understanding food principles and preparation...understanding food principles and preparation fourth...

Licensed to:

The perfect recipe for success.

Make the most of your class experience—and increase your odds of success—with the Lab Manual for Understanding Food, 4E.

Organized to follow Understanding Food, each chapter of this lab manual reinforces what you learn in the text. Hands-on experiments and recipes, covering all the major food categories in the book, enhance your understanding of the concepts covered and can help improve your performance in the course.

▶ Each lab begins with introduction pre-lab questions, followed by an overview of the objectives, procedures, recipes, and post-lab questions.

▶ NEW! Many photographs throughout help illustrate the lab procedures.

▶ A broad array of recipes encourages culinary creativity and diversity, and introduces you to foods from a variety of cultures.

▶ Study questions for each chapter help prepare you for your next exam.

▶ NEW! Lab exercises include “Sampling of Yogurt Products,” “Preparation of Applesauce—Effects of Apple Variety and Cooking Medium,” “Comparison of Types of Pasta,” and “Chemical Leaveners.”

Table of Contents1. Sensory Evaluation

11. Cereals and Flours

2. Food Preparation Basics 12. Starches

3. Meat

13. Quick Breads4. Poultry

14. Yeast Breads5. Fish and Shellfi sh

15. Fats and Oils6. Milk

16. Cakes7. Cheese

17. Pastry8. Eggs

18. Candy9. Vegetables and Fruits

19. Frozen Desserts

10. Legumes 20. Beverages

If your book is not bundled with the Lab Manual, you can purchase it online at: CengageBrain.com.

Recipe for SuccessUnderstanding Food 4E Core Text + Lab ManualISBN 978-1-111-48535-1

A la CarteLab Manual standaloneISBN 978-0-538-49795-4

34981_Front endsheet SE.indd 66434981_Front endsheet SE.indd 664 4/30/10 8:45:40 PM4/30/10 8:45:40 PM

Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

Licensed to:

Understanding FoodPrinciples and Preparation

Fourth Edition

Amy BrownUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd i34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd i 4/30/10 7:17:11 PM4/30/10 7:17:11 PM


Licensed to:

52609_00_fm_pi-pxxvi.indd ii52609_00_fm_pi-pxxvi.indd ii 2/1/10 11:37:43 PM2/1/10 11:37:43 PM

This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights

restrictions, some third party may be suppressed. Editionreview has deemed that any suppres ed content does not materially

affect the over all learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove the contents from this title at any time if subsequentrights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate format, please visitwww.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest.

s


Licensed to:

© 2011, 2008 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010926934

ISBN-13: 978-0-538-73498-1

ISBN-10: 0-538-73498-1

Wadsworth20 Davis DriveBelmont, CA 94002-3098USA

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with offi ce locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local offi ce at www.cengage.com/global.

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

To learn more about Wadsworth, visit www.cengage.com/wadsworth

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com.

Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation, Fourth EditionAmy Brown

Senior Acquisitions Editor: Peggy Williams

Developmental Editor: Elesha Feldman

Editorial Assistant: Alexis Glubka

Media Editor: Miriam Myers

Senior Marketing Manager: Laura McGinn

Marketing Assistant: Elizabeth Wong

Senior Marketing Communications Manager: Linda Yip

Content Project Management: Pre-PressPMG

Creative Director: Rob Hugel

Senior Art Director: John Walker

Print Buyer: Linda Hsu

Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Text: Roberta Broyer

Rights Acquisitions Account Manager, Image: Dean Dauphinais

Production Service: Pre-PressPMG

Photo Researcher: Pre-PressPMG

Cover Designer: Riezebos/Holzbaur: Bill Alexander

Cover Image: © Taillard/photocuisine/Corbis

Compositor: Pre-PressPMG

For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706.

For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.

Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to [email protected].

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd ii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd ii 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

iii

Brief Contents

PART I FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

1 Food Selection 1 2 Food Evaluation 23 3 Chemistry of Food Composition 31

PART II FOOD SERVICE

4 Food Safety 64 5 Food Preparation Basics 99 6 Meal Management 120

PART III FOODSPROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, DAIRY, & EGGS

7 Meat 140 8 Poultry 172 9 Fish and Shellfish 188 10 Milk 210 11 Cheese 232 12 Eggs 249

PHYTOCHEMICALS—VEGETABLES, FRUITS, SOUPS, & SALADS

13 Vegetables and Legumes 270 14 Fruits 298 15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 327

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES—CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS

16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 345 17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 367 18 Starches and Sauces 391 19 Quick Breads 407 20 Yeast Breads 418

DESSERTS—REFINED CARBOHYDRATES & FAT

21 Sweeteners 435 22 Fats and Oils 453 23 Cakes and Cookies 478 24 Pastries and Pies 498 25 Candy 518 26 Frozen Desserts 534

WATER—BEVERAGES

27 Beverages 549

PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY

28 Food Preservation 574 29 Government Food Regulations 591 30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 609

APPENDIXES

A Food Preparation Equipment A-1 B Approximate Food Measurements B-1 C Substitution of Ingredients C-1 D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1 E Cheeses E-1 F Common Food Additives F-1

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd iii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd iii 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

iv

Contents

2 Food Evaluation 23

Sensory (Subjective) Evaluation 23Two Types of Sensory Testing 23Taste Panels 25Sample Preparation 25

Objective Evaluation 26Physical Tests 26Chemical Tests 27

Pictorial Summary 28Chapter Review and Exam Prep 29References 29Websites 30

3 Chemistry of Food Composition 31

Basic Food Chemistry 31Six Key Atoms—CHNOPS 32

Water 33Water Content in Foods 33Free or Bound Water 33Composition of Water 33Measuring Calories 33Specific Heat 34Freezing Point 34Melting Point 34Boiling Point 35Hard vs. Soft Water 35Functions of Water in Food 35Chemical Reactions 36Food Preservation 38

Carbohydrates 39Foods High in Carbohydrates 39Composition of Carbohydrates 39Monosaccharides 40Disaccharides 40Oligosaccharides 41Polysaccharides 41Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods 46

Lipids or Fats 46Foods High in Lipids 46Composition of Lipids 46Triglycerides 46Fatty Acid Structure 46

Preface xiv

About the Author xvii

PART I FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

1 Food Selection 1

Sensory Criteria 1Sight 1Odor 2Taste 2Professional Profile 4Touch 5Hearing 5

Nutritional Criteria 5Dietary Guidelines for Americans 6MyPyramid 6Consumer Dietary Changes 6

Cultural Criteria 10Ethnic Influences 10Place of Birth 10Geography and Climate 11Cultural Influences on Manners 11

Religious Criteria 11Buddhism 11Hinduism 11Seventh-Day Adventist Church 11Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon Church) 11Judaism 12Islam 12

Psychological and Sociolog ical Criteria 13Bioengineering 13Organic Foods 16Natural Foods 17

Budgetary Criteria 17


34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd iv34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd iv 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

Contents v

Chemical Hazards—Harmful Chemicals in Food 75Seafood Toxins: Chemicals from Fish/Shellfish 75

Food Allergy 76Prevention 76Most Common Food Allergens 76Cross-Contamination 76

Physical Hazards—Objects in Food 77

Preventing Foodborne Illness 77Location, Location, Location 77Personnel 77Vulnerable Foods 78Purchasing 80Inspection 80Storage 81Preparation 82

Proper Use of Thermometers 84Types of Thermometers 84How to Use a Thermometer 84Calibration of Thermometers 84Sanitation 89Food Safety Monitoring 90


5 Food Preparation Basics 99

Heating Foods 99Moist-Heat Preparation 99

Types of Moist-Heat Preparation 100Scalding 100Poaching 100Simmering 100Stewing 100Braising 100Boiling 100Steaming 101Microwaving 101Dry-Heat Preparation 101

Types of Dry-Heat Preparation 102Roasting 102Broiling 102Grilling 102Barbecuing 102Frying 102Types of Heat Transfer 103Measuring Heat 104

Cutlery Techniques 105Handling Knives 105Cutting Styles 106

Fatty Acids in Foods 47Fatty Acid Nomenclature 47Phospholipids 47Sterols 48Functions of Lipids in Foods 49

Proteins 49Protein Quality in Foods 50Composition of Proteins 50Amino Acids 50Functions of Proteins in Food 51

Vitamins and Minerals 55Foods High in Vitamins and Minerals 55Composition of Vitamins and Minerals 55Functions of Vitamins and Minerals in Food 55

Nonnutritive Food Components 56Food Additives 56Purposes of Food Additives 56Plant Compounds 59


PART II FOOD SERVICE4 Food Safety 64

What is a Foodborne Illness? 65What Causes Foodborne Illness? 65

Biological Hazards—Living Culprits 65Bacteria: Number-One Cause of Foodborne Illness 65

Bacterial Food Infections 68Salmonella 68Listeria monocytogenes 68Yersinia enterocolitica 68Shigella 69

Bacterial Food Intoxications 69Staphylococcus aureus 69Clostridium botulinum 69

Bacterial Toxin-Mediated Infections 69Escherichia coli 69Campylobacter jejuni 71Vibrio 71Molds 71Viruses 71Parasites 72Prions—Mad Cow Disease 73New Virulent Biological Hazards 74Advanced Techniques for Detecting Contamination 74

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd v34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd v 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

vi Contents

Accessories 136Centerpieces 136


PART III FOODSPROTEIN—MEAT, POULTRY, FISH, DAIRY, & EGGS

7 Meat 140

Types of Meats 140Beef 140Lamb and Mutton 141Pork 141

Composition of Meats 141Structure of Meat 141Antibiotics and Hormones 144Pigments 145Extractives 145

Purchasing Meats 146Inspection 146Grading 146Tenderness of Meats 148Cuts of Meat 152Processed Meats 156

Preparation of Meats 160Changes During Heating 160Determining Doneness 162Dry-Heat Preparation 163Moist-Heat Preparation 165Carving 166

Storage of Meats 166Refrigerated 167Frozen 167


8 Poultry 172

Classification of Poultry 172Chickens 172Turkeys 173Other Domestic Poultry 173

Composition of Poultry 173Pigments 173

Measuring Ingredients 107Approximating the Amount of Required Food 107Selecting the Right Measuring Utensil 108Using an Accurate Measuring Technique 109

Mixing Techniques 110Conventional (Creaming) Method 110Conventional Sponge Method 111Single-Stage Method 111Pastry-Blend Method 111Biscuit Method 111Muffin Method 111

Seasonings and Flavorings 111Types of Seasonings and Flavorings 111Adding Seasonings and Flavorings to Food 115

Food Presentation 116Plate Presentation 116Garnishes 116


6 Meal Management 120

Food Service Organization 120Commercial Food Service Organization 121Hospital Food Service Organization 122

Meal Planning 123USDA Menu Patterns 123Hospital Menu Patterns 124Creating the Menu 124

Purchasing 126Buyers 126Food Stores and Vendors/Suppliers 126Keeping Food Costs Down 127Reading Label Product Codes 131Reducing Waste Saves Costs 131

Time Management 132Estimating Time 132Efficient Meal Preparation 133

Types of Meal Service 135Russian Service 135French Service 135English Service 135American Service 135Family Service 135Buffet Service 135

Table Settings 135Cover and Linens 135Flatware/Dinnerware/Glassware 136

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd vi34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd vi 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

Contents vii

Nutrients 211Color Compounds 214Food Additives 214

Purchasing Milk 214Grades 214Pasteurization 214Ultrapasteurization 215Homogenization 215

Types of Milk 216Fresh Fluid Cow Milks 216Fresh Fluid Milks from Animals Other Than Cows 216Flavored Fluid Milks 217Ultrahigh-Temperature Milk (UHT) 218Nutritionally Altered Fluid Milks 218Plant-Based “Milks” 219Canned Fluid Milks 220Dry Milk 220Cultured Milk Products 221Creams and Substitutes 223

Milk Products in Food Preparation 224Flavor Changes 224Coagulation and Precipitation 224Whipped Milk Products 225

Storage of Milk Products 227Refrigerated 227Dry Storage 227


11 Cheese 232

Classification of Cheeses 232Place of Origin 233Moisture Content 233

Cheese Production 234Milk Selection 234Coagulation 234Curd Treatment 236Curing and Ripening 236Whey and Whey Products 239Process (Processed) Cheeses 240Food Additives in Cheese 241

Purchasing Cheese 241Grading 241Forms of Cheese 242

Food Preparation with Cheese 242Selecting a Cheese 242Temperatures 243Cutting Cheese 244

Purchasing Poultry 174Inspection 174Grading 174Types and Styles of Poultry 174How Much to Buy 176

Preparation of Poultry 176Preparation Safety Tips 177Changes During Preparation 178Determining Doneness 178Dry-Heat Preparation 179Moist-Heat Preparation 182Professional Profile 183

Storage of Poultry 183Refrigerated 184Frozen 184


9 Fish and Shellfi sh 188

Classification of Fish and Shellfish 188Vertebrate or Invertebrate 188Salt- or Freshwater 189Lean or Fat 189

Composition of Fish 189Structure of Finfish 189Pigments 191

Purchasing Fish and Shellfish 191Inspection/Grading 191Shellfish Certification 192Selection of Finfish 192Selection of Shellfish 197

Preparation of Fish and Shellfish 201Dry-Heat Preparation 201Moist-Heat Preparation 203

Storage of Fish and Shellfish 204Fresh Finfish 204Fresh Shellfish 205Frozen 205Canned and Cured 205


10 Milk 210

Functions of Milk in Foods 211Composition of Milk 211

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd vii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd vii 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

viii Contents

Structure of Plant Cells 270Plant Pigments 272Plants as Functional Foods 273Additives 275

Purchasing Vegetables 277Grading Vegetables 277Selecting Vegetables 277

Legumes 285Textured Vegetable Protein 285Tofu 285Fermented Soybean Foods 286

Preparation of Vegetables 286General Guidelines 286Changes During Heating 287Dry-Heat Preparation 288Moist-Heat Preparation 290Preparing Legumes 290Preparing Sprouts 291

Storage of Vegetables 292Refrigerated 292Freezing 292Dry Storage 292Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 293


14 Fruits 298

Classification of Fruits 298Classification Exceptions 299

Composition of Fruits 299Organic Acids 299Pectic Substances 299Phenolic Compounds 300Fruits as Functional Foods 301Food Additives in Fruits 304

Purchasing Fruits 304Grading Fruit 304Selecting Fruits 304Processed Fruits 312Dried Fruits 313Fruit Juices 313

Preparation of Fruits 315Enzymatic Browning 315Changes During Heating 315Professional Profile 316Dry-Heat Preparation 317Moist-Heat Preparation 318Fruit Spreads 318

Storage of Cheese 244Dry Storage 244Refrigeration 244Frozen 244Professional Profile 245


12 Eggs 249

Composition of Eggs 249Structure 249Yolk 249Albumen 250Shell Membranes 250Air Cell 251Shell 251

Purchasing Eggs 251Inspection 251Grading 251Sizing 253Egg Substitutes 253Value-Added Eggs 253

Types of Eggs 254Functions of Eggs in Foods 254Emulsifying 254Binding 254Foaming 256Interfering 257Clarifying 257Color 258

Preparation of Eggs 258Changes in Prepared Eggs 258Dry-Heat Preparation 259Moist-Heat Preparation 261

Storage of Eggs 264Refrigerator 264Frozen 265Dried 265Safety Tips 265


PHYTOCHEMICALS–VEGETABLES, FRUITS, SOUPS, & SALADS

13 Vegetables and Legumes 270

Classification of Vegetables 270Composition of Vegetables 270

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd viii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd viii 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

Contents ix

Farro and Spelt 354Millet 354Sorghum 354Oats 354Rye 355Other Grains 356

Preparation of Cereal Grains 356Moist-Heat Preparation: Boiling/Simmering 356Microwaving 358

Storage of Cereal Grains 358Dry 358Refrigerated 358Frozen 358

Pastas 358Types of Pasta 359Pasta Nomenclature 359

Preparation of Pasta 360Moist-Heat Preparation 360Microwaving 362

Storage of Pasta 362


17 Flours and Flour Mixtures 367

Flours 368Gluten 368Cereal-Grain Allergies 371Milling 371Wheat Flour Classifications 372Types of Wheat Flour 373Types of Non-Wheat Flour 373Treated Flours 374

Flour Mixture Ingredients 375Leavening Agents 375Sugar 379Salt/Flavoring 380Liquid 380Fat 380Eggs 382Commercial Additives 382

Preparation of Baked Goods 384Doughs and Batters 384Changes During Heating 385High-Altitude Adjustments 385

Storage of Flour and Flour Mixtures 385Dry Storage 385Cool Storage Temperatures Required 385Frozen 385

Storage of Fruits 320Storing Fresh Fruit 320Storing Canned Fruit 321


15 Soups, Salads, and Gelatins 327

Soups 327Types of Soups 327Stocks 328Clear and Thin Soups 330Thickened Soups 330

Salads 332Salad Ingredients 332Principles of Salad Preparation 335Salad Dressings 336

Gelatins 339What is Gelatin? 339Is Gelatin Nutritious? 339Preparation of a Gel 339Phases of Gel Formation 340Unmolding a Mold 340Factors Influencing Gel Formation 340Storage of Gelatin 341


COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES—CEREALS, FLOUR, BREADS

16 Cereal Grains and Pastas 345

Composition of Cereal Grains 345Structure 345Food Additives in Grain Products 347

Uses of Cereal Grains 347Flour 347Pasta 347Breakfast Cereal 347Alcoholic Beverages 348Animal Feeds 348

Types of Cereal Grains 349Wheat 350Rice 350Corn 352Barley 353

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd ix34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd ix 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

x Contents

Proofing: Fermentation Causes the First Rising 422Punching Down—Second Rising 423Shaping 423Selecting a Baking Pan 424Second Proofing (Optional) 424Decorating 425Baking 425

Types of Yeast Breads 428Loaf Breads 428Rolls 429Pita Bread 429Bagels 429English Muffins 430Pizza Crust 431Pretzels and Bread Sticks 431Raised Doughnuts 431

Storage of Yeast Breads 431Fresh 431Refrigerated 431Frozen 431


DESSERTS—REFINED CARBOHYDRATES & FAT

21 Sweeteners 435

Natural Sweeteners 436Sugars 436Syrups 438Sugar Alcohols 441

Nonnutritive Sweeteners 442Saccharin 443Aspartame 443Acesulfame-K 444Sucralose 444Neotame 445Stevia: Dietary Supplement and GRAS Additive 445Pending Nonnutritive Sweeteners 445Other Sweeteners 446

Functions of Sugars in Foods 446Sweetness 446Solubility 446Crystallization 447Browning Reactions 447Caramelization 447Moisture Absorption (Hygroscopicity) 448Texture 448Fermentation 448


18 Starches and Sauces 391

Starches as Thickeners 391Sources of Starch 391Starch in Food Products 392Starch Structure 393

Starch Characteristics 394Gelatinization 394Gel Formation 395Retrogradation 396Dextrinization 396Resistant Starches 396Modified Starches 397

Sauces 397Functions of Sauces in Foods 398Types of Sauces 398Preparation of Thickened Sauces 399Preparation of Unthickened Sauces 401

Storage of Starches and Sauces 403


19 Quick Breads 407

Preparation of Quick Breads 408The Muffin Method 408Additives Used in Quick Breads 408

Varieties of Quick Breads 408Pour Batters 408Drop Batters 409Doughs 412Professional Profile 414


20 Yeast Breads 418

Preparation of Yeast Breads 418Ingredients 418Food Additives in Baked Products 419Mixing Methods 420Kneading 421

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd x34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd x 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

Contents xi

Preparation of Cakes 482Ingredients 482Other Factors 483Preparing Shortened Cakes 483

Frostings/Icings 488Flat Frostings 488Decorating Frosting 488Cooked Frosting 488Whipped Cream Frosting 488Ganache 488Garnishes 489

Storage of Cakes 489

Types of Cookies 489Bar Cookies 490Dropped Cookies 490Pressed Cookies 491Molded Cookies 491Rolled Cookies 491Icebox/Refrigerator Cookies 492Cookies as Functional Foods 492

Preparation of Cookies 492Ingredients and Mixing Methods 492Baking Cookies 493

Storage of Cookies 494


24 Pastries and Pies 498

Types of Pastry 498Nonlaminated and Laminated Pastries 498Plain Pastry (Nonlaminated) 498Brioche Pastry (Nonlaminated) 499Choux Pastry (Nonlaminated) 500Puff Pastry (Laminated) 500

Preparation of Pastry 500Ingredients of Pastry 500Mixing 505Rolling 507Fillings 509Toppings 512Baking 513Testing for Doneness 513

Storage of Pastry 514


Preservation 448Leavening 448Other Uses 448


22 Fats and Oils 453

Functions of Fats in Food 454Heat Transfer 454Shortening Power 454Emulsions 455Melting Point 456Plasticity 456Solubility 457Flavor 457Texture 457Appearance 457Satiety or Feeling Full 457

Types of Fats 457Butter 457Margarine 460Shortenings 461Oils 461Lard/Tallow/Suet 464Cocoa Butter 465

Fat Replacers 465Types of Fat Replacers 465Composition of Fat Replacers 465Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 465Protein-Based Fat Replacers 465Lipid-Based Fat Replacers 465

Food Preparation with Fats 467Frying Care 467Lower-Fat Preparation Techniques 469

Storage of Fats 470Rancidity 470


23 Cakes and Cookies 478

Types of Cakes 478Shortened Cakes 478Unshortened Cakes 480Chiffon Cakes 480Professional Profile 481

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xi34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xi 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

xii Contents

Carbonated Beverages 551Early Soft Drinks 551Soft Drink Processing 551Soft Drink Health Concerns 551Diet Soft Drinks 552Food Additives in Soft Drinks 552

Functional Beverages 552Types of Functional Beverages 552

Coffee 554Coffee Processing 555Composition of Coffee 556Types of Coffee 556Preparation of Coffee 557Storage of Coffee 559

Tea 559Tea Processing 559Types of Tea 560Grades of Tea 561Composition of Tea 561Health Benefits of Tea 561Preparation of Tea 561Storage of Tea 562

Dairy Beverages 562Cocoa Beverages 562

Alcoholic Beverages 562Calorie (kcal) Content 563Beer 563Wine 564Spirits 568


PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY28 Food Preservation 574

Food Spoilage 574Biological Changes 574Chemical Changes 575Physical Changes 575

Food Preservation Methods 575Drying 576Curing 577Smoking Cured Meats 577Fermentation 577Pickling 577Edible Coatings on Foods 578Canning 578

25 Candy 518

Classification of Candies 518Syrup Phase or Fat Phase 518Crystalline or Non-crystalline (Amorphous) 519

Preparation of Candy 520Steps to Confectionery Preparation 520Crystalline Candies 520Noncrystalline Candies 524

Chocolate 525Chocolate Production 526Types of Chocolate Products 529

Storage of Candy 530Shelf Life of Chocolate 530


26 Frozen Desserts 534

Types of Frozen Desserts 534Ice Cream 534Imitation Ice Cream 536Gelato 536Frozen Yogurt 536Sherbet 537Sorbet 537Water Ices 537Still-Frozen Desserts 537

Preparation of Frozen Desserts 537Factors Affecting Quality 537Professional Profile 539Mixing and Freezing 541Food Additives in Frozen Desserts 544

Storage of Frozen Desserts 544Texture Changes 544Scooping Frozen Desserts 545


WATER—BEVERAGES

27 Beverages 549

Water 549Types of Water 550Contaminates in Water 551

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xii 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

Contents xiii

International Agencies 604The Food and Agriculture Organization 604The World Health Organization 604European Regulation 604


30 Careers in Food and Nutrition 609

Three Major Food and Nutrition Areas 609

Nutrition Science and Dietetics 609Nutrition Science 610Dietetics 612

Food Science 616Food Scientist 616Food Science Technician 618

Food Service 618Academic Preparation 618Types of Food Service Culinary Positions 619Food Service Certifications 619

Graduate School 619Prerequisites 619Academic Requirements 620Professional Profile 620Examination Requirement 621Graduate Degree Jobs 621


Appendixes

A Food Preparation Equipment A-1

B Approximate Food Measurements B-1

C Substitution of Ingredients C-1

D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1

E Cheeses E-1

F Common Food Additives F-1

Glossary G-1

Answers to Multiple Choice AK-1

Index I-1

Cold Preservation 579Refrigeration 579Freezing 579

Heat Preservation 581Boiling 581Pasteurization 581High-Temperature Pasteurization 581Ohmic Heating 581

Other Preservation Methods 581Irradiation (Cold Pasteurization) 581Pulsed Light 583High-Pressure Processing 583Ozonation 584Aseptic and Modified Atmosphere Packaging 584

Nutrient Retention 584


29 Government Food Regulations 591

Federal Food Laws 591Food And Drug Act (1906) 592Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938) 592Numerous Government Agencies 592

Food and Drug Administration 593Research/Education 593The Code of Federal Regulations 593FDA Inspections 593FDA Standards 594Food Labeling 595Food Allergens 597FDA Allowed Claims on Labels 597Food Additives 598The Bioterrorism Preparedness Act 600

U.S. Department of Agriculture 600USDA Inspections 601USDA Grading 601Irradiated Foods 602Organic Foods 602Kosher/Halal Foods 602Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) 602

Environmental Protection Agency 603

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 603

Other Regulatory Agencies 603U.S. Department of Commerce 603Federal Trade Commission 603Department of the Treasury 603State Agencies 604

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xiii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xiii 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

xiv

C omprehensive is the word that describes Understanding Food. It

brings together the most current in-formation in food science, nutrition, and food service. Founded on research from more than 35 journals covering these disciplines, the text incorporates the very latest information on food—its science and its application. Under-standing Food, 4th edition, provides students with a broad foundation to launch a career in any of these food-related fi elds.

