, the ability to obtain something you think

will satisfy your desireswill satisfy your desires So all sorts of things count as powerSo all sorts of things count as power

strength, intelligence, money, reputation, strength, intelligence, money, reputation, technologytechnology

Hobbes’s EgoismHobbes’s Egoism ““And therefore the voluntary actions and inclinations And therefore the voluntary actions and inclinations

of all men tend not only to the procuring, but also to of all men tend not only to the procuring, but also to the assuring of a contented life, and differ only in the the assuring of a contented life, and differ only in the way, which ariseth partly from the diversity of way, which ariseth partly from the diversity of passions in diverse men, and partly from the passions in diverse men, and partly from the difference of the knowledge or opinion each one has difference of the knowledge or opinion each one has of the causes which produce the effect desired.”of the causes which produce the effect desired.”

““I put for a general inclination of all mankind a I put for a general inclination of all mankind a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death.”ceaseth only in death.”

““[O]f all voluntary acts, the object is to every man his [O]f all voluntary acts, the object is to every man his own good”own good”

More on powerMore on power ““Competition of riches, honour, command, or other Competition of riches, honour, command, or other

power inclineth to contention, enmity, and war, because power inclineth to contention, enmity, and war, because the way of one competitor to the attaining of his desire is the way of one competitor to the attaining of his desire is to kill, subdue, supplant, or repel the other.”to kill, subdue, supplant, or repel the other.”

““To have received from one, to whom we think To have received from one, to whom we think ourselves equal, greater benefits than there is hope to ourselves equal, greater benefits than there is hope to requite, disposeth to counterfeit love, but really secret requite, disposeth to counterfeit love, but really secret hatred, and puts a man into the estate of a desperate hatred, and puts a man into the estate of a desperate debtor that, in declining the sight of his creditor, tacitly debtor that, in declining the sight of his creditor, tacitly wishes him there where he might never see him more. wishes him there where he might never see him more. For benefits oblige; and obligation is thraldom; and For benefits oblige; and obligation is thraldom; and unrequitable obligation, perpetual thraldom; which is to unrequitable obligation, perpetual thraldom; which is to one's equal, hateful.”one's equal, hateful.”

Hobbes’s Egoism - clarificationHobbes’s Egoism - clarification

All my voluntary actions are performed for the All my voluntary actions are performed for the sake of obtaining a contented life for me, of sake of obtaining a contented life for me, of obtaining power for me, of obtaining what is obtaining power for me, of obtaining what is good for me.good for me.

This goes for all humans.This goes for all humans. This is what drives us to hurt and hate each This is what drives us to hurt and hate each

other.other. This is why we need a government.This is why we need a government.

Reinterpretation (again)Reinterpretation (again)

The ‘Alms to the beggar’ story (earlier)The ‘Alms to the beggar’ story (earlier) ““Grief for the calamity of another is Grief for the calamity of another is PityPity; and ariseth ; and ariseth

from the imagination that the like calamity may befall from the imagination that the like calamity may befall himself; and therefore is called also himself; and therefore is called also CompassionCompassion, and , and in the phrase of this present time a in the phrase of this present time a Fellow-FeelingFellow-Feeling: : and therefore for calamity arriving from great and therefore for calamity arriving from great wickedness, the best men have the least pity; and for wickedness, the best men have the least pity; and for the same calamity, those have least pity that think the same calamity, those have least pity that think themselves least obnoxious to the same.”themselves least obnoxious to the same.”

Reinterpretation (again), cont’dReinterpretation (again), cont’d

““Desire of praise disposeth to laudable actions, Desire of praise disposeth to laudable actions, such as please them whose judgement they such as please them whose judgement they value”value”

““Desire of fame after death does the same”Desire of fame after death does the same”

Reinterpretation - clarificationReinterpretation - clarification Why do I help poor people? To feel better.Why do I help poor people? To feel better. Why do I sometimes feel bad for other, Why do I sometimes feel bad for other,

unfortunate people? Because I imagine that unfortunate people? Because I imagine that the same misfortune might also strike me!the same misfortune might also strike me! The more powerful I am, the less likely I’ll be The more powerful I am, the less likely I’ll be

struck by misfortune, so the less pity I have.struck by misfortune, so the less pity I have. Why do I do the right thing? Because I want Why do I do the right thing? Because I want

other people to praise me.other people to praise me.

Psychological egoismPsychological egoism

It’s a theory about human nature -- about It’s a theory about human nature -- about how how humans workhumans work

Psychological egoismPsychological egoism: Every human action is : Every human action is ultimately driven by a selfish motive.ultimately driven by a selfish motive. experiencing pleasant feelingsexperiencing pleasant feelings avoiding unpleasant feelingsavoiding unpleasant feelings getting others to praise yougetting others to praise you getting a good reputationgetting a good reputation

Not just cynicism or pessimismNot just cynicism or pessimism

If you’re cynical or pessimistic about human If you’re cynical or pessimistic about human nature, you’re likely to hold that most people nature, you’re likely to hold that most people are lousy selfish finks.are lousy selfish finks.

But psychological egoism goes further and But psychological egoism goes further and says that says that everyevery action ever performed by action ever performed by anyany human is selfishly motivated.human is selfishly motivated.

The threat to moralityThe threat to morality

Morality sometimes requires us to behave Morality sometimes requires us to behave unselfishly.unselfishly.

But, if psychological egoism is true, we’re not But, if psychological egoism is true, we’re not able to behave unselfishly (just due to human able to behave unselfishly (just due to human nature).nature).

So if psychological egoism is true, it’s So if psychological egoism is true, it’s impossible to live up to our moral impossible to live up to our moral requirements.requirements.

Arguments for psychological Arguments for psychological egoismegoism

MyMy motives motives: Any action I perform will be : Any action I perform will be driven by motives that are driven by motives that are minemine, and not , and not anyone else’s. So I am always seeking anyone else’s. So I am always seeking something for myself and not anyone else.something for myself and not anyone else.

Pleasure of achievementPleasure of achievement: Whenever I get : Whenever I get something that I want, I feel pleasure -- a something that I want, I feel pleasure -- a feeling of satisfaction. So the reason I went feeling of satisfaction. So the reason I went after it in the first place was simply to get that after it in the first place was simply to get that pleasant feeling.pleasant feeling.

Arguments, cont’dArguments, cont’d

Self-deceptionSelf-deception: We’re often wrong about our : We’re often wrong about our own motives. We often trick ourselves into own motives. We often trick ourselves into believing that we’re more noble and virtuous believing that we’re more noble and virtuous than we really are. So it’s likely that our than we really are. So it’s likely that our hidden motives are really selfish ones.hidden motives are really selfish ones.

Arguments, cont’dArguments, cont’d

Moral EducationMoral Education: The way you teach children : The way you teach children to behave is by punishing them with pain and to behave is by punishing them with pain and rewarding them with pleasure. It seems as rewarding them with pleasure. It seems as though people won’t cooperate without getting though people won’t cooperate without getting some benefit for themselves. So this is some benefit for themselves. So this is probably just human nature in general.probably just human nature in general.

Arguments, cont’dArguments, cont’d

EvolutionEvolution: According to basic evolutionary : According to basic evolutionary theory, the organisms whose traits get passed theory, the organisms whose traits get passed along are the ones whose traits help them to along are the ones whose traits help them to survive and reproduce in their (often survive and reproduce in their (often competitive) environments. So only the most competitive) environments. So only the most selfish organisms will survive, and their selfish organisms will survive, and their selfishness will be inherited by their offspring. selfishness will be inherited by their offspring. So selfishness is a biological inevitability.So selfishness is a biological inevitability.