ORGANIZATION OF CONTENTUnderstanding Food is organized according to the various food disciplines. Part I represents information related to food science and nutrition, such as food selection, sensory and physical evaluation, and food chemistry. Part II covers aspects of food service from food safety, food preparation basics, and meal management. Part III covers all of the standard food items arranged into protein (meat, poultry, fi sh, dairy, and eggs); phytochemicals (vegetables, fruits, soups, salads, and gelatins); complex carbohydrates (cereals, flour, breads); refined carbohydrates and fat (sweeteners, fats and oils, cakes and cookies, pies and pastries, candy, and frozen desserts); and water (beverages) groupings. Part IV relates to the food industry in terms of food preservation, government food regulations, and food careers. The chapter on food careers introduces students to the many careers associated with a basic foods course. In addition, the Professional Profi le feature, found in many chapters, spotlights individuals working in various aspects in the food industry, so students really get a hands-on understanding of various career opportunities. Extensive appendixes provide additional key information, including approximate

food measurements, weights and mea-sures, storage temperatures, ingredient substitutions, fl avorings and seasonings, and more.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

Calorie Control• is a new feature teaching students where the calo-ries are in foods, how many daily calories are recommended, and quick pointers on how to control calories within each food group. Obesity is at epidemic proportions in the United States and yet the public and many health profession-als remain calorie challenged. An introductory food textbook is the perfect place to provide this infor-mation for future food and nutri-tion professionals. New Food Evaluation Chapter• re-sponds to reviewers’ requests to cre-ate a separate chapter on this topic. Now this topic can be included as part of the basic food course or for a more advanced food course.Revised Food Safety Chapter• re-sponds to readers wanting a more “applied” hands-on approach to food safety. Th e content was totally revised to teach students practical tips on preventing foodborne illness that follow food fl ow—purchasing, storage, preparation, cooking, holding, cooling, reheating, and sanitation.Temperature Danger Zone• updated to include both FDA and USDA recommendations.Updated Information Added• on “gluten free” defi nitions and labeling regulations, stevia sweeteners, irra-diation research, and new functional foods. Website links to the latest in-formation have been incorporated, and more opportunities in food ser-vice careers have been listed.

Updated Art and Photos• providing new and intriguing ways to better illustrate concepts in the book.Updated Chemistry Corners• and How & Why Features expanding on two popular features already in the book.

OTHER FEATURESThe unique features of this text allow flexibility in teaching and create a dynamic learning environment for students.

Professional Profi le• features pro-vide interviews with people in the food arena and give advice to stu-dents to help them on their career path.How and Why• inserts answer the questions most frequently asked by students. Th ey are used to spark natural curiosity, trigger inquisitive thought patterns, and exercise the mind’s ability to answer.Chemist’s Corner• features provide information on food chemistry in boxes within the chapters for those students and instructors who wish to further explore the chemistry of food. Th ese Chemist’s Corners cre-ate a book with two chemistry lev-els, allowing for fl exibility based on the chemistry requirements of the individual course.Nutrient Content• boxes in each of the foods chapters provide an over-view of the nutritional composition of the foods, refl ecting the increased emphasis in the food industry on food as a means for health promo-tion and disease prevention.Food Additive information• has been incorporated throughout the book responding to students’ requests to learn more about this topic.Pictorial Summaries• at the end of every chapter are a proven favorite

Preface

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xiv34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xiv 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

Preface xv

with readers. Instead of a standard narrative summary, these pictorial chapter summaries use a combina-tion of art and narrative text to encapsulate the key concepts in each chapter for student review.Key terms,• boldfaced in the text, are defi ned in boxes on the same page to allow for quick review of the essential vocabulary in each chapter. A glossary at the end of the book assembles all of the key terms in the chapters in one place.Functions of ingredients• are highlighted in the introduction to each chapter to aid students in successful food product develop-ment and food preparation. They introduce a focus of the food industry that is often missing in other books.Problems and causes tables• in various food chapters summarize the problems that may occur when preparing specifi c food products and describe the possible causes, providing students with a handy reference tool for deciphering “what went wrong.”Numerous illustrations• placed throughout the text enhance students’ understanding of the principles and techniques discussed.A 16-page full-color insert• displays exotic varieties of fruits and veg-etables, salad greens, fl owers used in salads, traditional cuts of meats (including the lowest-fat meat cuts), and much more, all with detailed captions describing use and prepa-ration tips.Chapter review questions• were changed from 5 to 7 questions at the end of each chapter responding to requests to help prepare students for their class exams and also to help prepare them for the American Dietetic Association Registration Examination.

The dynamic world of food changes rapidly as new research constantly adds to its ever-expanding knowledge base. Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation, 4th edition, is designed to meet the needs of this evolving and expanding discipline, and to provide students with a strong foundation in any food-related discipline that they select.

ANCILLARY MATERIALSAn assortment of student and instructor support materials, thoroughly updated for the fourth edition, are available:

Th e print • Lab Manual, revised by Janelle M. Walter (Baylor Univer-sity), presents food experiments and recipes to demonstrate the principles discussed in the text. Pre-test questions and materials/time needed information for instructors enhance the lab units, which parallel the organization and content of the text.Th e • Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM delivers several key instructor tools.PowerPoint• ® resources in-clude JPEGs of text fi gures and ready-to-use (or modify) lecture presentations.An expanded • Test Bank by Joan Aronson (New York University) provides multiple-choice, true/false, matching, and discussion/essay items.Th e • Instructor’s Manual, by Joan Aronson and Cheryl Houston (Fontbonne University), features engaging classroom activities, objec-tives, recommendations, and lecture outlines.Th e text’s • Companion Website off ers various test preparation exer-cises for students, including quizzes, and instructor downloads.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSMany individuals assisted me in the development of this textbook. First and foremost I thank Peter Marshall, Publisher, without whose knowledge and experience this book would never have come to be. I also thank Peggy Williams, who masterfully brought this book to the completion of its fourth edition.

I also extend my thanks to the outstanding members of the Cengage nutrit ion team: Elesha Feldman, Developmental Editor, for helping me revise and enhance the fourth edit ion; Elizabeth Howe, second edition Developmental Editor, for her excellent skills in working with me to

create a well-organized manuscript; and Laura McGinn, Marketing Manager, who understands the process of book publishing and marketing to such a high degree that her presence alone is invaluable. My thanks to Yolanda Cossio, Publisher; Alexis Glubka, Editorial Assistant; and Bob Kauser and Dean Dauphinais, Permissions Editors. A thank you also goes to Elizabeth Wong, Marketing for getting the word out about this text. I also thank the tremendous production staff at Pre-PressPMG who worked miracles on this book, especially Kristin Ruscetta, Antonina Smith, and Catherine Schnurr.

I gratefully acknowledge Eleanor Whitney and Sharon Rolfes for contri-buting the Basic Chemistry Concepts appendix in this text.

A special thanks goes to the person who kindled my writing career, Nackey Loeb, Publisher of The Union Leader. Your early support and encouragement did far more than you will ever know.

Many colleagues have contributed to the development of this text. Their thoughtful comments provided me with valuable guidance at all stages of the writing process. I offer them my heartfelt thanks for generously sharing their time and expertise.

Th ey are:Dorothy Addario, College of St. ElizabethKoushik Adhikari, Kansas State UniversityGertrude Armbruster (retired), Cornell UniversityMike Artlip, Kendall CollegeHea Ran-Ashraf, Southern Illinois UniversityMia Barker, Indiana University of PennsylvaniaNancy Berkoff , Art Institute of Los AngelesMargaret Briley, University of TexasHelen C. Brittin, Texas Tech UniversityMildred M. Cody, Georgia State UniversityCarol A. Costello, University of TennesseeBarbara Denkins, University of Pittsburgh

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xv34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xv 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

xvi Preface

Nikhil V. Dhurandhar, Wayne State UniversityJoannie Dobbs, University of Hawaii/ManoaLinda Garrow, University of Illinois/UrbanaNatholyn D. Harris, Florida State UniversitySylvia Holman, California State University/NorthridgeZoe Ann Holmes, Oregon State UniversityAlvin Huang, University of HawaiiWendy T. Hunt, American River CollegeKaren Jameson, Purdue UniversityFaye Johnson, California State University/ChicoNancy A. Johnson, Michigan State UniversityMary Kelsey, Oregon State University

Elena Kissick, California State University/FresnoPatti Landers, University of OklahomaDeirdre M. Larkin, California State University/NorthridgeColette Leistner, Nicholls State UniversityLisa McKee, New Mexico State UniversityMarilyn Mook, Michigan State UniversityMartha N. O’Gorman, Northern Illinois UniversityPolly Popovich, Auburn UniversityRose Tindall Postel, East Carolina UniversityBeth Reutler, University of IllinoisSusan Rippy, Eastern Illinois UniversityJanet M. Sass, Northern Virginia Community College

Anne-Marie Scott, University of North CarolinaSarah Short, Syracuse UniversitySherri Stastny, North Dakota State UniversityDarcel Swanson, Washington State UniversityRuthann B. Swanson, University of GeorgiaM. K. (Suzy) Weems, Stephen F. Austin University

Finally, I wish to express my appre-ciation to the students. Were it not for them, I would not have taken pen to paper. I am grateful to be part of your academic journey.

Amy Christine Brown, Ph.D., R.D.University of Hawaii at Manoa

[email protected]

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xvi34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xvi 4/30/10 7:17:13 PM4/30/10 7:17:13 PM


Licensed to:

xvii

About the AuthorAmy Christine Brown, Ph.D., R.D., received her Ph.D. from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1986 in the fi eld of Human Nutrition and Foods. She has been a college professor and a registered dietitian with the American Dietetic Association since 1986. Dr. Brown currently teaches at the University of Hawaii’s John A. Burns School of Medicine in the Department of Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Her research interests are in the area of bioactive plant substances benefi cial to health and medical nutrition therapy. Some of the studies she has conducted include “Diet and Crohn’s disease,” “Potentially harmful herbal supplements,” “Kava beverage consumption and the eff ect on liver function tests,” and “Th e eff ectiveness of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” Selected research journal publications include: “Position of the American Dietetic Association: func-tional foods” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “Th e Hawaii Diet: Ad libitum high carbohydrate, low fat multi-cultural diet for the reduction of chronic disease risk factors” (Hawaii Medical Journal); “Lupus erythematosus and nutrition: A review” (Journal of Renal Nutrition); “Dietary survey of Hopi elementary school students” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association);

“Serum cholesterol levels of nondiabetic and streptozotocin-diabetic rats” (Artery); “Infant feeding practices of migrant farm laborers in northern Colorado” (Journal of the American Dietetic Association); “Body mass index and perceived weight status in young adults” (Journal of Community Health); “Dietary intake and body composition of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete of the Year” (Clinical Sports Medicine); and numerous newspaper nutrition columns.

Feedback welcome, contact: [email protected]

To Jeffery Blanton

To the person who saw me through four years of writing the fi rst edition. Four years, four thousand laughs, and only one you.

Always Grateful,

Amy Christine Brown

© 2

004

Carl

Shan

eff

34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xvii34981_00_FM_pi-xviii.indd xvii 4/30/10 7:17:14 PM4/30/10 7:17:14 PM


Licensed to:

Appendixes

A: Food Preparation Equipment A-1

B: Approximate Food Measurements B-1

C: Substitution of Ingredients C-1

D: Flavorings and Seasonings D-1

E: Cheeses E-1

F: Common Food Additives F-1

34981_31_APP_pA1-A28.indd 134981_31_APP_pA1-A28.indd 1 5/1/10 12:43:45 AM5/1/10 12:43:45 AM


Licensed to:

A-1 Appendix A

Appendix A: Food Preparation Equipment

Appendix A provides a brief overview of food preparation equipment—primary equipment, auxiliary equipment, and utensils.

PRIMARY EQUIPMENTPrimary equipment consists of ranges, ovens (conventional, convection, and microwave), refrigerators, and usually dishwashers.

RangesRanges can have open or fl at top surfaces with electrical or gas burners (Figure A-1).

OvensTh e conventional oven is located below the range, but it can also be a separate unit (Figure A-2).

Primarily used for baking and roasting, it is also used for braising, poaching, and simmering.

Ovens rely on hot air for heating food, primarily by convection, but conduction and radiation can also occur.

Baked foods rely on freely moving currents for the transfer of heat, so it is important to ensure that baking pans are placed on the racks in such a way as to allow the effi cient fl ow of air currents. Figure A-2 shows some of the types of

FIGURE A-1 Ranges.

FIGURE A-2 Four types of ovens.

Flat top

Open top

Conventional oven

Convection oven

Double-deck convection oven

Stack (or deck) oven (typically installed one on top of another)

The

Vulca

n-Ha

rt Co

.

The

Vulca

n-Ha

rt Co

.



Licensed to:

Food Preparation Equipment A-2

ovens that are available to food service establishments. Th ey include:

Stack or deck oven.• Each component of the stack has a separate thermostat.Convection oven. • Hot air is circulated by a fan, baking contents more quickly.Revolving or carousel oven. • Trays rotate like a Ferris wheel, ensuring an even temperature.Impingement oven. • Hot-air jets heat food more quickly (5).Infrared oven. • Heat is generated by a very hot infrared bulb.Brick-lined or hearth oven.• Pizza oven. • Reaches very hot temperatures.Microwave oven• .

Refrigerators/FreezersTh e proper refrigeration and freezing of foods is one of the most important factors in preventing foodborne illness. Refrigerator temperatures should be maintained at or below 40°F (4°C), and freezers or freezer compartments at 0°F (218°C). Household refrigerators are classifi ed by the location of the freezer—above, below, or beside the refrigerator section (Figure A-3). Food service establishments usually have a walk-in refrigerator and freezer, which may range in size from a small closet to a large room. Other types of freezers/refrigerators include reach-ins, roll-ins, and pass-throughs (Figure A-4).

DishwashersTh e two categories of dishwashers are household dishwashers and commercial dishwashers.

Th e three basic types of household dishwashers are:

Built-in dishwasher.—Integrated under the counter to match the cabinets.

Portable dishwasher.—Used as soon as the hoses are attached to the kitchen faucet; one hose drains into the sink.

Convertible dishwasher.—Used as a portable or installed per-manently as a built-in.

Commercial or food service dishwashers are so large that they oft en require a separate room.

Equipment Standards and SafetyThe National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) seal of approval assures buyers of food service equipment that certain standards of sanitation and safety have been met in its design and

FIGURE A-3 Refrigerator-freezers.

FIGURE A-4 Food service refrigerators and freezers.

One-door, freezer compartment inside

Freezer below foodcompartment

Freezer above foodcompartment

Side-by-side refrigerator/freezer

Walk-inReach-in

Roll-in

Cour

tesy

of V

ictor

y Re

frige

ratio

n, p

art o

f AFE



Licensed to:

A-3 Appendix A

Broilers and GrillsThe difference between broiling and grilling is the heat source: the broiler’s heat is above the food whereas the grill’s is below the food. Temperature control is achieved by moving the grid up or down. Heat for these may be provided by wood, charcoal, electricity, or gas.

SteamersTwo basic types of steamers are used in food service organi-zations: cabinet or compartment steamers and steam-jacketed kettles (Figure A-7).

Cabinet steamers.—Stacked one above the other with the door of each sealed tight with clamps.

Steam-jacketed kettles.—Used more for fl uid-type foods such as soups and stews. Range in size from 1 quart to 200 gallons. Th e steam is not generated inside the kettle, but is circulated between the double-layered metal plates of the kettle’s outer shell. A handle is used to tilt the entire steam-jacketed kettle to pour out the food.

Steam heats foods by moist heat. Most steamers in a food service establishment steam under pressure, which is measured by a gauge in pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure steamers allow food to heat to temperatures higher than boiling, which decreases cooking time. Vegetables can be cooked at pres-sures of 10 to 15 psi, reaching a temperature of 250°F (120°C). Lower pressures and temperatures (5 to 10 psi, 225°F/105°C) are used to cook meats, which would fall apart at the higher pressures required for vegetables. Cooked vegetables and even

production. This nonprofit organization is interested in the promotion of public health and has established minimum standards of construction for food service equipment (3). Information about equipment or approved manufacturers can be obtained by writing to NSF Testing Laboratory, Inc., PO Box 130140, Ann Arbor, MI 48113 (or e-mailing [email protected]). Another private organization overseeing the safety of electrical equipment is the Under-writers Laboratory (UL), which ensures that an electrical appliance, cord, or plug has passed certain tests for electrical shock, fi re, and other related injuries (6).

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENTIn addition to the primary equipment in a kitchen, auxiliary equipment includes fryers, broilers, steamers, grills, cutting equipment, mixers, and coff ee/tea makers.

GriddlesGriddles supplement range units. Their larger, flat, smooth surfaces are ideal for preparing eggs, hamburgers, pancakes, French toast, and hash browns (Figure A-5). Food service griddles contain a drip cup to collect draining fat. Preparation is easier when grill surfaces are primed by smearing them with oil followed by a brief heating. To maintain the primed surface, griddles are never washed with soap and water, but scraped clean, wiped with a grease mop, and then polished with a soft cloth.

Tilting SkilletsFound only in large food service operations, the tilting skillet, brazier, or fry pan can be used to make anything from chili to poached eggs. Th e wide range of temperature settings stretches from low braising to high frying heats. As a result, it can be used as a fry pan, brazier, griddle, stockpot, steamer, or steam table. Th e entire skillet can be tilted to pour out liquid-based contents (Figure A-6).

FIGURE A-5 Griddle.

FIGURE A-7 Food service steamers.

FIGURE A-6 Tilting skillet.

The

Gro

en C

o./U

nifie

d Br

ands

Cabinet steamer

Steam-jacketed kettle



Licensed to:


foods into many small, uniform pieces. The actual cooking of the foods is a quick process, lasting approximately 5 to 10 minutes. It starts with high heat under the wok, which has been lightly coated with oil (usually sesame or peanut oil). The foods that take the longest to cook are added first. The food is stirred rapidly for a few minutes, for even cooking, and then the heat is lowered and the pan covered so the steam thus generated can complete the process.

CrockeryCrockery, or electric slow cookers, have been popular for some 40 years and are particularly good for moist-heat cooking of meat and legumes. Crockery cooking is long and slow, with controlled heat that needs little or no supervision. A meal can be started in the morning that will be ready to eat by dinnertime. Because there is some evidence that crockery may not keep food suffi ciently hot for the entire duration of cooking, its use has lately been discouraged by some food experts because of the risk of foodborne illness.

Cutting EquipmentMeat slicers, food choppers, and grinders are common pieces of equipment in food service establishments (Figure A-10).

Meat SlicerCarelessness in the use of a meat slicer causes more food ser-vice accidents than any other kind of equipment. Th e follow-ing safety tips apply: Th e machine should always be unplugged when not in use. Aft er the slicer is plugged in, the blade con-trol is adjusted for the desired slicing thickness, and the blade guard positioned. Th e food, usually boneless meats, but pos-sibly cheese, vegetables, fruits, and even bread, is then placed on the carriage and held there fi rmly with the guard before the switch is turned on. Th e carriage is moved back and forth by its handle in a smooth motion.

The equipment should be thoroughly sanitized after use and between different types of foods, especially with raw meats. The cord must be removed from the socket and the blade control set at zero before cleaning. Metal utensils should never be used to scrape food from the blade because they may nick the slicer. Manufacturer’s instructions should be followed in removing the various parts and subjecting them to the sanitizing solution and to rinsing and drying. Th e blade guard should be replaced immediately to prevent any risk of cuts. Th e use of protective gloves through the whole cleaning process is highly recommended.

some fish maintain their texture, color, taste, and nutrients best when they are properly steamed or microwaved. Rice, pasta, poultry, eggs, fi sh, and shellfi sh may also be steamed, but the fl avor of meats and poultry will usually be diminished by the process.

Safety is particularly important with steamers. Th ey should never be run without water, and they should be periodically checked to ensure that safety valves are working. Th ey should never be opened until the pressure has gone down, and then should always be opened away from the face.

Deep FryersBreaded fi sh and vegetables, fried chicken, and french fries are some of the foods commonly prepared in deep fryers. Frying is similar to boiling, except that in frying the liquid is fat, which can reach higher temperatures than water. Food is loosely placed in a wire basket, which is then submerged in heated oil. When the food fl oats to the top of the oil, it can be considered cooked. Th e basket is then removed and set aside so that the oil can drain from the food. Th e fryers themselves may be small enough to be portable or so large that they are fl oor mounted (Figure A-8). Most deep fryers have automatic heat controls.

WoksTh is large bowl-shaped pan is central to Chinese cooking. It comes equipped with (1) a metal ring to fi t over a range burner (Figure A-9), or (2) self-contained with an electrical cord. Th e most time-consuming step in using a wok is cutting the

FIGURE A-8 Deep fryer.

FIGURE A-9 Wok.

© F

rym

aste

r, LL

C, 8

700

Line

Ave

., Sh

reve

port,

LA

7110

6.



Licensed to:

A-5 Appendix A

For safety’s sake, attachments must be securely in place before the machine is turned on, and it is best to disconnect the power entirely before removing them. Spoons or hands in the bowl during mixing are not recommended, but rubber scrapers can be used occasionally to scrape down the sides of the mixing bowl.

Blenders and Food ProcessorsBlenders and food processors allow further refinements to mixing food (Figure A-12). In blenders, the blades or mixing component is on the bottom. They are used for everything from making milk shakes to blending the vegetables used in making gazpacho, a Spanish cold soup. Food processors are more versatile and allow cutting, chopping, grinding, slicing, and shredding foods, and even kneading dough. Th ey come with specialized blades for accomplishing all these tasks, and many even come with a juicing attachment.

Food Chopper or CutterAnother potentially dangerous piece of food service equip-ment is the food chopper or cutter. Th e key to preventing in-juries here is to turn the machine off , allow the knife blades to come to a rest, and fl ip the safety catch on before removing the food with a bowl scraper. Th e hands should never go into the bowl. Th e guard can be raised to remove any remaining food. Meats with bones or gristle should not be processed with food choppers because they will damage the gears and knives.

MixersMixers are convenient for controlling the rate at which ingredients are combined. They are used to prepare whipped cream, beaten egg whites, and mashed potatoes. In the food service industry, models range in size from tabletop to fl oor size.

Attachments vary from a paddle for general mixing, to whips for cream or eggs, to dough arms for kneading yeast dough (Figure A-11). Additional attachments may be added, including a shredding, grating, or slicing attachment and a grinder for meats and other foods. Some home mixers have similar attachments.

a

b c

FIGURE A-10 Cutting equipment.

FIGURE A-12 Blenders and food processors.

FIGURE A-11 Tabletop mixer and three typical attachments: (a) wire whip—incorporates air, (b) flat beater—general mixing, and (c) dough hook—mixing heavy doughs.

2007

Hob

art C

orpo

ratio

n

Phot

os c

ourte

sy o

f Kitc

henA

id®

Hom

e Ap

plia

nces

Phot

o co

urte

sy o

f Kitc

henA

id®

Hom

e Ap

plia

nces

Blender Food processor



Licensed to:


Pot and Pan MaterialsPots and pans are made from a variety of materials (Figure A-15):

Aluminum, copper, and stainless steel• Nonstick coatings• Cast iron• Glass and glass/ceramic combinations•

Pan ShapesCakes come in a variety shapes because the pans can be round, square, or oblong. Th ere are special pans for making sponge and angel food cakes; the angel food cake pan usually has a tubular segment in the middle that separates from the sides for easy re-moval of the cake. Spring-form pans allow one to “spring” open the sides for easy removal of the cake. Cookie sheets, sometimes referred to as baking sheets, have no sides (except one or two that are raised for handling), allowing the hot air to fl ow evenly over the cookies. Heavy-duty sheet pans with four sides can also be used for preparing cookies and myriad other foods such as

Coffee MakersMany homes and food service venues use automatic coffee makers daily (Figure A-13). Food service operations serve coff ee from an electric urn or automatic coff ee brewer. Electric urns are connected to a hot water source and automatically shut off after the coffee is finished brewing. The hot water running through a coff ee brewer stops aft er the decanter or pot is full.

Pots and PansPots and pans are distinguished from one another by their size, shape, and handle (Figure A-14). Another defi ning feature of a pot, pan, or kettle is their capacity defi ned by (1) the number of quarts, or (2) inches (baking pans and skillets are described in inches; e.g., 8- or 9-inch cake pan) (6).

Pots have two handles and are used when preparing large quantities. Saucepans and frying pans have a single long handle and less capacity. Saucepans are usually straight-sided, whereas frying pans can be either straight- or slope-sided. Th e fl attest pans are those used for baking and roasting. Th e sturdiest, and thickest, pans are used for roasting. A double boiler consists of a bottom pan in which water is heated, and a top pan containing a food item that must be kept below the boiling point. Th ese are used for preparing certain sauces and to keep food hot without burning.

FIGURE A-13 Coffee makers and tea dispensers. FIGURE A-14 Common pots and pans.

SAUCEPAN

SAUCE POT

KETTLE

STRAIGHT-SIDED SAUTÉ PAN

SLOPE-SIDED SAUTÉ PAN

STOCKPOT

DOUBLE BOILER

SAUCIER

SHEET PAN

BAKE PAN

ROASTING PAN

CASSEROLES

LOAF PAN

SQUARE BAKING PAN

MUFFIN PAN

CAKE PAN

ANGEL FOOD CAKE PAN

PIE PAN

Cour

tesy

of C

ecilW

are

Corp

orat

ion

Coffee brewer and dispenser Drip coffee maker

Electric urn Iced tea dispenser



Licensed to:

A-7 Appendix A

Best Heat ConductorsAluminum, copper, and combinations of copper and stainless steel are the best conductors of heat (6). Aluminum accounts for more than half the cookware sold in the United States, but it is very lightweight and prone to denting. Aluminum may also react chemically with many foods, particularly those high in acid, and it is not recommended for storing foods. Cop-per is an excellent heat conductor, but it is costly and requires special care. A further disadvantage is that excessive copper may dissolve into the food being prepared, causing nausea and vomiting. Th erefore, copper pans are usually lined with stainless steel or tin. Stainless steel is known for its durability and easy cleaning; however, it is a poor conductor of heat and tends to generate hot spots, which may scorch the food. To keep this from happening, the bottoms of many stainless steel pans are coated with copper or aluminum.

Nonstick PansNonstick pans reduce the amount of fat needed to prevent sticking, but their surfaces are easily scratched, so plastic, rub-ber, or wooden utensils are recommended.

Cast Iron PansCast iron pots and pans are heavy, heat slowly, rust easily, and are diffi cult to clean. Th ey do, however, retain high tempera-tures for longer periods of time, heat evenly, and add extra iron to the diet. Acidic foods such as tomato sauces tend to ab-sorb more iron: 5 mg of iron are absorbed for every 3 ounces of spaghetti sauce cooked in a cast iron pan.

Cast iron pots and pans may be cleaned in one of two ways. The first involves a preliminary priming or conditioning of the pan with a very thin coat of vegetable oil, aft er which it is heated and cooled. A primed pan is cleaned by scraping and wiping away food particles aft er each use. Reconditioning may be done whenever necessary. Th e second method is to wash the pan with soap and water, heat it to dry, and then coat it with a minute amount of oil. This second method is more likely to remove any traces of rancid fat, which can impart an off -fl avor to any food subsequently prepared in the pan.

Glass PansHeat-proof glass, such as Pyrex, and glass/ceramic combina-tions, such as Corningware, break more easily than metal-based pots and pans, but have the advantage of not reacting with foods. Most casserole pans, which are usually oval or oblong with low sides, are made of such materials. Baking temperatures should be reduced by 25°F (4°C) when using tempered glass. Th e newer versions of glass/ceramic materi-als can be moved from the range or oven to the refrigerator or freezer, and later be taken from the cold and placed directly into the oven or microwave. Glass pots and pans are not al-lowed in food service operations, however, because of possible breakage and liability problems.

UtensilsUtensils are vital items needed for cutting, stirring, turning, measuring, and serving food. The utensils covered in this section include knives and utensils used in preparation, measuring, and serving.

biscuits, bread, pizza, breadcrumbs, roasted nuts, and even some meats. Full-sheet pans are used in restaurants for bulk baking, whereas half-sheets (half the size of full sheets) are reserved for home use (4). Some of the half-sheets purchased at supermar-kets may warp at temperatures over 300°F (149°C) but not pans made of heavy-duty aluminum or steel. The aluminum pans tend to be more popular because their lighter color refl ects heat, which helps to prevent overbrowning and baking (4). Also, they do not rust. Th e darker the pan, as seen in steel pans or those coated with a nonstick surface, the darker the cookies.

Pan ColorsOne advantage of the darker sheet pans is that they absorb heat, resulting in a crisper crust for pizza and fruit pies. Re-gardless of the color, professional bakers use kitchen parch-ment on baking sheets to prevent sticking, to move items around with ease, and to protect against burning (4).

FIGURE A-15 Materials that make the pot.

Stainless steel: Poor heat conductor, which is why they are often bottom-coated with copper.

Nonstick coatings: Tolerate high heats and eliminate sticking that can occur with stainless steel.

Aluminum: Excellent heat conductor and lightweight, but it reacts with foods that are acidic, alkaline, or sulfurous.

Anodized aluminum: Surface is electrochemically sealed to make it nonreactive.

Cast iron: Superb at retaining heat, but slow to heat or cool; needs to be completely dried and primed.

Enameled cast iron: Benefits of cast iron without the maintenance problems; however, enamel coating may chip with abrasion and wear. Di

gita

l Wor

ks



Licensed to:


Knife UtensilsKnives are to the chef as brushes are to the artist. Some people consider them to be the most important tools in food preparation. Knowing the different kinds of knives, their particular tasks, and how to care for them is crucial to the preparation of foods. The food to be cut determines what type of knife should be used. Th e basic knife starter set consists of chef ’s, paring, slicing, boning, and utility knives. Th e fi rst three types of knives oft en complete the set of many home kitchens. Common knives used in food preparation are shown in Figure A-16.

Chef’s Knife Th e chef ’s, or French, knife is one of the larg-est and serves as an all-purpose knife for cutting meats and for mincing, dicing, and chopping a variety of foods. Chef ’s knives are commonly available in blade lengths of 6, 8, and 12 inches, and the side of their blades can be used to crush garlic cloves, ginger slices, and peppercorns (2).

French or chef's knife

Utility knife

Paring knife

Boning knife

Slicer

Serrated slicer

Butcher knife

Cleaver

FIGURE A-16 Common knives used in food preparation.

Utility Knife Th e utility knife is geared toward lighter duties such as cutting tomatoes or carving meat.

Paring Knife The smaller, shorter, 2- to 4-inch paring knife is used for more delicate jobs that require close control, such as the trimming of vegetables, fruits, and small pieces of meat like chicken breasts.

Boning Knife Th e slightly curved boning knife is handy for separating meat from bone (e.g., deboning the breast of a chicken), disjointing poultry, cutting between the joints of larger pieces of meat, and dicing raw meats.

Slicing Knife Slicing knives are long and fl exible enough to portion off thin slices of meat or poultry. Serrated slicers are useful for cutting bread or angel food cake.

Steak or Scimitar Knife Th ese knives are used for cut-ting steaks from the appropriate parts of a carcass.

Butcher Knife A variety of butcher knives are available for cutting raw meats.

Heavy Cleavers Additional knives that are found in food service arenas include heavy cleavers for cutting through bone.

Oyster and Clam Knives Oyster and clam knives are used for opening these shellfi sh.

Purchasing KnivesKnives can range in price from a few to several hundred dollars. When selecting a knife, qualities to consider include size, weight, balance, the length of the tang, and the materials from which the blade and handle are made. Although the size selected will be determined by the use for which the knife is intended, the other factors depend on more qualitative assessments.

Weight and Balance Sometimes the “balance” or the feel of the knife in the hand is a factor in selection. Some knives are blade-heavy, others handle-heavy, and some feel evenly divided between the two. A person should select the knife that feels “right” in his or her hand (2).

Tang Another quality that varies among knives is the length of the tang, the part of the metal blade that extends into the handle. Better-quality knives have a tang that ex-tends the full length of the handle.

Blade Probably the most important factor in selecting a knife is the type of steel used for the blade: carbon, stain-less steel, or high-carbon stainless steel. Carbon blades are almost obsolete because they are highly susceptible to rust and lose their edge quickly. Stainless steel, on the other hand, is rust-resistant but is diffi cult to sharpen and to keep sharp. Th is steel is actually a combination of metals, includ-ing chromium, which is added for its resistance to stains, corrosion, and heat. Despite its name, stainless steel is not stain-proof, but it does stain less than knives not made from stainless steel when it comes into contact with food and bev-erages, especially salad dressing, vinegar, salt, mustard, tea, and coff ee.



Licensed to:

A-9 Appendix A

Care of KnivesCutting knives should never go in a dishwasher. Strong detergents not only dull the blade but, when combined with hot water and air, can ruin wooden handles. Nicks can occur if the blade bumps against other metal utensils. Instead, knives should be washed immediately aft er use with soap or detergent, dried thoroughly, and then stored in such a way that their blades do not contact each other to prevent nicks. Th e blades may be kept separated by slipping them into a wooden knife block (blade turned upward) or a shallow knife block that fi ts inside a drawer, or by placing them along a magnetic strip.

Knives can be sharpened using one of the many electric and mechanical knife sharpeners on the market, but a better result can be achieved by hand. Th e two basic ways to hand-sharpen a knife are with a stone or a steel implement. The sharpening stone, also known as a whetstone, is used by rubbing a bit of moisture on the stone and sliding each side of the blade until the proper sharpness is acquired. A sharpening steel looks like a round sword and is held fi rmly in one hand while the knife, held in the other hand, is brandished against the steel (Figure A-17). Most chefs employ both implements,

High-carbon stainless-steel knives are usually preferred because, in addition to not staining, they keep a sharp edge and do not rust (2). High-carbon knives are further distinguished by whether they have a stamped or a forged blade. Stamped blades are cut from a sheet of steel, ground, and polished. Because they are mass produced, they are less expensive than forged knives. Forged blades are made from a single piece of steel that has been exposed to extremely high heat, submerged in a chemical bath, and set in a die before being hand-hammered into shape. The resultant blades are more costly, but they are also heavier, tougher, hold their edge longer, and require less pressure when cutting.

Handle Th e knife’s handle may be made of wood, carved bone, plastic, or metal. Wood is easier to hold, but water dam-age from frequent washing reduces the length of its life. Plas-tic or metal handles are more durable, but they are slippery. Bone-handled knives are both water- and wear-resistant and, when combined with a high-carbon stainless-steel knife, can last a lifetime or more.

FIGURE A-17 Sharpening knives using either a stone or steel.

STONEProduces a sharp cutting edge*

The blade is held at an angle to the stone (rough side up).Pull it gently toward you across the entire surface of thestone, making sure the entire blade is sharpened from thetip to its heel in one stroke.

The knife is turned over and the procedure is reversed inthe opposite direction. Four times across the stone oneach side (rough and smooth) is usually sufficient tosharpen a knife.

* Stones are pretreated prior to sharpening knives—either by first saturating them lightly with vegetable oil(which has to be cleaned off), or soaking them in water(which does not require cleaning). Never sharpen kniveson an electric knife sharpener that may tear the steel andshorten the blade’s lifespan.

STEELMaintains a sharp cutting edge

The heel of the knife is placed at an angle under the steel’s tip.

Firmly holding the steel in the left hand, use one smooth strokewith the right hand to draw the knife (from the blade’s heel tothe tip) down to the steel’s base.

The heel of the knife is placed at an angle on top of the steel’stip. Retain this angle while moving the knife down the steel(from the blade’s heel to the tip) in one smooth stroke.



Licensed to:


for diff erent purposes: one for getting an edge and the other for refi ning it.

Cutting BoardsCutting boards are used primarily for cutting meat, poultry, vegetables, and fruits, but they may also be used for kneading and rolling out dough. They may be made of wood, hard plastic, glass, or ceramic tiles; the latter three, however, are hard on knife blades (1). Cutting boards should be carefully scraped and thoroughly washed and dried every time they are used.

Preparation UtensilsFigure A-18 shows some of the supporting utensils most commonly used in food preparation. Spoons, available in solid, slotted, or perforated versions, are used for mixing and serving. Th e holes in the slotted and perforated spoons allow liquids to drain. Wire whisks are used for mixing and are categorized by their shapes. Straight (French) whisks are ideal for general purposes or smooth sauces. The very thin wires of balloon whisks are designed for beating the maximum amount of air into thin liquids such as egg whites and cream. Flat whisks are fashioned for creating sauces and gravies when it is important to lift up materials from the corners of a pan (7).

Spatulas come in a variety of shapes for their many purposes. Rubber spatulas or scrapers are used to scrape bowls or to fold beaten egg whites or other ingredients into each other. The straight spatula or palette knife is used for measuring ingredients, and it is ideal for spreading icings onto cakes. Th e sandwich spreader, with a broader blade, is used, as the name implies, on sandwich fillings, butter, and jams. A pie server is an angled spatula used to lift pie, cake, or pizza wedges. Similar in design, but wider and with a larger bend, is the off set spatula, which is used to turn items such as hamburgers, eggs, and pancakes.

Other preparation utensils include the bench scraper, for scraping and for cutting dough; the pastry wheel, which is designed to cut pastry dough, but which can also be used to cut pizza; and the pastry brush, which is used to coat pastry with egg white or sugar glaze.

Types of Measuring UtensilsAbout fi ve diff erent types of measuring utensils are frequently used in food preparation: liquid and dry measuring cups, measuring spoons, ladles, and scoops (Figure A-19).

Liquid Measuring Cups Available in 1-cup, 2-cup (1 pint), and 4-cup (1 quart) capacities. Th eir volumes are di-vided into increments of ¼, 1/3, ½, 2/3, and ¾ cup. Th ey are usually glass, have a pouring lip, and are all-purpose.

Dry Measuring Cups Fractional, fl at-topped (no pouring lip), single-volume cups (¼, 1/3, ½, and 1) are best because they can be leveled with a spatula for a more accurate result. Accuracy is also improved by using the 1-cup measure rather than four ¼ cups.

Measuring Spoons Used to measure both liquid and dry ingredients requiring less than ¼ cup, they consist of

1 tablespoon, and 1,½, ¼, and occasionally 1 ⁄8 teaspoon. A tablespoon equals 3 teaspoons, and 2 tablespoons equal 1 fl uid ounce.

Ladles Liquids can be measured by ladles that are individ-ually stamped with their capacity in ounces (Table A-1).

Scoops or Dippers Th e various sizes are identifi ed by a scoop number (Table A-2), which indicates the number of portions from a quart (e.g., a number 8 scoop yields eight ½-cup portions from 1 quart). Th e larger the scoop or dipper number, the smaller the serving. Measured scoops and dippers are used primarily by food service establish-ments for serving ice cream, mashed potatoes, and other soft foods.

TABLE A-1 Ladles—Approximate Measures and Their Uses

Ladle Size Measure Use

1 oz2 oz3 oz4 oz6 oz8 oz12 oz16 oz24 oz32 oz

2 tbsp¼ C1/3 C½ C¾ C1 C1½ C2 C (pt)3 C4 C (qt)

Sauces, salad dressings, creamGravies, saucesCereals, casseroles, meat saucesPuddings, creamed vegetablesStews, creamed entrées, soupSoup

TABLE A-2 Scoops—Approximate Measures and Their Uses

Scoop or Dipper Number* Weight Measure Use

6 6 oz ¾ C Soups

8 4–5 oz ½ C Luncheon entrées, potatoes

10 3–4 oz 3⁄8 C Desserts, meat patties, ice cream

12 2½–3 oz 1/3 C Vegetables, desserts, puddings

16 2–2¼ oz ¼ C Muffins, cottage cheese, croquettes, dessert

20 1¾–2 oz 3 tbs ¾ tsp Muffins, cupcakes, meat salads

24 1½–1¾ oz 2 tbs 2 tsp Cream puffs, ice cream

30 1–1½ oz 2 tbs ¾ tsp Drop cookies

40 ¾ oz 1 tbs 2¼ tsp Whipped cream, toppings, gravy

60 ½ oz 1 tbs Salad dressings, toppings

70 1/3 oz 2¾ tsp Cream cheese, salad dressing, jelly

100 ¼ oz 2 tsp Whipped butter

*Dipper/Scoop = Servings/Quart



Licensed to:

A-11 Appendix A

FIGURE A-18 Food preparation utensils.

Wooden spoons—For stirring, mix-ing, creaming, tossing, folding, and serving.

Solid spoons—To lift foods, including the liquid, out of the pot. They are also used to spoon liquids over foods. Slotted or perforated spoons—To lift foods out of the liquid in which they were cooked. Skimmers—Used to remove scum and grease from the top of stocks, gravies, and other liquids; also used to lift food out of hot liquid.

Strainers in a variety of sizes and shapes are used for separating solids and liquid. The mesh varies from fine to coarse. A sieve has similar uses, but is a stainless steel perforated cup with a handle.

Colander—Used to drain cooked foods like pasta and to rinse salad greens and berries.

China cap—Used to strain liquids from solids when making soups and gravies; also used to purée foods. A pointed wooden mallet is used to force food through the strainer.

Sifter—Used to sift flour or powdered sugar, and to blend dry ingredients.

Pastry blender—Used to cut shortening into flour.

Rolling pin—Used to roll out pastry, rolls, and cookies.

Dough scraper—Used to scrape the dough from the board.

Pastry bags—Used to make shaped pastries and decorations. The bag is used with a variety of tips or tubes designed to create different shapes when a soft food like icing is squeezed through.

Larger offset spatulas or turners— Used to turn meat, pancakes, potatoes, and other foods while browning. The offset or bend keeps the hand away from the hot surface. Turner’s blade—solid or perforated and used as a scraper to remove grease and other materials.

Used to turn meat while broiling, lift vegetables like corn-on-the-cob from a steamer, serve food, and serve ice cubes.

Used to turn meat while cooking or to hold meat and other foods while being sliced.

Straight whisk—For general pur-poses and smooth sauces.

Balloon whisk—For incorporating air into egg whites and whipped cream.

Flat whisk—For sauces and gravies.

Molds in a variety of shapes are used for gelatins and desserts.

Pastry brushes—To spread melted butter or thin mixtures like icings or eggs and water.

Grease brushes—To remove grease from soups, stocks, and sauces.

Vegetable brushes—To clean vegetables and fruits.

Used to level off ingredients when measuring, remove food from flat pans, and spread frostings, butter, and other soft foods. Plastic or rubber spatulas are used for scraping bowls.

Spatulas

Tongs

Forks

Whisks

Molds

Brushes

Spoons, skimmers, and strainers

Flour and dough utensils

Digi

tal W

orks



Licensed to:


depending on the density, or weight per volume, of the object being measured. For example, half a cup of marshmallows weighs less than half a cup of vegetable oil.

Many countries measure ingredients by weight. In the United States, Americans tend to measure using volume measurements such as teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, pints, quarts, and gallons. Weight can be measured by a number of diff erent types of scales: spring-type scales, used principally for weighing dry ingredients like grains, beans, dried pasta, vegetables, fruits, and cheese; portion scales and balance scales for weighing ingredients; and the baker’s scale, used primarily for measuring dough ingredients (Figure A-20).

FIGURE A-19 Measuring utensils.

Liquid measuring cup

Dry measuring cups

Measuring spoons

Ladles

Dipper/Scoop

Measuring Terms

Mass vs. Volume Weight, commonly used to mean mass, is a much more accurate measurement than volume. As a result, many food service operations use weight rather than volume to measure recipe ingredients. Confusion between the two methods of measuring ingredients occurs because ounces can be measured either by volume, known as f luid ounces (fl ), or by mass (weight), known as avoirdupois ounces (av). Water is the only substance whose fl uid ounce is equal to its avoirdupois ounce. Th e mass of other substances will vary

FIGURE A-20 Various scales used for weighing ingredients.

Spring-type scale

Balance scale

Portion scale

Baker's scaleSource: Texas Tech University

Digi

tal W

orks



Licensed to:

A-13 Appendix A

Meniscus Th e imaginary line read at the bottom of the concave arc at the water’s surface.

Metric vs. Nonmetric Metric measurements of volume are expressed in milliliters (mL). Metric cups come in sizes of 25, 50, 125, and 250 mL, and measuring spoons are divided into 1, 2, 5, 15, and 25 mL. A 250-mL metric cup is close to a nonmetric cup, which holds 236.59 mL. Th e 15 and 5 mL metric measures are almost equal to the nonmetric table-spoon and teaspoon, respectively. Th e inside back cover of this book lists the conversions between nonmetric and met-ric measuring units for volume and mass.

Accuracy of Measuring UtensilsTh e American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences (AAFCS) has set certain tolerances for measuring the precise volume of household measuring utensils. One way to determine a cup’s precise volume is to fi ll it with tap water and then pour it into a graduated cylinder. Both the utensil and the graduated cylinder should be on a level surface and the milliliters of water should be read at eye level at the bottom of the meniscus (Figure A-21). Any measurement evaluating accuracy should be done three times and then averaged to eliminate error. Th e resulting number should not deviate more than 5% from the standard set by the AAFCS. According to these standards, a metric cup of 250 mL can deviate 5 percent,

FIGURE A-21 Read the meniscus at eye level.

Meniscus

to 237.5 or 262.5 mL, and still be acceptable (3). Variations within the 5% range do not make any appreciable diff erences in ingredient proportions or in the quality of the fi nal product.

Serving UtensilsAt last the meal is ready to be eaten, and serving utensils enter the picture. Basic tableware includes salad forks, dinner forks, regular knives, steak knives (optional), soup spoons, and teaspoons. A more extensive “wardrobe” of tableware might include butter knives, small two-tined forks known as seafood forks, dessert spoons, luncheon knives and forks (which are slightly smaller than standard knives and forks), iced-tea spoons, and grapefruit spoons. Eating utensils, for sanitary reasons, should always be touched by the handles.

4. Middleton S. Pros pick the best baking sheets. Fine Cooking 26:55–57, 1998.

5. Ovadia DZ, and C Walker. Impingement in food process-ing. Food Technology 52(4):46–50, 1998.

6. Pickett MS, MG Arnold, and LE Ketterer. Household Equipment in Residential Design. Waveland, 1986.

7. Stevens M. Choosing the best whisk. Fine Cooking 19:72, 1997.

REFERENCES

1. Abrisham SH, et al. Bacterial adherence and viability on cutting board surfaces. Journal of Food Safety 14:153–172, 1994.

2. Albert A. Choosing great knives for confi dent, skillful cooking. Fine Cooking 24:50–53, 1998.

3. Birchfi eld JC. Design and Layout of Foodservice Facilities. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1988.



Licensed to:

Appendix B: Approximate Food Measurements

The quantity to purchase for an approximate yield.

Food Quantity to Purchase Approximate Yield

DAIRY

Cheese Cheddar Cottage Cream Cream

1 lb1 lb1 lb1 C (½ pt)

2 C/4 C (grated)2 C2 C2 C

EGGS

Whole Whites (fresh) Yolks (fresh)

1 lb8–1112–14

1¾ C1 C1 C

FATS AND OILS

Butter/Margarine Vegetable Oil Vegetable Shortening

1 lb1 lb1 lb

2 C21⁄6 C2 1/3 C

FLOUR

All-Purpose Cake Cornmeal Rye Whole Wheat

1 lb1 lb1 lb1 lb1 lb

4 C (sifted)4½ C (sifted)3½ C (sifted)3½–5 C3 1/3 C (sifted)

FRUIT

Apples Bananas Berries Coconut Dates Lemon

Orange

Peaches Prunes Raisins

1 lb/3 med1 lb/3 med1 quart1 lb shredded1 lb whole1 med

1 med

1 lb1 lb1 lb

3 C (sliced)2½ C (sliced)3½–4 C (sliced)5 C2¼ C or 2 C (pitted)1/3–½C juice1½–3 tsp (grated)1/3–½ C juice1–2 tbs (grated)4 C (sliced)2 1/3 C3 C

NUTS

Almonds Pecans Peanuts Walnuts

1 lb shelled1 lb shelled1 lb shelled1 lb shelled

3 C4 C3 C4 C

SUGAR/SALT

Brown Confectioners Granulated Honey Salt

1 lb1 lb1 lb1 lb1 lb

2¼–2½ C (firmly packed)4–4½ C (sifted)2–2¼ C1–1¼ C1½ C

(Continued)

B-1



Licensed to:

B-2 Appendix B

The quantity to purchase for an approximate yield.

Food Quantity to Purchase Approximate Yield

VEGETABLES

Beets Cabbage Carrots Celery Corn Dried Beans Green Beans Lettuce Onion Parsley Potatoes

Tomatoes

1 lb/4 med1 lb1 lb/4 med1 lb/½ bunch3 ears1 lb/2 C1 lb1 lb/med1 med1 med bunch1 lb/3 med

1 med

2 C4 C (shredded)3 C (diced)4 C (diced)1 C (kernels)5–6 C (cooked)3 C (chopped)6 C½ C (diced)½–1 C (finely chopped)2½ C (diced)3 C (peeled and sliced)2 C (mashed)2 C (French fries)1 C (chopped)

MISCELLANEOUS

Bread Crumbs (fresh)

Chocolate Baking Cocoa Unsweetened Coffee

Crackers Graham Saltines

Gelatin Rice

2 slices1 lb loaf

8-ounce pkg1 lb8-ounce pkg1 lb ground½ C

1218241 envelope1 C uncooked

1 C10 C

2 C (grated)4 C8 1-ounce squares5 C (about 2½ gallons)10 C

1 C (fine crumbs)1 C (coarse crumbs)1 C (fine crumbs)1 T gelatin powder3–4 C cooked

Appendix B (continued)



Licensed to:

Appendix C: Substitution of Ingredients

If Missing Measurement Substitute

DAIRY

Whole milk

Sweetened CondensedButtermilk/Sour Milk

Cream Half & Half

Heavy (Whipping)Sour Cream

1 C

1 quart

1 C1 C1 C

1 C

1 C1 C

= ½ C evaporated milk + ½ C water= 1/3 C nonfat dry milk + water to make one C + 2 T fat= 4 oz nonfat dry milk + water to make 1 qt + 1¼ oz fat= ½ C heavy cream + ½ C cold water

1 C = ¾ C sugar + 1/3 evaporated milk + 2 T butter= 1 C fresh milk + 1 T fat vinegar or lemon juice (let stand for 5 minutes)= 1 C unflavored plain yogurt

= ¾ cup milk + 2 T fat= ½ C milk + ½ C light cream= 3⁄4 C milk + 1/3 C butter or margarine= 1 C yogurt

EGGS

Whole

Whites, freshYolks, fresh

one

1 white1 yolk

= 2 egg yolks + 1 T water= 2 T dried whole eggs + 2½ T water= 2 T thawed frozen egg white or 2 tsp dry egg white + 2 T water= 3½ T thawed frozen egg yolk or 2 T dry egg yolk + 2 tsp water

FATS AND OILS

Butter/margarine 1 C = 1 C margarine/butter= 7⁄8 to 1 C hydrogenated fat + ½ tsp salt= 7⁄8 C lard + ½ tsp salt= 7⁄8 C vegetable oil

FLOUR

All-purpose

Self-rising Flour

Cake Flour

1 C sifted

1 T (as thickener)

1 lb

1 C sifted

= 1 C unsifted all-purpose flour minus 2 T= 1½ C bread flour= 1 C rye= 1 C + 2 T cake flour= 1 C minus 2 T cornmeal= 1 C graham flour= 1 C minus 2 T rice flour= 1 C rolled oats= 1 C + 2 T coarsely ground whole wheat or graham flour or 13 T gluten flour= 1¼ C rye flour= ½ C barley flour= ½ T cornstarch, potato starch, rice starch, arrowroot starch= 1 T quick-cooking tapioca, waxy rice flour, waxy corn flour= 4 C of all-purpose flour + 2 T baking powder, 2 t salt= 1 C = (1 C of all-purpose flour minus 2 t) + 1½ t baking powder + ½ t salt= 7⁄8 C sifted all-purpose flour or 1 C minus 2 tablespoons sifted

all-purpose flour

(Continued)

C-1



Licensed to:

C-2 Appendix C

Appendix C (continued)

If Missing Measurement Substitute

MISCELLANEOUS

Allspice Baking Powder

Broth

Catsup Chili Sauce

Chives Chocolate unsweetened baking semisweet Cocoa

Cornstarch

Garlic

Herbs

Lemon Juice Mayonnaise

Pumpkin Pie Spice Tomatoes (canned) Tomato Juice Tomato Purée Tomato Sauce

1 T1 t

1 C

1 C1 C

1 ounce1 square2 ounces3 T

1 T1 ounce1 mediumclove1 T (fresh)

1 T1 C

1 t1 C1 C2 C2 C

= ½ t cinnamon + ½ t ground cloves= ¼ t baking soda + ½ t cream of tartar= ¼ t baking soda + ½ C buttermilk or sour milk (replaces ½ C of liquid

used in recipe)= 1 bouillon C (or 1 envelope powdered broth or 1 t powdered broth) +

1 C boiling water= 1 C tomato sauce + ½ C sugar + 2 T vinegar= 1 C tomato sauce + ¼ C brown sugar + 2 T vinegar + ¼ t cinnamon +

dash allspice/ ground clovesScallion greens

= 3 T cocoa + 1 T fat= 3 T carob powder + 2 T water= 1 ounce unsweetened chocolate + 2 t sugar= 1 oz chocolate if recipe reduced by 1 T of fat= 3 T carob powder= 2 T all-purpose flour= 2 oz all-purpose flour= ½ t garlic salt= 1⁄8 t garlic powder= ¼ t dried ground= 1 t dried leaf= ½ T vinegar= ½ C yogurt + ½ C mayonnaise= 1 C sour cream= 1 C cottage cheese (pureed)= ½ t cinnamon + ¼ t nutmeg + 1⁄8 t allspice + 1⁄8 t cardamom= ½ C tomato puree + ½ C water= ½ C tomato puree or sauce + ½ up water= 1¼ C water + ¾ C tomato paste= 1¼ C water + ¾ C tomato paste

SUGAR/SWEETENERS

Granulated

Brown

Confectioners Honey Corn Syrup Molasses

1 C

1 C

1 C1 C1 C1 C

= 1 1/3 C brown sugar= 1½ C Confectioner’s sugar= 1 C honey minus ¼ to 1/3 liquid in recipe= 1¼ to 1½ C corn syrup minus ¼ to ½ liquid in recipe= 1 1/3 C molasses minus 1/3 C liquid in recipe= ½ C granulated sugar + ½ C liquid brown sugar= 1 C granulated sugar + 2 T molasses or dark corn syrup= made by grinding 2 C granulated sugar in a processor= 1¼ C sugar + ¼ C liquid= 1 C sugar + ¼ C liquid= ½ C honey 1¼ C melted brown sugar



Licensed to:

Appendix D: Flavorings and Seasonings

Name Uses

Allspice Allspice combines the flavors of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Whole allspice is used for pickling, gravies, broiled fish, and meats. Ground allspice is used for baked goods, fruit preserves, puddings, and relishes.

Almond Almonds can be used in every dish from soup to dessert. Almond extract is used in cookies, confections, and Chinese cuisine.

Anise Anise is a popular favorite for a few gourmet dishes such as Oysters Rockefeller. Also, it is used in bakery products, candies (especially licorice candy), certain kinds of cheese, pickles, and many liqueurs and cordials, including anisette and absinthe.

Anise-pepper It is one of the ingredients in Chinese Five Spices and is commonly used for fish and strongly flavored foods.

Balm Balm has a pleasant lemon scent and can be chopped and combined with other herbs for use in omelets and salads, and in the production of several liqueurs. Also, balm leaves are used to flavor soups and dressings.

Bay leaves Bay leaves can be used either fresh or dried. They are one of the ingredients in bouquet garni, and are used in bouillon, marinades, olives, and pickles. They combine well with fish, potatoes, or tomatoes.

Bouquet garni This is a French term meaning “bundle of sweet herbs.” The bouquet garni is used in soups and stews, or any dish in which there is sufficient liquid to absorb the flavors.

Caper Capers are much used in European cuisine. They are commonly used in making caper sauce, which is usually eaten with boiled lamb. They also go well with fish dishes and with casseroles of chicken and rabbit.

Caraway The seeds (actually the dried whole fruits) are used in cakes, cheeses, confections, fresh cabbage, meat dishes, rye bread, salads, and sauerkraut. The chopped green leaves can be used in soups and salads. The roots can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

Cardamom seed Freshly ground cardamom has many uses including: breads, cakes, cookies, cheese, curries, custard, liver sausage, meat dishes, pilaus, pork sausage, and punches.

Cassia The stick cinnamon can be used in dishes to impart flavor, and then removed before serving; for example, some punches are flavored in this manner. Powdered cassia is used in combination with allspice, nutmeg, and cloves for spicing mincemeat, curries, pilaus, meat dishes, desserts and cakes. It is one of the ingredients of the famous Chinese Five Spices.

Cayenne pepper A little goes a long way, but it is a spice that adds considerable interest to egg dishes, fish, and meat recipes.

Celery salt This spice is slightly bitter, but it combines well with bouillon, eggs, fish, potato salad, and salad dressing.

Celery seed Celery seeds have a slightly bitter taste, but they contribute a useful flavoring. They add special interest to many salads and salad dressings.

Chervil, garden Chervil, which has a mild anise-caraway flavor, is one of the ingredients of Fines herbes, a mixture of chopped fresh herbs extensively used in French recipes. Chervil is used in omelets, soups, salads, sauces, and white wine vinegar. It should not be cooked, but must be added at the last minute; otherwise, it loses its flavor.

Chinese Five Spices

Chinese Five Spices (a blend of anise-pepper, star anise, cassia, cloves, and fennel seed) is an integral part of some of the recipes from the Far East. Also, it can be used to good advantage in flavoring pork dishes.

Chives Chives are ideal as a garnish because of their delicate onion flavor and bright green color. Chives add interest and flavor to buttered beets, eggs, cottage or cream cheese, potato and other salads, sliced tomatoes, and soups.

Cinnamon Cinnamon has a more delicate flavor than cassia and is more suitable for sweet dishes, cakes, and cookies.

Citron Citron peel has a peculiar taste, quite different from other citrus. Is used in the U.S. as candied peel to be added to cakes, cookies, candies, and desserts.

Cloves Whole cloves are used in many meat dishes, but a little goes a long way. Cloves are stuck into lemon slices for tea, into onions, and into hams for baking; they are also popular for apple cookery and pickle making. In the East, they go into many of the curry dishes. Whole cloves are also included in recipes for spiced wine and some liqueurs. Ground cloves are used in baked goods, borscht (beet soup), chocolate puddings, potato soup, and stews.

Cola Cola is used in many soft drinks, and for coloring and flavoring some wines.

Coriander (Cilantro)

Coriander leaves are popular in Near, Middle, or Far East recipes, as well as Mexico and South America. The seeds are a principal ingredient of curry. Whole coriander seeds can be used in cakes, cookies, biscuits, gingerbread, green salads, pickles, and poultry stuffing. Ground seeds are added to many meat and sweet dishes.

(Continued)

D-1



Licensed to:

D-2 Appendix D

Name Uses

Cress Watercress Garden Cress

The cresses are primarily used in salads and sandwiches, but they can be used to flavor soup, cooked greens, or sauces for fish dishes, and to garnish meals.

Cumin Cumin’s principal use is in curry powder. It is also used to flavor bread, stuffed eggs, meats, rice dishes, and soups. Commercially, it may be found in cheese, chutney, pickles, meats, and sausage.

Curry (powder) Curry powder may be added to eggs, chicken, fish, meats, rice, soups, or a salad made of sweet potatoes and pineapple.

Dill Dill loses its flavor when cooked, so it should be added at the last minute. Fresh dill leaves can be used for dishes containing chicken, mushrooms, or spinach. The seeds are used in dill pickles and dill vinegar, but they can be added to meat dishes, meat and fish sauces, sauerkraut, salads, and borscht (beet soup).

Fennel Fennel has an anise-like flavor and is good with many foods: apple pie, candies, fish, liqueurs, pastries, pork, soups, and sweet pickles.

Fenugreek seed Fenugreek seeds are usually used in Indian curries and chutneys.

Fines herbes A combination of several herbs such as basil, chervil, chives, marjoram, oregano, parsley, rosemary, sage, tarragon, and thyme. Fines herbes can be used in many dishes such as fish sauces, meat stuffings, omelets, salads, salad dressing, and soups.

Garlic Garlic blends with a wide range of dishes such as fish, game, meats, and vegetables.

Ginger Ginger is used in numerous foods including beverages, biscuits, cakes, cookies, fish, gingerbread, ginger beer, ginger wine and cordials, puddings, sauces, and spice mixtures. It is used mostly in sweet preparation in European and North American cooking, but the Orient uses it extensively for chutney, fish, meat, and pickles.

Horseradish Many cooks limit the use of horseradish to a sauce used on meats, but it can be added to chicken salads, egg dishes, and mayonnaise for use on fish dishes, or tomato combinations.

Leek The leek is rather like a very mild onion. It is used mostly in soups and chowders. However, the leek may also be used as a bouquet for pork or lamb.

Lemon Lemon juice can be used on salads instead of vinegar, and it is the predominant favorite for serving with most fishes. Grated lemon rind is added to cakes, cookies, desserts, and sauces, to give an added taste dimension.

Licorice Licorice is used to flavor candy, chewing gum, and soft drinks. CAUTION: Licorice raises the blood pressure of some people dangerously high, due to retention of sodium.

Lime Limes impart a unique taste to dishes, which cannot be replaced by lemons. Fish is often marinated in lime juice before cooking.

Mace Mace can be added to apple dishes, beets, cakes, hot chocolate, coffee cakes, cookies, custards, eggnog, gingerbread, and muffins.

Marjoram Is related to thyme; hence, they are often used together or to replace each other. It can be added to almost every dish to advantage. It should be added immediately before serving as the flavor is easily lost in cooking. Marjoram is used with egg dishes, lamb, poultry, sausage, soups, stews, and vegetables.

Mint, Peppermint, or Spearmint

Peppermint flavoring is used mostly for candies, cordials, desserts, icings, and liqueurs. Spearmint is the preferred mint for lamb as well as for iced tea and mint juleps. It can also be used in soups, stews, fish, and meat sauces.

Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)

MSG does not have any flavor of its own, but it intensifies and enhances the flavor in other foods, especially meat and fish.

Mustard Black mustard Brown mustard White or Yellow mustard

Whole mustard seeds add pungency to many foods, including pickles, meats, and salads. Powdered dry mustard is a common kitchen spice. Its sharp, hot flavor develops when the powder is moistened. It is used for roast beef, mustard pickles, sauces, and gravies. Prepared mustard is a mixture of powdered mustard with salt, spices, and lemon juice, with wine or vinegar to preserve the mustard’s pungency. It may be used with ham, hamburgers, hot dogs, and sandwich spreads.

Nutmeg Nutmeg is traditionally used in sweet foods such as cakes, custards, doughnuts, eggnog, pies, and puddings, but it goes very well with meat, sausage, spinach, sweet potatoes, and vegetables.

Appendix D (continued)

(Continued)



Licensed to:

Flavorings and Seasonings D-3

Name Uses

Onion Onions are used either as a separate vegetable or as a flavoring for other foods. The leaves of the onion, along with the bulb, are used in salad.

Oregano Oregano is used extensively in Italian cooking and can be added to cheese dishes, chili beans, fish, gravies, meats, sauces, sausage, salads, and soups.

Paprika Paprika is used in many dishes both for its flavor and as a garnish. It can be added to chicken, sweet corn, fish, meats, sausages, tomato catsup, and tomato juice.

Parsley Parsley can be added to fish and fish sauces, meats, sauces, soups, and vegetables. It is commonly used as a decoration for buffet dishes.

Pepper Pepper loses much in aroma when ground or cooked, so freshly ground pepper should be used whenever possible. Whole peppercorn can be purchased as well as cracked, and coarsely or finely ground. Except for sweet dishes, pepper can be added to all other dishes.

Poppy seed Poppy seeds have a pleasant nutlike flavor and aroma and are used primarily in baked goods, on the tops of rolls and bread, and in cakes and pastries. However, they are also used in confections, fruit salad dressings, and curries.

Rosemary Rosemary is good with soups, on broiled steaks, or with other meat dishes, sauces, and vegetables. The taste is aromatic, pungent, and slightly bitter.

Saffron Saffron is used as a flavoring and coloring (yellow) spice in biscuits, confections, boiled fish, fish soup, fancy rolls, and rice, and in some European dishes.

Sage Sage is available whole, rubbed, or ground. It is used for baked fish, meats, and meat stuffings, sausages, cheeses, and sauces.

Savory Savory is available whole or ground, and is often combined with other herbs to flavor meats. Also, it can be used in beans, scrambled eggs, peas, salads, sauces, and sausages.

Sesame seed Sesame seeds develop a beautiful nutty taste when sprinkled on buns, rolls, or cakes, and then baked. They are also used in confections.

Shallot Shallots can be used in the same way as the onion, although the flavor is much more subtle. Shallots should never be browned, as they turn bitter.

Soy sauce Soy sauce can be used in a wide array of dishes, especially with beef, chicken, fish, soups, turkey, and vegetable dishes.

Star anise Star anise has a strong flavor similar to anise, but slightly more bitter and pungent. In Chinese cooking, it is used for duck and pork recipes.

Sweet basil Basil can be used for green beans, fish, soups, squashes, stews, tomatoes, and vinegar.

Sweet cicely The plant smells and tastes somewhere between anise and licorice. The taproot can be boiled and used for salads, and the green fruit can be served with salad dressing. Europeans use the leaves in soups and salads. The plant is also used for flavoring desserts and liqueurs.

Tarragon Tarragon is best known for flavoring vinegar, but it is also used for beef, chicken, eggs, fish, pickles, cookies, salads, and tartar sauce. It has a slightly anise flavor.

Thyme Thyme is used with fish dishes, meats, poultry, sauces, tomato dishes, and vegetables.

Turmeric Turmeric and mustard are inseparable partners (it is used to color mustard); and turmeric is superb for almost every meat and egg dish, for pickles, and for curries. It adds yellow color.

Vanilla Vanilla is almost always used in sweet dishes such as bakery products and desserts.

Wintergreen Wintergreen is used mainly for candies and lozenges.

Appendix D (continued)



Licensed to:

Appendix E: Cheeses

Name Origin Consistency Flavor Normal Ripening Period

American pasteurized process United States Semisoft to soft; smooth, plastic body

Mild Unripened after cheese(s) heated to blend

Asiago, fresh, medium, old Italy Semisoft (fresh), medium, or hard (old); tiny gas holes or eyes

Piquant, sharp in aged cheese

60 days minimum for fresh (semisoft), 6 months minimum for medium, 12 months minimum for old (grating)

Bel paese Italy Soft; smooth, waxy body Moderately robust 6–8 weeks

Blue, Bleu France Semisoft; visible veins of mold on white cheese; pasty, sometimes crumbly

Piquant, tangy, spicy, peppery

60 days minimum; 3–4 months usually; 9 months for more flavor

Breakfast, Frühstück Germany Soft; smooth, waxy body Strong, aromatic Little or none (either)

Brick United States Semisoft; smooth, open texture; numerous round and irregular-shaped eyes

Mild but pungent and sweet

2–3 months

Brie France Soft, thin edible crust, creamy interior

Mild to pungent 4–8 weeks

Caciocavallo Italy Hard, firm body; stringy texture Sharp, similar to provolone

3 months minimum for table use, 12 months or longer for grating

Camembert France Soft, almost fluid in consistency; thin edible crust, creamy interior

Mild to pungent 4–5 weeks

Cheddar England Hard; smooth, firm body, can be crumbly

Mild to sharp 60 days minimum; 3–6 months usually; 12 or longer for sharp flavor

Colby United States Hard but softer and more open in texture than Cheddar

Mild to mellow 1–3 months

Cottage, Dutch, Farmers, Pot Uncertain Soft; moist, delicate, large or small curds

Mild, slightly acidic, flavoring may be added

Unripened

Cream United States Soft; smooth, buttery Mild, slightly acid, flavoring may be added

Unripened

Edam Holland Semisoft to hard; firm, crumbly body; small eyes

Mild, sometimes salty 2 months or longer

Feta Greece Soft, flaky; similar to very dry, high-acid cottage cheese

Salty 4–5 days to 1 month

Gammelost Norway Semisoft Sharp, aromatic 4 weeks or longer

Gjetost Norway Hard; buttery Sweet, caramel Unripened

Gorgonzola Italy Semisoft; less moist than blue Piquant, spicy, similar to blue

3 months minimum, frequently6 months to 1 year

Gouda Holland Hard, but softer than Cheddar; more open mealy body like Edam, small eyes

Mild, nutlike, similar to Edam

2–6 months

Gruyère Switzerland Hard, tiny gas holes or eyes Mild, sweet 3 months minimum

Limburger Belgium Soft; smooth, waxy body Strong, robust, highly aromatic

1–2 months

(Continued)

E-1



Licensed to:

Cheeses E-2

Name Origin Consistency Flavor Normal Ripening Period

Monterey Jack United States Semisoft (whole milk), hard (low-fat or skim milk); smooth texture with small openings throughout

Mild to mellow 3–6 weeks for table use,6 months minimum for grating

Mozzarella Italy Semisoft; plastic Mild, delicate Unripened to 2 months

Muenster Germany Semisoft; smooth, waxy body, numerous small mechanical openings

Mild to mellow, between brick and Limburger

2–8 weeks

Neufchatel France Soft; smooth, creamy Mild 3–4 weeks or unripened

Parmesan, Reggiano Italy Very hard (grating), granular, hard brittle rind

Sharp, piquant 10 months minimum

Port du Salut, Oka Trappist Monasteries Semisoft; smooth, buttery Mellow or mild to robust, similar to Gouda

6–8 weeks

Primost Norway Semisoft Mild, sweet, caramel Unripened

Provolone Italy Hard, stringy texture; cuts without crumbling, plastic

Bland acid flavor to sharp and piquant, usually smoked

6–14 months

Queso blanco, White cheese Latin America Soft, dry and granular if not pressed; hard open or crumbly if pressed

Salty, strong, may be smoked

Eaten within 2 days to 2 months or more; generally unripened if pressed

Ricotta Italy Soft, moist and grainy, or dry Bland but semisweet Unripened

Romano Italy Very hard, granular interior, hard brittle rind

Sharp, piquant if aged 5 months minimum; usually 5–8 months for table cheese; 12 months minimum for grating cheese

Roquefort France Semisoft, pasty and sometimes crumbly

Sharp, spicy (pepper), piquant

2 months minimum; usually 2–5 months or longer

Sap Sago Switzerland Very hard (grating), granular, frequently dried

Sharp, pungent, flavored with leaves; sweet

5 months minimum

Schloss, Castle cheese Germany, Northern Austria

Soft; small, ripened Similar to, but milder than Limburger

Less than 1 month; less intensively than Limburger

Stirred curd, granular United States Semisoft to hard Similar to mild Cheddar 1–3 months

Stilton England Semisoft to hard; open flaky texture, more crumbly than blue

Piquant, spicy, but milder than Roquefort

4–6 months or longer

Swiss, Emmentaler Switzerland Hard; smooth with large gas holes or eyes

Mild, sweet, nutty 2 months minimum, 2–9 months usually

Washed curd United States Semisoft to hard Similar to mild Cheddar 1–3 months

Appendix E (continued)



Licensed to:

Appendix F: Common Food Additives

Name Function Food Use and Comments

Acetic acid pH control; preservative Acid or vinegar is acetic acid; many food uses.

Adipic acid pH control Buffer and neutralizing agent; used in confectionery.

Ammonium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweed. Widespread food use.

Annatto Color Extracted from seeds of Bixa orellana. Butter, cheese, margarine, shortening, and sausage casings; coloring foods in general.

Arabinogalactan Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from Western larch. Widespread food use; bodying agent in essential oils, nonnutritive sweeteners, flavor bases, nonstandardized dressings and pudding mixes.

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) Nutrient; antioxidant; preservative Widespread use in foods to prevent rancidity, browning; used in meat curing; GRAS additive.

Aspartame Sweetener, low calorie Soft drinks, chewing gum, powdered beverages, whipping toppings, puddings, gelatin, tabletop sweetener.

Azodicarbonamide Flour treating agent Aging and bleaching ingredient in cereal flour.

Benzoic acid Preservative Widespread food use.

Benzoyl peroxide Flour treating agent Bleaching agent in flour; may be used in some cheeses.

Beta-apo-8 carotenol Color Natural food color. General use not to exceed 30 mg per lb or pt of food.

BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) Antioxidant; preservative Fats, oils, dry yeast, beverages, breakfast cereals, dry mixes, shortening, potato flakes, chewing gum, sausage; often used in combination with BHT.

BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) Antioxidant; preservative Rice, fats, oils, potato granules, breakfast cereals, potato flakes, shortening, chewing gum, sausage; often used in combination with BHA.

Biotin Nutrient Rich natural sources are liver, kidney, pancreas, yeast, milk; vitamin supplement.

Calcium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweeds. Widespread food use.

Calcium carbonate Nutrient Mineral supplement.

Calcium lactate Preservative General purpose and/or miscellaneous use.

Calcium phosphate Leavening agent; sequestrant, nutrient

General purpose and/or miscellaneous use; mineral supplement.

Calcium propionate Preservative Bakery products, alone or with sodium propionate; inhibits mold and other microorganisms.

Calcium silicate Anticaking agent Used in baking powder, salt, and food; GRAS for use in baking powder and salt.

Canthaxanthin Color Widely distributed in nature. Color for foods; more red than carotene.

Caramel Color Miscellaneous and color for foods.

Carob bean gum Stabilizer and thickener Extracted from bean of carob tree (Locust bena). Numerous foods like confections, syrups, cheese spreads, frozen desserts, and salad dressings.

Carrageenan Emulsifier; stabilizer and thickener Extracted from seaweed. A variety of foods, primarily those with a water or milk base, especially ice cream.

Cellulose Emulsifier; stabilizer and thickener Component of all plants. Inert bulking agent in foods; may be used to reduce caloric content of food.

(Continued)

F-1



Licensed to:

Common Food Additives F-2


Citric acid Preservative; antioxidant:pH control agent; sequestrant

Widely distributed in nature in both plants and animals. Miscellaneous use; used in lard, shortening, sausage, margarine, chili con carne, cured meats, and freeze-dried meats.

Citrus Red No. 2 Color Coloring skins of oranges.

Cochineal Color Derived from the dried female insect, Coccus cacti. Provides red color for such foods as meat products and beverages.

Corn endosperm oil Color Source of xanthophyll for yellow color. Used in chicken feed to color yolks of eggs and chicken skin.

Cornstarch Anticaking agent; drying agent; formulation aid; processing aid; surface-finishing agent

Digestible polysaccharide used in many foods often in a modified form; example foods include baking powder, baby foods, soups, sauces, pie fillings, imitation jellies, custards, and candies.

Corn syrup Flavoring agent; humectant; nutritive sweetener; preservative

Derived from hydrolysis of cornstarch. Employed in numerous foods, such as baby foods, bakery products, toppings, meat products, beverages, condiments, and confections.

Dextrose (glucose) Flavoring agent; humectant; nutritive sweetener; synergist

Derived from cornstarch. Major users of dextrose are confection, wine, and canning industries; used to flavor meat products; used in production of caramel.

Diglycerides Emulsifiers Uses include frozen desserts, lard, shortening, and margarine.

Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate Emulsifier; processing aid; surface active agent

Employed in gelatin dessert, dry beverages, fruit juice drinks, and noncarbonated beverages with cocoa fat; used in production of cane sugar and in canning.

Disodium guanylate Flavor enhancer Derived from dried fish or seaweed. Variety of uses.

Disodium inosinate Flavor adjuvant Derived from dried fish or seaweed; sodium guanylate a by-product. Variety of uses.

EDTA (ethylenedi- aminetetraacetic acid)

Antioxidant; sequestrant Calcium disodium and disodium salt of EDTA employed in a variety of foods including soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, dressings, canned vegetables margarine, pickles, sandwich spreads, and sausage.

FD&C colors: Blue No. 1, Red No. 40, Yellow No. 5

Color Coloring foods in general.

Gelatin Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Derived from collagen. Employed in many foods including confectionery, jellies, and ice cream.

Glycerine (glycerol) Humectant Miscellaneous and general purpose additive.

Grape skin extract Color Colorings for carbonated drinks, beverage bases, ades, and alcoholic beverages.

Guar gum Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seeds of the guar plant. Employed in such foods as cheese, salad dressings, ice cream, and soups.

Gum arabic Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Gummy exudate of Acacia plants. Used in a variety of foods.

Gum ghatti Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Gummy exudate of plant growing in India and Ceylon. A variety of food uses.

Hydrogen peroxide Bleaching agent Modification of starch and bleaching tripe; bleaching agent.

Hydrolyzed vegetable (plant) protein

Flavor enhancer To flavor various meat products.

Invert sugar Humectant; nutritive sweetener Primarily used in confectionery and brewing industry.

Appendix F (continued)

(Continued)



Licensed to:

F-3 Appendix F


Iron Nutrient Dietary supplements and foods.

Iron-ammonium citrate Anticaking agent Used in salt.

Karaya gum Stabilizer and thickener Derived from dried extract of Sterculia urens. Variety of food uses; a substitute for tragacanth gum.

Lactic acid Preservative, pH control Normal product of human metabolism. Numerous uses in foods and beverages; a miscellaneous general purpose additive.

Lecithin (phospha-tidylcholine) Emulsifier; surface active agent Normal tissue component of the body; naturally occurring in eggs; commercially derived from soybeans. Margarine, chocolate and wide variety of other uses.

Mannitol Anticaking; nutritive sweetener; stabilizer and thickener; texturizer

Special dietary foods. A sugar alcohol.

Methylparaben Preservative Food and beverages.

Modified food starch Drying agent; formulation aid; processing aid; surface finishing agent

Digestible polysaccharide used in many foods and stages of food processing; examples include baking powder, puddings, pie fillings, baby foods, soups, sauces, candies, etc.

Monoglycerides Emulsifiers Widely used in foods such as frozen desserts, lard, shortening and margarine.

MSG (monosodium glutamate) Flavor enhancer To enhance the flavor of a variety of foods including various meat products.

Papain Texturizer Used as a meat tenderizer. Achieves results through enzymatic action.

Paprika Color; flavoring agent To provide coloring and/or flavor to foods.

Pectin Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Richest source of pectin is lemon and orange rind; present in cell walls of all plant tissues. Used to prepare jellies and similar foods.

Phosphoric acid pH control Used to increase effectiveness of antioxidants in lard and shortening.

Polyphosphates Nutrient; flavor improver; sequestrant; pH control

Numerous food uses.

Polysorbates Emulsifiers; surface active agent Polysorbates designated by numbers such as 60, 65, and 80; variety of food uses including baking mixes, frozen custards, pickles, sherbets, ice creams, and shortening.

Potassium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweed. Wide usage.

Potassium bromate Flour treating agent Employed in flour, whole wheat flour, and fermented malt beverages, and to treat malt.

Potassium iodide Nutrient Added to table salt or used in mineral preparations as a source of dietary iodine.

Potassium nitrite Curing and pickling agent To fix color in cured products such as meats.

Potassium sorbate Preservative Inhibits mold and yeast growth in foods such as wines, sausage casings, and margarine.

Proplonic acid Preservative Mold inhibitor in breads and general fungicide; used in manufacture of fruit flavors.

Proply gallate Antioxidant; preservative Used in products containing oil or fat; employed in chewing gum; used to retard rancidity in frozen fresh pork sausage.

Propylene glycol Emulsifier; humectant; stabilizer and thickener; texturizer

Miscellaneous and/or general purpose additive; uses include salad dressings, ice cream, ice milk, custards, and a variety of other foods.


(Continued)



Licensed to:


Propylparaben Preservative Fungicide; controls mold in sausage casings; GRAS additive.

Saccharin Nonnutritive sweetener Special dietary foods and a variety of beverages; baked products; tabletop sweeteners.

Saffron Color; flavoring agent Derived from plant of western Asia and southern Europe. Used to color sausage casings, margarine, or product branding inks.

Silicon dioxide Anticaking agent Used in feed or feed components, beer production, production of special dietary foods; ink dilutent for marking fruits and vegetables.

Sodium acetate pH control; preservative Miscellaneous and/or general purpose use; meat preservation.

Sodium alginate Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Extracted from seaweed; widespread food use.

Sodium aluminum sulfate Leavening agent Baking powders, confectionery; sugar refining.

Sodium benzoate Preservative To retard flavor reversion (i.e., margarine).

Sodium bicarbonate Leavening agent; pH control Separation of fatty acids and glyceroil on rendered fats; neutralize excess and clean vegetables in rendered fats, soups, and curing pickles.

Sodium chloride (salt) Flavor enhancer; formulation acid; preservation

Widespread use of salt in many foods.

Sodium citrate pH control; curing and pickling agent; sequestrant

Evaporated milk; miscellaneous and/or general purpose food use; accelerate color fixing in baking products.

Sodium diacetate Preservative; sequestrant An inhibitor of molds and rope-forming bacteria in baking products.

Sodium nitrate (Chile Saltpeter) Curing and pickling agent; preservative

Used with or without sodium nitrite in smoked, cured fish; cured meat products.

Sodium nitrite Curing and pickling agent; preservative

May be used with sodium nitrate in smoked, cured fish, cured meat products, and pet foods.

Sodium propionate Preservative A fungicide and mold preventative in bakery products, alone or with calcium propionate.

Sorbic acid Preservative Fungistatic agent for foods, especially cheeses; other uses include baked goods, beverages, dried fruits, fish, jams, jellies, meats, pickled products, and wines.

Sorbitan monostearate Emulsifier; stabilizer and thickener Widespread food usage such as whipped toppings, cakes, cake mixes, confectionery, icings, and shortenings; also many nonfood uses.

Sorbitol Humectant; nutritive sweetener; stabilizer and thickener, sequestrant

Occurs naturally in berries, cherries, plums, pears, and apples; a sugar alcohol. Examples of use include chewing gum, meat products, icings, dairy products, beverages, and pet foods.

Sucrose (table sugar) Nutritive sweetener; preservative Sugar occurs naturally in some fruits and vegetables. The most widely used additive; used in beverages, baked goods, candies, jams and jellies—an endless list including meat products.

Tagetes (Aztec marigold) Color Source is flower petals of Aztec marigold. To enhance yellow color of chicken skin and eggs, incorporated in chicken feed.

Tartaric acid pH control Occurs free in many fruits, free or combined with calcium, magnesium, or potassium. In the soft drink industry, confectionery products, bakery products, and gelatin desserts.

Titanium dioxide Color For coloring foods generally, except standardized foods; used for coloring ingested and applied drugs.


(Continued)

Common Food Additives F-4



Licensed to:

F-5 Appendix F


Tocopherols (vitamin E) Antioxidant; nutrient To retard rancidity in foods containing fat; used as a supplement.

Tragacanth gum Stabilizer and thickener; texturizer Derived from the plant Astragalus gummifier.

Turmeric Color Derived from rhizome of Curcuma longa. Food use in general, except standardized foods; to color sausage casings, margarine or shortening; ink for branding or marking products.

Vanilla Flavoring agent Used in various bakery products, confectionery and beverages; natural flavoring extracted from cured, full-grown unripe fruit of Vanilla panifolia.

Vanillin Flavoring agent and adjuvant Widespread confectionery, beverage, and food use; synthetic form of vanilla.

Yellow prussiate of soda Anticaking agent Employed in salt.

Source: Adapted from WHITNEY/ROLFES. Understanding Nutrition, 11E. Copyright © 2008 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions.

*A mole is a certain number (about 6 3 1023) of molecules. The pH of a solution is defi ned as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution. Thus, if the concentration is 10–2 (moles per liter), the pH is 2; if 10–8, the pH is 8; and so on.




Licensed to:

G-1

Glossary

Astringency A sensory phenomenon characterized by a dry, puckery feeling in the mouth.

Atoms The basic building blocks of matter; individual elements found on the periodic table.

Au gratin Food prepared with a browned or crusted top. A common technique is to cover the food with a bread crumb/sauce mixture and pass it under a broiler.

Au jus Served with its own natural juices; a term usually used in reference to roasts.

Bacteria One-celled microorganisms abundant in the air, soil, water, and/or organic matter (i.e., the bodies of plants and animals).

Baking powder A chemical leavener con-sisting of a mixture of baking soda, acid(s), and an inert filler such as cornstarch.

Baking soda A white chemical leavening powder consisting of sodium bicarbonate.

Barding Tying thin sheets of fat or bacon over lean meat to keep the meat moist during roasting. The sheets of fat are often removed before serving.

Baste To add a liquid, such as drippings, melted fat, sauce, fruit juice, or water, to the surface of food (usually roasting meat) to help prevent drying.

Batter A flour mixture that contains more water than a dough does and whose consis-tency ranges from pourable to sticky.

Beading The formation of tiny syrup droplets on the surface of a baked meringue.

Beurre manié (pronounced burr mahn-YAY ) A thickener that is a soft paste made from equal parts of soft butter and flour blended together.

Bile A digestive juice made by the liver from cholesterol and stored in the gall bladder.

Biological value The percentage of protein in food that can be utilized by an animal for growth and maintenance. High-quality, complete proteins are considered to have a high biological value.

Biotechnology Previously called ge-netic engineering, this term describes the

alteration of a gene in a bacterium, plant, or animal for the purpose of changing one or more of its characteristics.

Bisque Traditionally, a cream soup made from shellfish. Marketers sometimes label creamed vegetable soups as bisques.

Blanch To dip a food briefly into boiling water.

Blind bake To bake an unfilled piecrust.

Bloom Cottony, fuzzy growth of molds.

Body The consistency of frozen desserts as measured by their firmness, richness, viscosity, and resistance to melting.

Boiling point The temperature at which a heated liquid begins to boil and changes to a gas.

Bouillon A broth made from meat and vegetables and then strained to remove any solid ingredients.

Bouquet garni A bundle of parsley, thyme, bay leaf, and whole black pepper rolled in a leek and tied together with twine.

Bran The hard outer covering just under the husk that protects the grain’s soft endosperm.

Broth Stock made from meat or meat/bone combinations and some water with little or no flavoring. Broths are seldom reduced (simmered until much of the water evaporates) and therefore not as strong-flavored as stocks.

Brown stock The stock resulting from browning bones and/or meat prior to sim-mering them.

Calorie (kcal) The amount of energy required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1°C (measured between 14.5°C and 15.5°C at normal atmospheric pressure). (Small “c” calorie is defined by the amount of energy required to heat 1 “gram” of water.)

Candling A method of determining egg quality based on observing eggs held against a light.

Caramelization A process in which dry sugar, or sugar solution with most of its water evaporated, is heated until it melts

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) The amount of food additive that can be safely ingested daily over a person’s lifetime.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Adenosine triphosphate is a universal energy compound in cells obtained from the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat, or protein. The energy of ATP, which is located in high-energy phosphate bonds, fuels chemical work at the cellular level.

Agglomerate A process in which small particles gather into a mass or ball. In the case of milk, the protein particles regroup into larger, more porous particles.

Aging Holding meat after slaughter to improve texture and tenderness. A ripen-ing that occurs when carcasses are hung in refrigeration units for longer periods than that required for the reversal of rigor mortis.

À la meunière Fish seasoned, lightly floured, and sautéed in clarified butter or oil and served with a sauce made with butter and parsley.

Albedo The white, inner rind of citrus fruits, which is rich in pectin and aromatic oils.

Al dente Meaning “to the tooth” in Italian, it refers to pasta that is tender, yet firm enough to offer some resistance to the teeth.

Amphoteric Capable of acting chemically as either acid or base.

Antibiotic A substance used to prevent or treat infectious diseases by inhibiting or destroying the responsible microorganism.

Antioxidant A compound that inhibits oxidation, which can cause deterioration and rancidity.

Aromatic compound A compound that has a chemical configuration of a hexagon.

Artesian water Water that has surfaced on its own from an aquifer, rather than being pumped.

Aspic A clear gel prepared from stock or fruit or vegetable juices.

As purchased (AP) The total amount of food purchased prior to any preparation.

34981_32_GLOSS_pG1-G8.indd 134981_32_GLOSS_pG1-G8.indd 1 4/30/10 6:00:13 PM4/30/10 6:00:13 PM


Licensed to:

G-2 Glossary

Congener Alcohol by-product such as methanol or wood alcohol.

Connective tissue A protein structure that surrounds living cells, giving them structure and adhesiveness within them-selves and to adjacent tissues.

Consistency Describes a food’s firmness or thickness.

Consommé A richly flavored soup stock that has been clarified and made transpar-ent by the use of egg whites.

Convection The transfer of heat by mov-ing air or liquid (water/fat) currents through and/or around food.

Co-op Work-study program with a cor-poration that is often customized for the student.

Country of Origin labeling The required identification of the country of origin on the label for fresh red meat (beef, pork, lamb, veal), marinated products (marinated meats), seafood, produce, and peanuts.

Court bouillon Seasoned stock contain-ing white wine and/or vinegar.

Cover The table setting, including the place mat, flatware, dishes, and glasses.

Creaming Method A procedure of cake batter mixing in which the shortening and sugar are first combined at slow or medium speed until the mixture becomes aerated, followed by the addition of eggs and, in alternate small portions, of milk and flour while mixing continues.

Critical control point (CCP) A point in the HACCP process that must be controlled to ensure the safety of the food.

Cross-contamination The transfer of bacteria or other microorganisms from one food to another.

Cruciferous A group of indole- containing vegetables named for their cross-shaped blossoms; they are reported to have a protective effect against cancer in laboratory animals. Examples include broccoli, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauli-flower, kale, mustard greens, rutabaga, kohlrabi, and turnips.

Crumb The cell structure appearing when a baked product is sliced. Evaluation is based on cell size (called open if medium to large, or closed if small), cell shape, and cell thickness (thin walls occur in fine crumb, whereas thick walls predominate in a coarse crumb).

Crumbing A ceremonious procedure of Russian service in which a waiter, using a napkin or silver crumber, brushes crumbs off the tablecloth into a small container resem-bling a tiny dust pan.

Crustacean An invertebrate animal with a segmented body covered by an exoskele-ton consisting of a hard upper shell and a soft under shell.

Crystalline candy Candies formed from sugar solutions yielding many fine, small crystals.

Crystallization The precipitation of crys-tals from a solution into a solid, geometric network.

Culture The ideas, customs, skills, and art of a group of people in a given period of civilization.

Curd The coagulated or thickened part of milk.

Cure To preserve food through the use of salt and drying. Sugar, spices, or nitrates may also be added.

Curing To expose cheese to controlled temperature and humidity during aging.

Cuticle (bloom) A waxy coating on an eggshell that seals the pores from bacterial contamination and moisture loss.

Cycle menu A menu that consists of 2 or more weeks, usually 3 or 4, that cycles through a certain order of meals. Cycle menus offer a combination of variety and controlled costs.

Deglaze To add liquid to pan drippings followed by simmering/stirring to dissolve and loosen cooked-on particles sticking to the bottom of the pan.

Degorge To peel and slice vegetables, sprinkle them with salt, and allow them to stand at room temperature until droplets containing bitter substances form on the surface; the moisture is then removed.

Dehydrate To remove at least 95% of the water from foods through exposure to high temperatures.

Delaney Clause A clause added to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 stipu-lating that “no additive shall be deemed to be safe if it is found to induce cancer when ingested by man or animal.”

Denaturation The irreversible process in which the structure of a protein is disrupted, resulting in partial or complete loss of function.

into a clear, viscous liquid and, as heat-ing continues, turns into a smooth, brown mixture.

Carryover cooking The phenomenon in which food continues to cook after it has been removed from the heat source as the heat is distributed more evenly from the outer to the inner portion of the food.

Casein The primary protein (80%) found in milk; it can be precipitated (solidified out of solution) with acid or certain enzymes.

Catechins Flavonoid pigments that are a subgroup of the flavonol pigments.

Chalaza (pl. chalazae) The ropy, twisted strands of albumen that anchor the yolk to the center of the thick egg white.

Chemethesis The ability to feel a food’s chemical properties (e.g., cool mints or hot chili peppers).

Chiffon cake A cake made by combining the characteristics found in both shortened and unshortened cakes.

Clarified butter Butter that will not burn because its milk solids and water have been removed.

Clarify To make or become clear or pure.

Coagulate To clot or become semisolid. In milk, denatured proteins often separate from the liquid by coagulation.

Coagulation The clotting or precipita-tion of protein in a liquid into a semisolid compound.

Codex Alimentarius Commission The international organization that develops international food standards, codes of practice, and other guidelines to protect consumers’ health.

Collagen A pearly white, tough, and fibrous protein that provides support to muscle and prevents it from overstretching. It is the primary protein in connective tissue.

Colloidal dispersion A solvent containing particles that are too large to go into solu-tion, but not large enough to precipitate out.

Complete protein A protein, usually from animal sources, that contains all the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for the body’s maintenance and growth.

Compound A substance whose molecules consist of unlike atoms.

Conduction The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another that it is contacting.



Licensed to:

Glossary G-3

Flocculation A partial gel in which only some of the solid particles colloidally dispersed in a liquid have solidified.

Foam A colloidal dispersion of a gas in a liquid.

Food additive A substance added in-tentionally or unintentionally to food that becomes part of the food and affects its character.

Foodborne illness An illness transmitted to humans by food.

Food Code An FDA publication updated every two years that shows food service organizations how to prevent foodborne illness while preparing food.

Food cost Often expressed as a percent-age obtained by dividing the raw food cost by the menu price.

Food group plan A diet-planning tool that “groups” foods together based on nutrient and calorie (kcal) content and then specifies the amount of servings a person should have based on their recommended calorie (kcal) intake.

Food infection An illness resulting from ingestion of food containing large numbers of living bacteria or other microorganisms.

Food intoxication An illness resulting from ingestion of food containing a toxin.

Forecast A predicted amount of food that will be needed for a food service operation within a given time period.

Fortified Foods that have had nutrients added that were not present in the original food.

Free radical An unstable molecule that is extremely reactive and that can damage cells.

Freeze-dry To remove water from food when it is in a frozen state, usually under a vacuum.

Freezer burn White or grayish patches on frozen food caused by water evaporating into the package’s air spaces.

Freezing point The temperature at which a liquid changes to a solid.

Fruit The edible part of a plant developed from a flower.

Fumet A flavorful fish stock made with white wine.

Functional food A food or beverage that imparts a physiological benefit that en-hances overall health, helps prevent or treat a disease or condition, or improves physical/mental performance.

Emulsion A liquid dispersed in another liquid with which it is usually immiscible (incapable of being mixed).

Endosperm The largest portion of the grain, containing all of the grain’s starch.

Enriched Foods that have had certain nu-trients, which were lost through processing, added back to levels established by federal standards.

Enrobe To coat food with melted chocolate that hardens to form a solid casing.

Enzymatic browning A reaction in which an enzyme acts on a phenolic compound in the presence of oxygen to produce brown-colored products.

Enzyme A protein that catalyzes (causes) a chemical reaction without itself being al-tered in the process.

Essential nutrients Nutrients that the body cannot synthesize at all or in amounts necessary to meet the body’s needs.

Essential oil An oily substance that is volatile (easily vaporized), with 100 times the flavoring power of the material from which it originated.

Eviscerate To remove the entrails from the body cavity.

Extractives Flavor compounds con-sisting of nonprotein, nitrogen sub-stances that are end products of protein metabolism.

Fermentation The conversion of carbo-hydrates to carbon dioxide and alcohol by yeast or bacteria.

Finfish Fish that have fins and internal skeletons.

Fire point The temperature at which a heated substance (such as oil) bursts into flames and burns for at least 5 seconds.

Flash point The temperature at which tiny wisps of fire streak to the surface of a heated substance (such as oil).

Flatware Eating and serving utensils (e.g., knives, forks, and spoons).

Flavor The combined sense of taste, odor, and mouthfeel.

Flavoring Substance that adds a new flavor to food.

Flavor reversion The breakdown (oxida-tion) of an essential fatty acid, linolenic acid, found in certain vegetable oils, leading to an undesirable flavor change prior to the start of actual rancidity.

Density The concentration of matter measured by the amount of mass per unit volume. Objects with a higher density weigh more for their size.

Dextrinization The breakdown of starch molecules to smaller, sweeter-tasting dextrin molecules in the presence of dry heat.

Dextrose equivalent (DE) A measure-ment of dextrose concentration. A DE of 50 means the syrup contains 50% dextrose.

Dietary fiber The undigested portion of carbohydrates remaining in a food sample after exposure to digestive enzymes.

Dietitian (registered dietitian or RD) A health professional who counsels people about their medical nutrition therapy (diabetic, low-cholesterol, low-sodium, etc.). Registration requirements consist of complet-ing an approved 4-year college degree, exam, internship, and ongoing continuing education.

Distillation A procedure in which pure liquid is obtained from a solution by boiling, condensation, and collection of the con-densed liquid in a separate container.

Distilled water Water that has been puri-fied through distillation to remove minerals, pathogens, and other substances.

Diverticulosis An intestinal disorder characterized by pockets forming out from the digestive tract, especially the colon.

Dough A flour mixture that is dry enough to be handled and kneaded.

Drug A product able to treat, prevent, cure, mitigate, or diagnose a disease or disease symptom.

Drupes Fruit with seeds encased in a pit. Examples are apricots, cherries, peaches, and plums.

Dry-heat preparation A method of cook-ing in which heat is transferred by air, radia-tion, fat, or metal.

Edible coating A thin layer of edible material, such as natural wax, oil, or petroleum-based wax, that serves as a barrier to gas and moisture.

Edible portion (EP) Food in its raw state, minus that which is discarded—bones, fat, skins, and/or seeds.

Electrolyte An electrically charged ion in a solution.

Emulsifier A compound that possesses both water-loving (hydrophilic) and water-fearing (hydrophobic) properties so that it disperses in either water or oil.



Licensed to:

G-4 Glossary

Imitation milk A product defined by the FDA as having the appearance, taste, and function of its original counterpart but as being nutritionally inferior.

Incomplete protein A protein, usually from plant sources, that does not provide all the essential amino acids.

Induction The transfer of heat energy to a neighboring material without contact.

Interesterification A commercial process that rearranges fatty acids on the glycerol molecule in order to produce fat with a smoother consistency.

Interfering agent A substance added to the sugar syrup to prevent the formation of large crystals, resulting in a candy with a waxy, chewy texture.

Internships Corporate internships are temporary job positions (usually for 3 months during the summer or for 6 months, which includes a summer and a semester) in industry, government, or academia. Dietetic internships are supervised practice experiences that average 12 months (6 to 24 months).

Invert sugar An equal mixture of glucose and fructose, created by hydrolyzing sucrose.

Ionize To separate a neutral molecule into electrically charged ions.

Irradiation A food preservation process in which foods are treated with low doses of gamma rays, X-rays, or electrons.

Job description An organized list of duties used for finding qualified applicants, training, performance appraisal, defining authority and responsibility, and determining salary.

Julienne To cut food lengthwise into very thin, stick-like shapes.

Kinetic energy Energy associated with motion.

Knead To work the dough into an elastic mass by pushing, stretching, and folding it.

Kosher From Hebrew, food that is “fit, right, proper” to be eaten according to Jewish dietary laws.

Lamination The arrangement of alternat-ing layers of fat and flour in rolled pastry dough. During baking, the fat melts and leaves empty spaces for steam to lift the layers of flour, resulting in a flaky pastry.

Larding Inserting strips of bacon, salt pork, or other fat into slits in the meat with a large needle.

Latent heat The amount of energy in calories (kcal) per gram absorbed or emitted

Halal An Arabic word meaning “permis-sible.” Usually refers to permissible foods under Islamic law.

Heat of solidification The temperature at which a substance converts from a liquid to a solid state.

Heat of vaporization The amount of heat required to convert a liquid to a gas.

Heat shock Repeated cycles of tempera-ture fluctuations from cold to warm and back that cause larger ice crystal growth, reducing frozen dessert quality.

Herb A plant leaf valued for its flavor or scent.

Hermetically sealed Refers to foods that have been packaged airtight by a commer-cial sealing process.

High-conversion corn syrups Corn syr-ups with a dextrose equivalent over 58.

Homogenization A mechanical process that breaks up the fat globules in milk into much smaller globules that do not clump together and are permanently dispersed in a very fine emulsion.

Hops The dried fruit of the Humulus lupulus plant, which grows in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.

Hormone A substance (usually a peptide or steroid) produced by one tissue and sent through the bloodstream to another tis-sue site to act physiologically (growth or metabolism).

Humectant A substance that attracts water to itself. If added to food, it increases the water-holding capacity of the food and helps to prevent it from drying out by lower-ing the water activity.

Husk The rough outer covering protecting a grain.

Hydrogenation A commercial process in which hydrogen atoms are added to the double bonds in monounsaturated or poly-unsaturated fatty acids to make them more saturated.

Hydrolysis A chemical reaction in which water (hydro) breaks (lysis) a chemical bond in another substance, splitting it into two or more new substances.

Hydrophilic A term describing “water-loving” or water-soluble substances.

Hydrophobic A term describing “water-fearing” or nonwater-soluble substances.

Hygroscopic Having the ability to attract and retain moisture.

Gaping The separation of fish flesh into flakes that occurs as the steak or fillet ages.

Gelatinization The increase in volume, viscosity, and translucency of starch gran-ules when they are heated in a liquid.

Gene A unit of genetic information in the chromosome.

Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list A list of compounds exempt from the food additive definition because they are generally recognized as safe based on “a rea-sonable certainty of no harm from a product under the intended conditions of use.”

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Plants, animals, or microorganisms that have had their genes altered through genetic engi-neering using the application of recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) technology.

Germ The smallest portion of the grain, and the embryo for a future plant.

Glaze A sugar-coated icing poured over pies or pastries that hardens to provide flavor and structure. The word glaze is used both for pastries and soup stocks, but they have different meanings.

Glaze A flavoring obtained from soup stock that has been concentrated by evapo-ration until it attains a syrupy consistency with a highly concentrated flavor.

Gluten The protein portion of wheat flour with the elastic characteristics necessary for the structure of most baked products.

Good Manufacturing Practices A set of regulations, codes, and guidelines for the manufacture of food products, drugs, medi-cal devices, diagnostic products, and active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs).

Grading The voluntary process in which foods are evaluated for yield (a 1 to 5 grading for meats only) and quality (Prime, Choice, AA, A, Fancy, etc.).

Gram A metric unit of weight. One gram (g) is equal to the weight of 1 cubic centi-meter (cc) or milliliter (mL) of water (under a specific temperature and pressure).

GRE The Graduate Record Examination®, a general test that measures verbal reason-ing, quantitative reasoning, critical thinking, and analytical writing skills.

Gustatory Relating to the sense of taste.

HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System, a systematized ap-proach to preventing foodborne illness dur-ing the production and preparation of food.



Licensed to:

Glossary G-5

Nuclei Small aggregates of molecules serv-ing as the starting point of crystal formation.

Nutraceutical A bioactive compound (nutrients and nonnutrients) that has health benefits.

Nutrition Care Process and Model A standardized model to guide registered dietitians and dietetic technicians, in provid-ing high quality nutrition care.

Nutrient content claims Food label de-scriptions communicating the amount of a nutrient or dietary substance contained in a food or beverage.

Nutrients Food components that nourish the body to provide growth, maintenance, and repair.

Nutrigenomics A field of study focus-ing on genetically determined, biochemical pathways linking specific dietary substances with health and disease.

Objective tests Evaluations of food quality that rely on numbers generated by laboratory instruments, which are used to quantify the physical and chemical differ-ences in foods.

Ohmic heating A food preservation pro-cess in which an electrical current is passed through food, generating enough heat to destroy microorganisms.

Olfactory Relating to the sense of smell.

Omega-3 fatty acids A category of polyunsaturated fatty acids in which the first double bond is three carbons from the methyl (CH3) end; examples are eicosap-entaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Organizational chart A descriptive dia-gram showing the administrative structure of an organization.

Osmosis The movement of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane to the side with the higher solute concentration, equalizing solute concentration on both sides of the membrane.

Osmotic pressure The pressure or pull that develops when two solutions of differ-ent solute concentration are on either side of a permeable membrane.

Outbreak Defined by the CDC as the oc-currence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food.

Oven spring The quick expansion of dough during the first 10 minutes of baking, caused by expanding gases.

magnesium, and sodium (sodium bicarbon-ate, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride), and sometimes iron or hydrogen sulfide.

Mirepoix A collection of lightly sautéed, chopped vegetables (a 2:1:1 ratio by weight of onions, celery, and carrots) flavored with spices and herbs (sage, thyme, marjoram, and chopped parsley are the most common).

Modified starch A starch that has been chemically or physically modified to create unique functional characteristics.

Moist-heat preparation A method of cooking in which heat is transferred by wa-ter, any water-based liquid, or steam.

Mold A fungus (a plant that lacks chlo-rophyll) that produces a furry growth on organic matter.

Molecule A unit composed of one or more types of atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Mollusk An invertebrate animal with a soft unsegmented body usually enclosed in a shell.

Monograph A summary sheet (fact sheet) describing a substance in terms of name (common and scientific), chemical constitu-ents, functional uses (medical and common), dosage, side effects, drug interactions, and references.

Mother sauce A sauce that serves as the springboard from which other sauces are prepared.

Mycotoxin A toxin produced by a mold.

Myocommata Large sheets of very thin connective tissue separating the myotomes.

Myotomes Layers of short fibers in fish muscle.

Noncrystalline (amorphous) candy Candies formed from sugar solutions that did not crystallize.

Nonnutritive sweeteners Food additives requiring FDA approval that provide sweetness with no or insignificant amounts of energy (calories/kcal). Also known as alternative sweeteners, sugar substi-tutes, sugar replacers, and macronutrient substitutes.

Nontempered coating A coating resem-bling chocolate that is not subject to bloom because it is made with fats other than cocoa butter.

No-observed-effect level (NOEL) The no-observed-effect level is the level or dose at which an additive is fed to laboratory ani-mals without any negative side effects.

as a substance undergoes a change in state (liquid/solid/gas).

Legumes Members of the plant family Leguminosae that are characterized by growing in pods. Vegetable legumes include beans, peas, and lentils.

Maillard reaction The reaction between a sugar (typically reducing sugars such as glucose/dextrose, fructose, lactose, or maltose) and a protein (specifically the nitrogen in an amino acid), resulting in the formation of brown complexes.

Marbling Fat deposited in the muscle that can be seen as little white streaks or drops.

Masa A word that means “dough” in Mexico. It is made by cooking corn in water, after which it is ground into a pourable slurry. Masa is often used to make tortillas, tamales, and many commercial corn-based snacks.

Mealy A pastry with a grainy or less flaky texture, created by coating all of the flour with fat.

Medical foods A food to be taken under the supervision of a physician and intended for the dietary management of a disease/condition for which distinctive nutritional requirements are established by scientific evaluation.

Medical nutrition therapy Dietary therapy that applies the nutrition care process (NCP) in clinical settings to man-age nutrition-related diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, renal disease, liver failure, and others. Registered dietitians, as part of the health care team, contribute to the patient’s care by providing this dietary therapy often referred by a physician.

Melting point The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid state (liquid/solid/gas).

Meniscus The imaginary line read at the bottom of the concave arc at the water’s surface.

Methylxanthine A compound that stimu-lates the central nervous system.

Microorganism Plant or animal organ-ism that can only be observed under the microscope—bacteria, mold, yeast, virus, or animal parasite.

Milk solids-not-fat (MSNF) Federal stan-dard identifying the total solids, primarily proteins and lactose, found in milk, minus the fat.

Mineral water Water from natural springs having a strong taste or odor due to small amounts of salts of calcium,



Licensed to:

G-6 Glossary

“weight of the evidence” qualifies them as a health claim, these claims are not held to the standard of significant scientific agreement.

Quality grades The USDA standards for beef, veal, lamb, and mutton.

Quick bread Bread leavened with air, steam, and/or carbon dioxide from baking soda or baking powder.

Radiation The transfer of heat energy in the form of waves of particles moving out-ward from their source.

Rancid The breakdown of the polyun-saturated fatty acids in fats that results in disagreeable odors and flavors.

Reducing sugars Sugars such as glucose, fructose, maltose, and others that have a reactive aldehyde or ketone group. Sucrose is not a reducing sugar.

Reduction The process in which a liquid is simmered or boiled until the volume is reduced through evaporation, leaving a thicker, more concentrated, flavorful mass; or the product of this process.

Reference protein A standard against which to measure the quality of other proteins. Registered dietitians, as part of the health care team, contribute to the patient’s care by providing dietary therapy often pursuant to a physician’s referral. The patient’s nutrition status is assessed prior to recommending a dietary plan to treat medical conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, renal disease, liver failure, and others.

Rennin An enzyme obtained from the in-ner lining of a calf’s stomach and sold com-mercially as rennet.

Respiration rate The rate of carbon dioxide produced from a given amount of produce over a certain unit of time.

Retail cuts Smaller cuts of meat ob-tained from wholesale cuts and sold to the consumer.

Retrogradation The seepage of water out of an aging gel because of the contrac-tion of the gel (bonds tighten between the amylose molecules). Also known as syneresis or weeping.

Rhizome An underground (usually) stem that generates (1) shoots that rise up and/or horizontally to propagate new plants and (2) roots that grow down to the ground.

Rigor mortis Latin for “stiffness of death,” the temporary stiff state following death as muscles contract.

Prawn A large crustacean that resembles shrimp but is biologically different. Large shrimp are often called by this name.

Prebiotics Nondigestible food ingredients [generally fibers such as fructooligosac-charides (FOS) and inulin] that support the growth of probiotics.

Precipitate To separate or settle out of a solution.

Prime (season) To seal the pores of a pan’s metal surface with a layer of heated-on oil.

Prion An infectious protein particle that does not contain DNA or RNA.

Probiotics Live microbial food ingredients (i.e., bacteria) that have a beneficial effect on human health.

Process (processed) cheese A cheese made from blending one or more varieties of cheese, with or without heat, and mixing the result with other ingredients.

Product recall Civil court action to seize or confiscate a product that is defective, unsafe, filthy, or produced under unsanitary conditions.

Proof (alcohol) Alcoholic strength indi-cated by a number that is twice the percent by volume of alcohol present.

Proof (baking) To increase the vol-ume of shaped dough through continued fermentation.

Proof box A large, specially designed container that maintains optimal tempera-tures and humidity for the fermentation and rising of dough.

Protein complementation Two incomplete-protein foods, each of which supplies the amino acids missing in the other, combined to yield a complete protein profile.

P/S ratio The ratio of polyunsaturated fats to saturated fats. The higher the P/S ratio, the more polyunsaturated fats the food contains.

Puff pastry A delicate pastry that puffs up in size during baking because of many alternating layers of fat and flour.

Purified water Water that has undergone deionization, distillation, reverse osmosis, or any other method that removes minerals, chemicals, and flavor.

Qualified health claims An FDA term describing a relationship between a food, food component, or dietary supplement ingredient and reduced risk of a disease or health-related condition. Although the

Overrun The volume over and above the volume of the original frozen dessert mix, caused by the incorporation of air during freezing.

Parasite An organism that lives on or within another organism at the host’s ex-pense without any useful return.

Parboil To partially boil, but not fully cook, a food.

Pascalization A food preservation process utilizing ultrahigh pressures to inhibit the chemical processes of food deterioration.

Pasteurization A food preservation process that heats liquids to 161°F (72°C) for 15 seconds, or 143°F (62°C) for 30 minutes, in order to kill bacteria, yeasts, and molds.

Patent flour The finest streams of flour.

Pathogenic Causing or capable of causing disease.

Peptide bond The chemical bond between two amino acids.

Percentage yield The ratio of edible to inedible or wasted food.

Phenolic A chemical term to describe an aromatic (circular) ring attached to one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups.

pH scale Measures the degree of acid-ity or alkalinity of a substance, with 1 the most acidic, 14 the most alkaline, and 7 neutral.

Plain pastry Pastry made for producing piecrusts, quiches, and main-dish pies.

Plant stanol esters Naturally occurring substances in plants that help block absorp-tion of cholesterol from the digestive tract.

Plasticity The ability of a fat to be shaped or molded.

Polymerization A process in which free fatty acids link together, especially when overheated, resulting in a gummy, dark residue and an oil that is more viscous and prone to foaming.

Polymorphism The capability of solid fats to change into several crystalline forms, each with its own melting point, crystal structure, and solubility.

Polyphenol An organic compound with two or more phenols—carbon atoms struc-tured into an aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups.

Pomes Fruit with seeds contained in a central core. Examples are apples and pears.



Licensed to:

Glossary G-7

Standards of Identity Requirements for the type and amount of ingredients a food should contain in order to be labeled as that food.

Standards of Minimum Quality Mini-mum quality requirements for tenderness, color, and freedom from defects in canned fruits and vegetables.

Starter A culture of microorganisms, usu-ally bacteria and/or yeasts, used in the pro-duction of certain foods such as sourdough bread, cheese, and alcoholic beverages.

Sterilization The elimination of all microorganisms through extended boiling/heating to temperatures much higher than boiling or through the use of certain chemicals.

Stock The foundational thin liquid of many soups, produced when meat, poultry, seafood, and/or their bones, or vegetables are reduced (simmered) and strained.

Storage eggs Eggs that are treated with a light coat of oil or plastic and stored in high humidity at low refrigerator tempera-tures very close to the egg’s freezing point (29°F–32°F/ –1.5°C–0°C).

Straight flour Flour containing all the different types of streams produced during milling.

Stream A division of milled flour based on particle size.

Streusel topping A crunchy, flavorful topping that can be strewn over the top of pies; it is made by combining flour, butter or margarine, brown sugar, and possibly spices (cinnamon) and chopped nuts (pecans, walnuts, or almonds).

Structure/function claims Statements identifying relationships between nutrients or dietary ingredients and body functions.

Sublimation The process in which a solid changes directly to a vapor without passing through the liquid phase.

Substrate A substance that is acted upon, such as by an enzyme.

Superglycerinated Describes a shorten-ing that has had mono- and diglycerides added for increased plasticity.

Supersaturated solution An unstable solution created when more than the maxi-mum solute is dissolved in solution.

Surfactant Surface-active agent that reduces a liquid’s surface tension to increase its wetting and blending ability.

Sol A colloidal dispersion of a solid dis-persed in a liquid.

Solubility The ability of one substance to blend uniformly with another.

Solute Solid, liquid, or gas compounds dissolved in another substance.

Solution A completely homogeneous mix-ture of a solute (usually a solid) dissolved in a solvent (usually a liquid).

Solvent A substance, usually a liquid, in which another substance is dissolved.

Specifications Descriptive information used in food purchasing that defines the minimum and maximum levels of accept-able quality or quantity (i.e., U.S. grade, weight, size, fresh or frozen).

Specific gravity The density of a sub-stance compared to another substance (usually water).

Specific heat The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1°C.

Spice A seasoning or flavoring added to food that is derived from the fruit, flowers, bark, seeds, or roots of a plant.

Spore Encapsulated, dormant form assumed by some microorganisms that is resistant to environmental factors that would normally result in its death.

Spring water Water that, according to the FDA requirements, flows from its source without being pumped and contains at least 250 parts per million of dissolved solids.

Stabilizer A compound such as vegetable gum that attracts water and interferes with frozen ice crystal formation, resulting in a smoother consistency in frozen desserts.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) Established written procedures serving as compulsory instructions to be followed out exactly in carrying out a given operation. SOPs ensure quality control through always carrying out operations in the same correct manner.

Standardized recipe A food service recipe that is a set of instructions describ-ing how a particular dish is prepared by a specific establishment. It ensures consistent food quality and quantity, the latter of which provides portion/cost control.

Standards of Fill The amount of raw product that must be put into a container before liquid (brine or syrup) is added.

Ripening The chemical and physical changes that occur during the curing period.

Rope The sticky, moist texture of breads resulting from contamination by Bacillus mesentericus bacteria.

Roux A thickener made by cooking equal parts of flour and fat.

Saturated solution A solution holding the maximum amount of dissolved solute at room temperature.

Scalloped Baked with milk sauce and bread crumbs.

Scampi A crustacean found in Italy and not generally available in North America. The term is often used incorrectly to de-scribe a popular shrimp dish.

Score The technique of taking a sharp knife or a special blade called a lame and creating ¼- to ½-inch-deep slashes on the risen dough’s top surface just prior to baking.

Sear To brown the surface of meat by brief exposure to high heat.

Searing Cooking that exposes a cut of meat to very high initial temperatures; this is intended to seal the pores, increase flavor, and enhance color by browning.

Seasoning Any compound that enhances the flavor already found naturally in a food.

Seed To create nuclei or starting points from which additional crystals can form.

Sensory or subjective tests Evaluations of food quality based on sensory character-istics and personal preferences as perceived by the five senses.

Shortened cake A cake made with fat.

Shortening A fat that tenderizes, or shortens, the texture of baked products by impeding gluten development, making them softer and easier to chew.

Silence cloth A piece of fabric placed between the table and the tablecloth to protect the table, quiet the placement of dishes and utensils, and keep the tablecloth from slipping.

Simple syrup A basic mixture of boiled sugar and water.

Slurry A thickener made by combining starch and a cool liquid.

Small sauce A secondary sauce created when a flavor is added to a mother sauce.

Smoke point The temperature at which fat or oil begins to smoke.



Licensed to:

G-8 Glossary

Volume A measurement of three- dimensional space that is often used to measure liquids.

Water activity (aw) Measures the amount of available (free) water in foods. Water activity ranges from 0 to the highest value of 1.00, which is pure water.

Weeping (syneresis) The escape of liquid to the bottom of a meringue or the forma-tion of pores filled with liquid.

Well water Water pumped from an aqui-fer, an underground source of water.

Whey The liquid portion of milk, con-sisting primarily of 93% water, lactose, and whey proteins (primarily lactalbumin and lactoglobulin). It is the watery com-ponent removed from the curd in cheese manufacture.

White sauce A mixture of flour, milk, and usually fat.

White stock The flavored liquid obtained by simmering the bones of beef, veal, chicken, or pork.

Whole grains Defined by the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) as “foods made from the entire grain seed, usually called the kernel, which consists of the bran, germ, and endosperm.”

Wholesale (primal) cuts The large cuts of an animal carcass, which are further di-vided into retail cuts.

Winterizing A commercial process that removes from vegetable oils the fatty acids that have a tendency to crystallize and make the oils appear cloudy.

Yeast A fungus (a plant that lacks chloro-phyll) that is able to ferment sugars and that is used for producing food products such as bread and alcohol.

Yeast bread Bread made with yeast, which produces carbon dioxide gas through the process of fermentation, causing the bread to rise.

Yield grade The amount of lean meat on the carcass in proportion to fat, bone, and other inedible parts.

Turgor The rigid firmness of a plant cell resulting from being filled with water.

Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) milk Milk that has been pasteurized using very high temperatures, is aseptically sealed, and is capable of being stored unrefrigerated for up to 3 months.

Ultrapasteurization A process in which a milk product is heated at or above 280°F (138°C) for at least 2 seconds.

Unqualified health claim An FDA term describing a relationship between a food, food component, or dietary supplement ingredient and reducing risk of a disease or health-related condition. Significant scientific agreement supports these authorized claims.

Unshortened cake A cake made without added fat.

Variety meats The liver, sweetbreads (thymus), brain, kidneys, heart, tongue, tripe (stomach lining), and oxtail (tail of cattle).

Verification form Documentation provided by the dietetic program direc-tor to an individual who has completed the undergraduate ADA course require-ments approved by the ADA for that particular academic institution. This form is required for (1) acceptance into an ADA internship and (2) taking the ADA examination.

Vinaigrette A salad dressing consisting only of oil, vinegar, and seasoning.

Vintage The year in which a wine was bottled; especially, an exceptionally fine wine from a year with a good crop.

Virus An infectious microorganism con-sisting of RNA or DNA that reproduces only in living cells.

Viscosity The resistance of a fluid to flowing freely, caused by the friction of its molecules against a surface.

Vitelline membrane The membrane sur-rounding the egg yolk and attached to the chalazae.

Volatile molecules Molecules capable of evaporating like a gas into the air.

Surimi Japanese for “minced meat,” a fabricated fish product usually made from Alaskan pollack, a deep-sea whitefish, which is skinned, deboned, minced, washed, strained, and shaped into pieces to resemble crab, shrimp, or scallops.

Suspension A mixture in which particles too large to go into solution remain sus-pended in the solvent.

Sweat The stage of cooking in which food, especially vegetables, becomes soft and translucent.

Syneresis The oozing out of the liquid component of a gel.

Tannins Polymers of various flavonoid compounds, of which some of the larger ones yield reddish and brown pigments.

Temperature danger zone The tem-perature range that is ideal for bacterial growth; it is 40°F–140°F (4°C–60°C) for consumers and 41°F–135°F (5°C–57°C) for retailers.

Tempering The process of heating and cooling chocolate to specific temperatures, making it more resistant to melting and resulting in a smooth, glossy, hard finish.

Tenure track The process in which new faculty members are hired as assistant professors and are on probation for approx-imately 5 years. If their yearly contract is renewed for 5 years in a row based on satisfactory performance, they may apply for tenure (permanent hire) and promotion to associate professor. The next and final step is promotion to full professor.

Three-compartment sink A sink divided into three sections, the first for soaking and washing, the second for rinsing, and the third for sanitizing.

TOEFL The Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTM measures the ability of non-native speakers to understand English as it is spoken, written, and heard in colleges and universities.

Truss To tie the legs and wings against the body of the bird to prevent it from over-cooking before the breast is done.



Licensed to:

1

Index

I-1

Alcohols, sugar, 441–42, 449, 522Al dente, 360Alexander the Great, 351, 435Alfalfa sprouts, 291–92Algae, red tide, 76Alginate, 45, 540, 545, 578Alitame, 443, 446Alkaloids, 3Allergies

food allergens, 76–77, 597genetically engineered foods and, 14

Allied health, careers in, 611–12Allowed claims on food labels, 597–98Allspice, 113Almond cookies, 491Almond milk, 219Almond oil, 462Alpha-amylase, 423Alternative medicine, 6Altitude, boiling point and, 35. See

also High-altitude adjustmentsAluminum pans, 424Amaranth, 281, 356, 374Amebic dysentery, 73American Art Therapy Association

(AATA), 611American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 610American Association of Cereal

Chemists, 610American Association of Colleges of

Pharmacy, 611American Association of Family &

Consumer Sciences, 610American Board of Genetic Counseling

(ABGC), 611American Board of Nutrition, 610, 612American Chemical Society, 610American College of Nutrition, 610, 612American Culinary Federation

(ACF), 610American Dietetic Association (ADA),

9, 610, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616American Institute of Nutrition, 610American Oil Chemists’ Society, 610American Orthoptic Council (AOC), 611American paddlefi sh, 198American Physical Therapy Association

(APTA), 611American service, 135American Society for Hospital Food

Service Administrators, 610American Society of Biological

Chemists, 610American Society of Clinical Nutrition

(ASCN), 610, 612American Speech-Language-Hearing

Association, 611Amino acids, 50, 51. See also

Protein(s)essential and non-essential, 50in fi sh, 190structure of, 50, 51

Ammonium, quaternary, sanitation with, 89

Ammonium sulfate, 420Amphoteric nature of proteins, 54

Amylases, 52, 315, 368, 383alpha- and beta-amylase, 423

Amylose/amylopectin, 39, 41, 42, 43in staling of bread/baked goods, 381in starches, 393structure of, 393sweetness of toasted bread

and, 396Analytical tests for food evaluation,

25, 28Anchovies, 196Angel food cake, 479, 480, 486Animal feeds, grains used to

make, 348Anisakis simplex (herring worm),

72, 73Anise (fennel), 113, 271Anna, Duchess of Bedford, 489Annatto, 483Anthocyanin, 272, 273, 287, 289Anthoxanthins, 272, 273, 287, 289Antibiotics

in meat production, 144–45in poultry production, 175–76resistance, 144

Anticarcinogens, 59Antioxidants, 6, 55, 472, 473

added to baked goods, 419added to cereal grains, 347added to cured meats, 157added to functional beverages, 554in fruits, 302, 315measuring, 312qualifi ed health claim for, 598structure/function claim for, 598vitamin E, 56

AOC. See American Orthoptic CouncilAP. See As purchasedAppearance, fats, 457Appert, Nicholas, 578Apple cider, 80, 562Applegate, Liz, 620Apples, 299, 300, 301, 305

coring of, 338enzymatic browning of, 54rotten, one spoils the barrel, 321selecting, 304storage of, 321varieties of, 304

Applesauce, 318Apple wine (hard cider), 562, 566Appliance thermometers, 86–87Apricots, 299, 301, 304, 305APTA. See American Physical Therapy

AssociationArabinose, 39, 40Arbroath smokies, 196ARC-PA. See Accreditation Review

Commission on Education for the Physician Assistant

Aroma. See OdorsAromatic beverages. See Coffee; TeaAromatic compounds, 317Aromatic wine, 566Arrowroot, 392, 399, 504Artesian water, 550Artichoke, 271, 277, 278

in fl our mixtures, 382–84in fruits, 304GRAS list, 599in ice cream, 544in milk and milk products, 214in processed meats, 157–58in processed poultry, 176purposes of, 56–59regulation of, 593, 598–600safety of, 599in soft drinks, 552types of, 57–58in vegetables, 275–76in wines, 568in yeast breads, 419–20

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 142Adipose (fatty) tissue, 143Advertising

federal regulation of, 592, 603, 605in food selection, 13misleading, 603

Adzuki bean, 281Aerated candies, 525Affective tests for food evaluation,

25, 28Agar/agar gum, 44, 45, 540, 545Agglomerate, 221Aggregate fruit, 298Aging

of dough, 383of fl our, 374, 383of frozen desserts, 542of meats, 142, 149–49, 150–51of wine, 565

Agricultural Marketing Act (1946), 601Air

aerated candies, 525aeration, 436as leavening agent, 375

Air-blast freezing, 580Air cell, 251À la meunière, 114, 202Albedo of citrus fruits, 300Albumen (egg white), 250, 267

foaming capacity of, 256–57, 267folding, 261meringues made from, 261proteins in, 250whipping, 110

Albumin, 369Alcohol

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, 603–4, 605

calories (kcal) from, 32government regulation of, 592,

603–4, 605used in pastries, 504

Alcoholic beverages, 562–69, 570amount of alcohol in, 562–63beer, 563–64calorie (kcal) content, 563fermentation and, 448government regulation of, 592,

603–4, 605grains used to make, 348spirits, 562, 568–69, 570wine, 562, 563, 564–68, 570

AAATA. See American Art Therapy

AssociationAbalone, 189, 199ABGC. See American Board of Genetic

CounselingAborio rice, 357Acai, 311–12Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), 599

of nonnutritive sweeteners, 442, 443Acceptable level

of fi lth, 594Accessory items, in table settings, 136Accreditation Review Commission

on Education for the Physician Assistant (ARC-PA), 611

Accrediting Council for Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE), 611

Acesulfame-K (Sunette), 443, 444, 446, 552

Acetic acid, 89ACF. See American Culinary FederationAcid(s). See also Amino acids; Fatty

acids; pHbaking powder and, 378baking soda and, 378Clostridium botulinum growth

and, 579effect on milk, 225in fruits, 299, 319gelatinization inhibited by,

394–95, 404in gel formation, 341meat tenderizing with, 151organic, 299, 554oxalic, 299pH changes and, 37in soft drinks, 551, 552in vegetables, 272vegetable softening and, 287

Acid coagulation, in cheese production, 235–36

Acidity, low, 80Acidophilus milk, 223, 562ACOTE. See Accrediting Council for

Occupational Therapy EducationAcrolein, 467Acrylamide, 75Actin, 142Actinomyosin, 142ADA. See American Dietetic

AssociationAdams, Janet, 316Adaptation, 2Additives, food, 56–59, 157–58,

Appendix F, F-1–F-5anti-staling, 431in baked goods, 382–84,

419–20, 431in cakes, 483in cereal grains, 347in cheese, 241color compounds, 58in cookies, 493exemptions from defi nition, 599in fabricated fi sh products, 197fl avor compounds, 58

Note: Websites are listed at the end of each text chapter.

34981_34_Index_pI-1-I-22.indd 134981_34_Index_pI-1-I-22.indd 1 4/30/10 7:59:00 PM4/30/10 7:59:00 PM


Licensed to:

I-2 Index

Arugula, 278, 334Ascaris lumbricoides, 73ASCN. See American Society of Clinical

NutritionAscorbic acid, 304, 383, 420Aseptic packaging, 584, 586Asian noodles, 359, 362, 363Asparagus, 271, 277, 278, 280

storage of, 292Aspartame (NutraSweet), 443–44,

445, 552Aspergillus fl avus, 71Asperigillus niger, 235Aspergillus oryzae, 423Aspic, 340As purchased (AP), 131–32Astringency, 5Atomic absorption, 26Atoms/atomic structure, 32ATP. See Adenosine triphosphateAttenuation, 564Au gratin, 286Au jus, 161, 402Avidin, 250Avocado oil, 462Avocados, 271, 278, 301, 305

cutting, seeding, and peeling, 107fat content of, 301selecting, 304vitamin C in, 302

Azodicarbonamide (ADA), 383, 420

BBaby foods, 584Bacillus cereus, 66, 67Bacillus mesentericus, 431Bacillus subtilis, 423Bacon, 159, 577Bacon, Francis, 579Bacteria, 65–74

in cheese/cheese production, 236, 238

foodborne illness and, 65–74food spoilage by, 574–75irradiation and, 582as leavening agents, 377pathogenic, 65, 74, 582probiotics/prebiotics, 222–23spore form, 82starter, 377sugar, dehydrating effect on, 448temperatures needed to destroy, 82in yogurt, 222

Bacterial Analytical Manual, 74Bacterial cultures, 222, 223, 448Bacterial food infections, 66, 68–69Bacterial food intoxicants, 67Bacterial food intoxications, 66, 69Bacterial toxin-mediated infections,

66, 67, 69–74Bagels, 429, 430Baguette, 424Baked goods. See also Cakes; Cookies;

Quick breads; Yeast breadsadditives in, 382–84, 419–20eggs in, 382, 387fats in, 380–82, 387fl our and fl our mixtures in, 347,

367, 368, 387high-altitude adjustments, 385, 427leavening agents, 375–79, 387liquid in, 380, 387lower-fat alternatives, 382milk in, 380, 387oven position, optimal, 413preparation of, 384–85, 387quick breads, 367, 407–15salt in, 380, 387sugar in, 379–80, 387yeast breads, 418–32

Baked potatoes, 288–89Baker’s Special sugar, 437Baker’s yeast, 376, 377

grading of, 146–47ground beef vs hamburger, 153internal temperature recommended

for cooked, 162mad cow disease and, 73–74marbling of, 143, 147processed, 156retail/wholesale cuts of, 152, 153sauces for, 161

Beef stock, 329Beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata), 73Beers, 448, 563–64, 570

lite/light designation, 563Beeswax, 578Beet greens, 271Beets, 271, 273, 287, 280Bell peppers, 279, 283Ben & Jerry’s Ice Cream, 4Benedict test, 27Benzoic acid, 304, 551, 552Bercy butter, 161Berries, 304–5Besan, 373“Best used by” date, 131Beta-amylase, 423Beta-carotene, 301Betalains, 272, 273, 289Beurre manié, 400Beurre noire (black butter), 161Beurre noisette (brown butter), 459Beverages, 549–70. See also specifi c

beveragesalcoholic, 562–69, 570calories, 554carbonated, 551–52, 570coffee, 554–59, 570dairy, 562, 570functional, 552–54, 570New Age, 552tea, 559–62, 570water, 549–51, 570

BGH. See rBGH; recombinant bovine growth hormone

BHA. See Butylated hydroxyanisoleBHT. See Butylated hydroxytolueneBifi dobacterium, 222Bile, 48Bimetallic thermometer, 85, 86Binding, 110

eggs and, 254, 256, 267proteins and, 51

Biocatalysts. See EnzymesBioengineering, 13–16Biofi lm, 71Biological food hazards, 65–74, 94.

See also Bacterianew virulent, 74severity of risk, 65

Biological leaveners, 375Biological value, 339Biotechnology, 13–16

acceptance/rejection of genetically engineered foods, 14–16

concerns about, 14foods created with, 14history of, 13–14

Bioterrorism Preparedness Act of 2004, 600

Birds. See also PoultryBirdseye, Clarence, 579Birthplace, food choices and, 10–11Biscotti, 490, 491Biscuit method of mixing, 111Biscuits, 384, 407, 412, 413Bismark herring, 196Bisque, 331Bitterness, 3, 53

alkaline pH and, 58in coffee, 555in fruits, 300in vegetables, 287

Bivalves, 198–99shucking, 198

Blackberries, 306Black butter, 459 “Black” olives, 308Black tea, 560Blanching, 101

green color, 273of meats, 161of vegetables, 273, 292

Bleached fl our, 374Blended coffee, 556–57Blending, 110Blind bake, 513Blistering of cheeses, 243Bloaters, 196Block fi llets, 196Blocking access, 90Blocking entrances, 90Blood orange, 305Bloom, 71

on chocolates, 527, 528, 529Blueberries, 301, 302, 306, 312, 554Bluefi sh, 190, 191, 195

excessive histamine in, 205Board-certifi ed dietitian, 615Body

of frozen desserts, 535, 540–41of wine, 565

Boiling, 100–1, 117. See also Simmering

blanching, 101of cereal grains, 356–58of eggs, 262parboiled, 100of pasta, 360–62as preservation method, 581

Boiling onions, 283Boiling point, 35, 104–5

increased by sugar, 436, 447Bok choy, 271, 278, 280Bologna, 156, 577Bombay duck, 196Bombe, 535Bones

as landmarks for meat cuts, 144in soups, 329

Bordeaux, 566Bordelaise sauce, 161Borscht, 331Boston brown bread, 411Boston cream pie, 480Boston Tea Party, 559Bottled water, 549–50Botulism, 67, 69Bouillon, 330Bouquet garni, 329Bourbon whiskey, 569Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

(BSE), 73–74Bowls, for beating egg whites, 257Boysenberries, 305Brains, 155, 156Braising, 100

of meats, 165–66of poultry, 182of vegetables, 290

Bran, 346, 429oat, 354, 355rice, 351wheat, 350

Brandy, 566, 568, 569Bratwurst, 156Brazzein, 446Bread basket, 136Breadcrumbs, 114Bread fl our, 373Breadings, 103, 114, 115Bread plate, 136, 137Breads, 407–432. See also Flours and

fl our mixtures; Quick breads; Yeast breads

cost of, 127, 130fl at, 412–13gluten-free, 429

Baking, 101of cakes, 485of cereal grains, 358as convection cooking, 103of cookies, 493of eggs, 260–61of fi sh and shellfi sh, 201–2of fruits, 318pan color and, 101–2of pies and pastries, 513of potatoes, 288–89of poultry, 179–81rack position, 101, 102temperature for, 101of vegetables, 288–89of yeast breads, 425–26

Baking chocolate, 529Baking pans, 424, 483–84, 513Baking powder, 375, 378–79

carbon dioxide release and, 38in fl our mixtures, 375, 378–79reactions, 378types of, 378–79

Baking soda, 375, 377–78acid and, 378in baked goods, 420as cause of mushy vegetables, 44in fl our mixtures, 375reactions, 377–78

Baking stones, 424Baklava, 500Balsamic vinegar, 338Banana bread, 412Bananas, 304–5Barbecue sauce, 398, 402Barbecuing, 102Bar cookies, 490Barding of meat, 161Barley, 346, 353–54, 363

cooking times, 357fermentation to beer, 563–64

Barley fl our, 429Barley malt, 563Barracuda, 75Bases, pH changes and, 37Basil, 333Basmati rice, 346, 351, 357Bass, 189, 190, 192Basting, 102, 161

of poultry, 180Batter method of mixing, 421Batters, 103, 114–15, 384–85, 387

cake, 482–83changes during heating, 385drop, 384–85, 409–12, 415high-altitude adjustments, 385pour, 384, 385, 408–9, 415

B-complex vitamins, 420Beading, 261Beano, 291Beans, 271, 278, 280. See also

Soybeans; Vegetablescoffee, 556–57dried, 286, 290–91soaking/cooking times, 290–91sprouts/sprouting, 291–92storage of, 292varieties, 280

Bean sprouts, 291–92Bean thread noodles, 359Béarnaise sauce, 161Beating, 110. See also Mixing

techniquesof crystalline candies, 522of egg whites, 256–57

Béchamel sauce, 161, 399Beef, 140, 168. See also Meat(s)

baby beef, 140bacteria in undercooked, 70classifi cation of cattle, 140cooking temperatures, 162, 163corned beef, 156, 577dark-cutting, 150



Licensed to:

Index I-3

syrup (fat) phase, 518–19, 520–23, 531

temperatures and doneness tests, 521

Candles, 136Candling of eggs, 251–52Candy/jelly/fryer thermometer, 87Canned milk, 220Cannelloni, 359Canning, 578–79

Clostridium botulinum and, 579meats, 157metal salts in canned foods and

juices, 315nutrient retention and, 585

Cannoli shell (cookies), 491Canola oil, 47, 461, 462, 471Cantaloupes, 301, 302, 304, 305, 308CAP. See Cellular antioxidant capacityCapellini, 359Capons, 173Cappuccino, 557Capsaicin, 5Capsicum peppers, 113Caramelization, 379, 387, 436, 447–48Caramels, 448, 519, 521, 525Carbohydrate(s), 39–46, 60, 129. See

also Carbohydrate content; Saccharides; Starch(es); Sugar(s)

calories (kcal) from, 32chemistry of, 39–46complex, 126, 130, 348composition of, 39dietary guidelines/

recommendations, 6disaccharides, 40–41foods high in, 39indigestible, 291nutrient retention of processed

foods, 584–85refi ned, 437sources, 129–30

Carbohydrate-based fat replacers, 465, 466

Carbohydrate contentof cakes, 484of cereal grains, 348, 363of cheese, 236, 246of cookies, 494of fi sh, 195of fruits, 301of meats, 147of milk, 211on Nutrition Facts label, 596of pastas, 359, 362, 363of poultry, 175of starches, 391, 404of vegetables, 274–75of yeast breads, 427

Carbonated beverages, 551–52, 570Carbonated water, 551Carbon dioxide

in carbonated beverages, 551–52in leavening process, 375–79,

426, 448in photosynthesis, 436release, 38

Carboxymethyl cellulose, 45, 552Cardiovascular disease risk

qualifi ed health claims about, 598sodium intake and, 113

Careers in food and nutrition, 609–22

allied health careers, 611–12contacting companies, 617food science, 610, 616–18, 623food service, 610, 618–19, 623graduate school, 619–22, 623internships/co-op, 613–14, 617nutrition science and dietetics,

609–16, 610, 623professional associations, 609, 610three major areas, 609, 610, 623

structure/function claim for, 598in water, 549water hardness and, 35

Calcium benzoate, 551Calcium carbonate, 35Calcium chloride, 113Calcium lactate, 493Calcium peroxide, 420Calcium propionate, 419, 420,

431, 483Calcium sorbate, 551Calcium sulfate, 420Calibration, thermometers, 84–89Calories (kcal), 6, 7, 31, 32, 105

in alcoholic beverages, 563balanced, 128–30in cakes, 484in candies, 523in cereal grains, 349, 363in cheese, 235, 246control of, 116in cookies, 494daily needs, 7in eggs, 253, 267as energy source, 32in fats, 32, 474in frozen desserts, 538in ice creams, 536, 537, 538measuring, 33–34, 105in milk and milk products, 212–13on Nutrition Facts label, 596in pies, 503in quick breads, 411recommended daily amounts, 6, 7in soft drinks, 552in starches, 391in sugars, 437, 438, 449in sweeteners, 438, 442uses in body, 31in vegetables, 274in yeast breads, 427, 428

Calves, 140CAM. See Complementary and

alternative medicineCamellia sinensis, 559, 561Camel, meat from, 140Campylobacter, 91Campylobacter jejuni, 66, 67, 71, 74

proportion of poultry carrying, 178Canadian whiskey, 569Cancer

carcinogens used on raw agricultural commodities, 603

conventional foods and, 9cyclamates and, 443, 445–46DNA damage, 275fats and, 459food additives and, 599, 600fruits and, 301legumes and, 274nutraceuticals and, 554phenolic compounds and, 561phytochemicals and, 274qualifi ed health claims about, 598saccharin and, 443smoked meats and, 577

Candelilla wax, 578Candied fruit, 519Candies, 518–31

chocolate, 525–30, 531classifi cation of, 518–20, 531crystalline, 519–23, 531crystallization and, 447, 520–23dietetic, 442functions of dairy ingredients

in, 524noncrystalline (amorphous),

519–20, 524–25, 531nutrient content, 522preparation of, 520–25, 531problems, causes, and solutions,

528storage of, 530, 531

grades of, 459, 460, 602, 605production, 458, 474types of, 459

Butter cake, 479Butter cookies, 491Buttercream frosting, 488Butter knife, 136Buttermilk, 212, 213, 214, 221–22, 562

storage of, 227Butter sauce, 398, 402Butterscotch, 521Butters, fruit, 318, 322Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), 59,

158, 347carcinogenicity of, 600in fl ours, 384structure of, 473

Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 59, 158, 347

carcinogenicity of, 600in fl ours, 284structure of, 473

Butyric acid, 47Buyer, 126B vitamins

added in baked products, 420in enriched fl ours, 350in meats, 147nutrient retention, 585qualifi ed health claim for, 598

Byrd, Willie, 481

CCAAHEP. See Commission on

Accreditation of Allied Health Education Programs

Cabbage, 271, 278, 280Chinese, 271, 280coring and shredding, 337red, 273

Cabernet, 566Cacao tree, 525, 526CACREP. See Council for Accreditation

of Counseling and Related Educational Programs

CADE. See Commission on Accreditation of Dietetics Education

Café au lait/café con leche, 557Café brulot, 557Caffeine, 59

in coffee, 555decaffeination, 555–56in energy beverages, 554excessive intake of, 59in soft drinks, 551, 556structure of, 556in tea, 561

Caffè latte, 557Caffè mocha, 557Cake fl our, 373

chlorinated, 482Cakes, 478–95. See also Cookies

additives in, 483classifi cation, 479cooling, 485frostings/icings, 488–89high-altitude adjustments, 485high-ratio, 482ingredients, 482–83nutrient content, 484from pour batters, 384preparation of, 482–88, 495problems and their causes, 486shortened, 478–80, 483–88storage of, 489, 495testing for doneness, 485, 488types of, 478–80, 495unshortened, 480, 486–88

Calciumin canned fruits, 317in nutraceutical beverages, 554on Nutrition Facts label, 596

leavening, 375–79loaf, 428–29multi-grain, 429nutrient content, 410pita, 429quick, 407–15rolls, 429, 430specialty, 429staling of, 381, 431toasting, sweetening effect of, 396unleavened, 412–13yeast, 418–32

Bread sticks, 431Breakfast cereals, 347–48, 358

sugar in, 379Breakfast menus/planning, 123–26Breath mints, 442, 522Brewer’s yeast, 376, 377Brewing

of beer, 563of coffee, 557–59of tea, 561–62

Brining, 178Brioche pastry, 499British thermal unit (Btu), 105Brittle candy, 448, 519, 520, 521, 525Broccoli, 271, 278, 280Broiler cook/grillardin, 121Broiler/fryers, Appendix A, A-3

chicken, 172Broiling, 102

of fi sh and shellfi sh, 202of fruits, 318of meats, 163–64of poultry, 181

Bromate, 420potassium bromate, 383

Broth, 328Brown butter, 459Brownies, 490Browning, 54, 447, 449. See also

Enzymatic browning; Maillard reaction

before braising, 165–66of cheese, 243microwaving and, 166sugar and, 436, 447

Brown rice, 349, 351, 357, 358Brown sauce (sauce espagnole),

161, 399Brown stock, 328Brown sugar, 109, 437Brucella abortus, 66Brussels sprouts, 271, 278, 280BSE. See bovine spongiform

encephalopathyBtu. See British thermal unitBubonic plague, 90Buckwheat, 349, 356

cooking time, 357Buckwheat fl our, 374Buddhism, 11Budgetary criteria for food selection,

17, 18Budgeting

food purchasing, 126–30portion control, 132

Buffering, by proteins, 54Buffet service, 135Bulb fennel, 278Bulbs, vegetables derived from, 270,

271, 294Bulgur, 349, 350, 357Bulk. See FiberBulking agents, 436, 552Bulls, 140Bundt cake, 479Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and

Firearms, 603–4Burgundy, 566Butter, 457–59, 471

color of, 214fl avor of, 459



Licensed to:

I-4 Index

Citrus fruits, 306, 308, 322. See also specifi c citrus

albedo of, 300juices from, 314rind, 300storage of, 321zest, 317

CJD. See Creutzfeldt-Jakob diseaseClabbering, 222Claims allowed on food labels, 597–98Clams, 189, 190

clambakes, 204purchasing, 199, 603

Claret, 566Clarifi ed butter, 459Clarifying

egg whites used for, 257–58, 267of fruit/vegetable juices, 314

Cleanup, 89–90Clear diet, 122ClearJel, 505Clear soups, 330–32Climacteric fruits, 320Climate, food choices and, 11Clinton, Bill, 443Clones, 14Clostridium botulinum, 66, 67, 69

canned goods and, 579Clostridium diffi cile, 145Clostridium perfringens, 66, 67Cloudiness of fruit juices, 300Cloves, 304Club soda, 551CNSD. See Certifi ed Nutrition Support

DietitianCoagulation, 52, 215

in cheese production, 234–36of milk, 215, 225

Coating chocolate, 529Coatings

chocolate, 529edible, 292, 392, 578

Coca-Cola, 551Cocaine, in soft drinks, 551Cockroaches, 90Cocoa, 529–30. See also Chocolate(s)Cocoa beverages, 562Cocoa butter, 465, 474, 527Coconut

fat content of, 301milk, 219shredded, 442

Coconut fl our, 374Coconut macaroons, 491Coconut oil, 46, 47, 461, 463, 471Cod, 189, 190, 191Coddling, of eggs, 263Code of Federal Regulations (CFR),

Title 21, 593Codes, product/label, 131Codex Alimentarius Commission, 604Codworms (Pseudoterranova

dicipiens), 72Coffea arabica, 555, 556Coffea liberica, 555Coffea robusta, 555, 556Coffee, 554–59, 570

brewing equipment, 558composition of, 556decaffeination of, 555–56factors infl uencing quality of, 570instant, 555, 556, 570preparation of, 557–59processing of, 555–56roasting/grinding of, 555storage of, 559types of, 556–57

Coffee cakes, 384, 412, 479Coffee cup, 136, 137Cognac, 566, 568Cognitive function, qualifi ed health

claims about, 597, 598Cohen, Ben, 4

Chianti, 566Chicken, 172–73, 185. See also Poultry

carving, 181, 185classifi cation/types of, 172–73, 185cutting up, 177fat content of, 175nuggets, 175preparation of, 176–83in salads, 336

Chicken eggs, 255Chicken Kiev, 176Chickpea fl our, 373Chiffon cakes, 479, 480, 487–88Chiffon pies, 512Chikuwa, 197Chili peppers, 113Chili powder, 113Chili salsa, 161Chinese cabbage, 271, 278“Chinese Restaurant Syndrome,” 114Chirashi, 204Chitosan, 578Chives, 271Chlorine, 89Chlorine, sanitation with, 89Chlorophyll, 272–73, 289

in chloroplasts, 272in photosynthesis, 436

Chloroplasts, 272Chocolate(s), 519, 525–30, 531

“chocolate binges”, 526chocolate liquor, 519, 526, 529coating, 529dipping, 528, 529functional, 530grayish fi lm (bloom) on, 527hot chocolate, 562nontemp, 529production of, 526–29shelf life of, 530tempering, 527–29trends, 530types of products, 529–30

Chocolate chip cookies, 2, 490Chocolate icing, 529Chocolate milk, 217Chocolate sauce, 398Cholera, 71Cholesterol, 48, 130

absence in vegetables, 274in eggs, 253, 267in egg substitutes, 253fats and, 458in milk, 213on Nutrition Facts label, 596in pastas, 362in poultry vs meat, 175

Chondroitin sulfate, 554Choose Your Food: Exchange Lists for

Diabetes, 128Choron sauce, 161Choux pastry, 500, 506, 507Chowders, 330Chromatography, 27Chromium, 554Chromium picolinate, 598Chromoplasts, 272Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day

Saints (Mormon Church), 11–12Churning, of frozen desserts, 542–43Chymosin. See RenninCialde, 490Ciambellone, 479Cider

apple, 80, 562hard, 562, 566

Cider vinegar, 338Ciguatera fi sh poisoning, 75Cilantro, 113, 283, 333Cinnamon, 113, 304Cis-trans confi guration, 48, 49, 456Citric acid, 299, 483, 545, 551, 552

in candies, 525

storage of, 358, 363structure of, 345–47, 363types of, 346, 349–56, 363uses of, 347–48, 363whole vs refi ned grains, 349–50

Certifi ed Diabetes Educator (CDE), 615Certifi ed Nutrition Support Dietitian

(CNSD), 615Ceviche, 204CFR. See Code of Federal RegulationsCGMPs. See Current Good

Manufacturing PracticesChablis, 566Chaff (husk), 346Chalazae, 250Chamomile tea, 561Champagne, 566Chapatis, 413Chard, 271, 278, 281, 334Chasseur sauce, 161Chayote, 278, 281Cheddar cheese, 234, 239, 242, 243Cheese, 232–46, Appendix E, E-1–E-2

additives in, 241blistering of, 243classifi cation of, 232–34, 246coagulation, enzyme or acid,

234–36common cheeses, 233cost of, 127curd treatment, 236curing and ripening, 236–39, 584cutting, 244fat content of, 214, 235–36,

242, 243food preparation with, 242–44, 246forms of, 242grading of, 241, 242, 246imitation, 241lower fat, 236measuring, 110mold, 244nutrient content of, 235–36, 246process (processed) cheeses,

240–41production of, 234–41, 246, 448purchasing of, 241–42, 246in salads, 336storage of, 244–45, 246texture, 235, 236varieties, 233, 237, Appendix E,

E-1–E-2whey and whey products, 239–40

Cheesecake, 479Cheese sauce, 398, 399, 400

aseptic packaging of, 584troubleshooting problems with, 401

Chef, 99, 618, 619professional profi le, 414

Chef’s knife, 105, 106Chemethesis, 5Chemical hazards, 75–76, 94Chemical leaveners, 375Chemical nomenclature, 48Chemical sanitizers, 89Chemical tests for food

evaluation,27–28Chemistry of food composition, 31–60

basic, 31–33carbohydrates, 39–46food additives, 56key elements of living things

(CHNOPS), 32lipids or fats, 46–49nonnutritive food components,

56–59proteins, 49–54summary, 60vitamins and minerals, 55–56water, 33–39

Cherries, 299, 305, 306storage of, 321

Chewing gums, 519, 522

Caries, dentalsoft drinks and, 552sugar and, 438

Carnauba wax, 493, 578Carnitine, 553Carob bean gum, 483Carotenes, 272Carotenoids, 59, 272, 274, 289

in durum fl our and pastas, 359in fruits, 301

Carp, 191Carrageenan, 45, 271, 455

applications in food products, 45as edible coating, 578in frozen desserts, 540, 545in meats, 158in sour cream, 223

Carrot cake, 479Carrots, 271, 278, 280

grating, 337Carving

of meats, 166of poultry, 181, 185

Casein, 211, 212, 225, 228Caseinates, 211Cassava (tapioca), 392Catalysts (enzymes), 52–53Catechins, 561Catecholamines, 5Catecholase, 300Catfi sh, 189, 190, 191Catsup, 437Caulifl ower, 271, 273, 278, 280Caviar, 196, 197

storage of, 205Cavities, dental, 438, 552Cayenne pepper, 113CCPs. See Critical control pointsCDA. See Commission on Dental

AccreditationCDC. See Centers for Disease Control

and PreventionCDE. See Certifi ed Diabetes EducatorC. diff., 145CDR. See Commission on Dietetic

RegistrationCeleriac (celery root), 271, 278Celery, 271, 280Celiac disease, 371, 429Cellular antioxidant capacity (CAP), 472Cellulose, 43, 271, 545

carboxymethyl cellulose, 552as edible coating, 578gum, 45, 483

Cell wall, 270–71Celsius (centigrade) scale, 104, 105Center for Nutrition Policy and

Promotion, 125Centerpieces, 136Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC), 64, 603Emergent Infections Programs

(EIPs), 74regulation by, 602, 605

Centigrade (Celsius) scale, 104, 105Cephalopods, 189Cereal grains, 345–63, 363. See also

Flours and fl our mixturesadditives in, 347common cereal crops/world

production, 346composition of, 345–47, 363cost of, 127, 130determining doneness, 357enriched, 350inspection of, 601nutrient content of, 347,

348–49, 363preparation of, 356–58, 363processing, 347–48, 352, 353refi ned, 349in salads, 336sprouting, 291–92



Licensed to:

Index I-5

Cumin, 113Cup cakes, 479Cup, unit of measurement, 108Curd, 221. See also Cheese

treatment, in cheeses, 236Curdling, 332Cured fi sh, 196, 205Curing, 577

of cheese, 236–39of meats, 156–60, 577

Currants, red, 306Current Good Manufacturing Practices

(CGMPs), 77Curry, 113, 399Custard fi llings, 511–12Custards, 79, 263

baked, 263frozen, 535stirred, 263sweet and savory, 263

Custard sauce, 398Cuticle (bloom), 251Cutlery techniques, 105–7, 117Cuts of meat, 152–56Cutting boards, 90Cutting equipment, Appendix A,

A-4–A-5Cutting food, styles of, 106–7Cyclamates, 443, 445–46Cycle menus, 124, 125, 126Cyclospora, 72, 92

DDacquoise, 480Daikon, 281Daily Reference Values (DRV), 596Daily values, 596. See also

Recommended daily amountsDairy beverages, 562, 570

enhanced, 553Dairy products. See also Cheese; Milk

cost of, 127dietary fat and, 213, 214

Dandelion, 281Danish pastry, 500DATEM. See diacetyl tartaric acid

esters of mono- and diglyceridesDates, 306, 321Dates, product/label, 131Decaffeination

of coffee, 555–56, 557of tea, 561

Decoratingfrostings/icings, 488–89, 495piecrust edges, 508yeast breads, 425, 432

Deep fryers, Appendix A, A-4Deep-frying, 103, 467, 468

as convection cooking, 103of fi sh and shellfi sh, 202frying care, 467–69heat transfer in, 454of meats, 165oils used in, 467–69of poultry, 182of vegetables, 289

Defrosting. See ThawingDeglazing, 402Degorge, 287Degreasing, 402Dehydrate, 575Dehydrated foods, 575–77Dehydrogenases, 52Deionized water, 550Delaney Clause, 599–600, 603De minimis non curat lex, principle

of, 594Denaturation, 52Density, 26Dental caries. See Caries, dentalDent corn, 352Department of Treasury, alcohol

regulation, 592, 603–4, 605

Crabs, 189, 190canned, 201purchasing, 201types of, 191

Cracked wheat, 350, 357Cranberries, 299, 304, 306, 312Cranberry juice, 299, 312, 553Crayfi sh, 189, 190, 191

purchasing, 201Cream, 213, 214, 223–24

calorie and fat content, 213, 214, 226

color of, 214heavy, 223–24pasteurization/ultrapasteurization,

214–15substitutes (creamers), 214, 224whipping, 224, 225–27

Cream cheese, 233, 243Cream fi llings, 511Creaming method of mixing, 110Cream of tartar, 289, 378, 486Cream puffs, 384, 385, 407, 506Cream sauce, 399Cream soups, 331–32

lower-fat, 331–32Cream substitutes (creamers), 214, 224Crepes, 409Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), 73–74Crisp fl at breads, 413Critical control points (CCPs), 91, 601Croaker, 191Crockery, Appendix A, A-4Croissant pastry, 500Croissants, 427Cross-contamination, 76, 83, 94Cruciferous vegetables, 274, 287, 288Crumb, 368, 378

acids and, 378in cakes, 484cell size and, 426defi ned, 368, 426fat and, 380, 381function of, 368problems and their causes, 427starches and, 355in yeast breads, 426

Crumb coatings, 114Crumbing, 135Crumb toppings, 512–13Crustaceans, 189. See also Shellfi shCrusts. See Pies and pastriesCryogenic freezing, 580Cryphonectria parasitica, 235Cryptosporidium, 72, 92Cryptosporidium parvum, 73Crystalline candies, 519–23, 531

cooling and beating, 522heating the syrup, 520–21stirring, 521–22syrup solution for, 520types of, 522–23

Crystallization, 436, 440, 441, 447, 449

in candy preparation, 520–23heat shock and, 541interfering agents and, 524nuclei for, 520preventing, 447recrystallization, 580seeds for, 521

Crystallized fruit, 519Cucumbers, 271, 278, 280

pickles, 578Culture

defi ned, 10food selection based on, 10–11, 18genetically engineered foods

and, 14manners and, 11

Cultured milk products, 221–23, 562Cultured whey, 420Cultures, bacterial, 222, 223, 448

Controlled atmosphere storage, 293, 294

Control point, 91Convection, 103, 104, 117Convection oven, 103Conventional foods, 9Converted rice, 351Cooked-fruit fi lling method, 511Cooked ice cream, 541–42Cooked-juice fi lling method, 510–11Cookies, 489–92, 495

additives in, 493baking, 493batters, 384nutrient content of, 494preparation of, 492–92, 495problems and their causes, 493storage of, 494, 495testing for doneness, 493types of, 489–92, 495vs cakes, 490

COOL. See Country of OriginCooling/reheating temperatures, 82,

83, 88, 94Cooperatives, food (co-ops), 127Co-ops (food cooperatives), 127Co-op work-study program, 617Copper, 273

as heat conductor, 103Coq au vin, 177Cordials (liqueurs), 569Coriander, 113Corico, 491Corn, 271, 278, 280, 346, 352–53

classifi cation of, 352, 363cooking times, 357forms of, 352–53, 363percentage of world grain

production, 346tortillas, 412

Corn bread, 411, 412Corn chips, 353Corned beef, 156, 577Corn fl akes, 347Corn fl our, 429Cornish game hens, 173, 180Cornmeal, 352, 413Cornmeal fl our, 374Corn oil, 353, 462, 471Corn on the cob, 352Cornstarch, 43, 353, 392, 395

as additive in cakes, 483as additive in cookies, 493syrups made from, 438, 449as thickening agent, 399, 504–5

Corn syrup, 40, 158, 353, 393, 438–39as additive in confections, 520high-conversion, 439high-fructose, 439, 483, 551

Corn tortillas, 349, 412Cortez, Hernando, 525Cortisol, 48Costs, 127–30

keeping costs down, 127–30price comparisons, 130reducing waste to save, 131–32

Cottage cheese, 233, 243Cottonseed oil, 462, 471Cough drops, sugar-free, 442Council for Accreditation of Counseling

and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), 611

Council on Rehabilitation Education, 611Country ham, 159Country of Origin (COOL), 602–3

labeling, 601Court bouillon, 203Couscous, 359, 363Covalent bonds, 32Cover, 135–36, 137Cows, 140. See also BeefCPEU. See Continuing professional

education units

Cola drinks, 551, 596Colbert sauce, 161Cold pasteurization (irradiation),

581–84Cold preservation, 579–80, 586

freezing, 579–80refrigeration, 579

Cold water test, 521Collagen, 142

in fi sh, 189, 190in meats, 142structure of, 142

Collards, 271, 278, 281Collets, 353Colloidal dispersion, 36Color(s). See also Pigments

certifi ed colors, 58changes in egg preparation, 259color compounds added to foods,

58, 60, 596, 600effect of oxygen on, 145of egg yolks, 249–50, 258, 262of fi sh, 191, 197in food selection, 1of fruits, 315of honey, 440of maple syrup, 441of meats, 145of milk and milk products, 58, 214on Nutrition Facts label, 596of poultry, 173of soft drinks, 552of vegetables, 271, 272–73, 287–88of wines, 568

Columbus, Christopher, 435Commercial food service, 121–22Commission on Accreditation of Allied

Health Education Programs (CAAHEP), 611

Commission on Accreditation of Dietetics Education (CADE), 611

Commission on Dental Accreditation (CDA), 611

Commission on Dietetic Registration (CDR), 613, 615

Commission on Opticianry Accreditation, 611

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), 6–8

Complete protein, 50Complex carbohydrates, 126, 130,

348. See also Carbohydrate(s)Composed butter, 459Compound butter, 459Compounds, 32Compression test for fl ours, 385Conalbumin, 250Concentration measurement, 26Conch, 189Conching, in chocolate production,

527–58Condensed milk, 214Condiments, 115Conduction, 103, 104, 117Confectioners’ sugar, 109Confectionery coating, 529Confections. See CandiesCongeners, 565Connective tissue, 142Conserves, fruit, 318, 322Consistency, 5Consommé, 330Contact freezing, 580Contamination

advanced techniques for detecting, 74

testing for, 68Contaminants

allowable, 594in water, 551

Continental service, 135Continuing professional education

units (CPEU), 613



Licensed to:

I-6 Index

Energy, for muscle contraction, from ATP, 142

Energy beverages, 554English muffi ns, 430–31English service, 135Enova oil, 463–64En papillote, 101Enriched, 55Enriched fl our, 375Enriched foods, 55, 59

grains, 350vitamins in, 55, 59, 347, 350, 420

Enrobe, 527Entamoeba histolytica, 73Enterovirulent Escherichia coli (EEC), 66Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA), 603, 605tap water quality regulated by, 550

Enzymatic browning, 54, 575. See also Maillard reaction

in fruits, 301–2, 315inhibition of, 315

Enzymatic reactions, 52–54Enzyme coagulation, in cheese

production, 235Enzymes, 41, 52–54. See also specifi c

enzymesactivity, factors infl uencing, 52cheese fl avor/texture and, 238classifi cation, 52in dough conditioning, 382effect on milk, 225in fl our, 369food spoilage and, 575in gel formation, 341nomenclature, 52in pulp removal from juices, 315in reducing haze in juices, 314structure of, 52tenderizing meats with, 151use by food industry, 52–54in yeast dough, 423

Enzyme tests, 27EP. See Edible portionEPA. See Environmental Protection

AgencyEPG. See esterifi ed propoxylated

glycerolsEqual. See AspartameEquipment, 89–90, Appendix A,

A-1–A-13. See also Pots and pans; Utensils

auxiliary, Appendix A, A-3–A-13standards and safety, Appendix A,

A-2–A-3sanitation of, 89–90

Ergot, 355Erythritol, 442Escarole, 279Escherichia coli, 69–70, 235

0157:H7, 70, 91, 163eliminated by irradiation, 583enterohemorrhagic, 67enterotoxigenic, 67enterovirulent (EEC), 66in fruit/vegetable juices, 80, 314mandatory testing of meat and

poultry for, 146, 601in urinary tract infections, 553zero tolerance for in foods, 601

Escoffi er, George Auguste, 121–22Escoffi er’s organizational system,

121–22Espagnole (brown) sauce, 161, 399Espresso coffee, 557Essences, 504Essential nutrients

essential amino acids, 50, 356essential fatty acids, 47

Essential oils, 114, 317Esterifi ed propoxylated glycerols

(EPG), 465Esters, plant stanol, 49

Durum wheat, 350, 359Dysentery, amebic, 73

EEAFUS. See Everything Added to Food

in the United StatesEchinacea, 553Éclairs, 506E. coli. See Escherichia coliEcona oil, 463Edible fi lms/coatings, 292, 392, 578Edible portion (EP), 131–32EEC. See Enterovirulent Escherichia coliEels, smoked, 196Egg drop soup, 331Eggnog, 79, 213, 215, 218Egg noodles, 359, 363Eggplant, 271, 274, 279, 280–81

storage of, 292Egg Products Inspection Act

(1970), 601Eggs, 249–67

as a high-risk food, 79–80“boiled”, 262in cakes, 483candling, 251–52clarifying, 257–58color (yolk), 249–50, 258, 262color changes, 259complete protein from, 50composition of, 249–51, 267cutting tools, 262in fl our mixtures/baked goods,

382, 387foaming/beating, 256–57folding eggs whites, 261functions in foods, 254–58, 267grading of, 251–52, 601, 602, 605Haugh units, 252inspection of, 251, 601, 602measuring/equivalent amounts, 109nutrient content of, 253pasteurized, 264–65in pastry, 504poaching, 100preparation of, 258–64, 267proteins, 250purchasing, 251–54, 267safety tips, 265–66Salmonella and, 68separation of, 257shell, 250, 251, 267size/sizing, 109, 253, 267storage eggs, 264storage of, 264–66, 267substitutes, 253, 265types of, 254, 267value-added, 253–54in yeast breads, 419yolk, 249–50, 267

Egg whites. See AlbumenEinkorn, 350Elastin, 142–43Electrical stimulation, meat

tenderizing with, 151Electrolytes, 39, 65, 552Electromagnetic waves, 104Electrons, 32Electrophoresis, 27Elements, six key (CHNOPS), 32Elevation. See High-altitude

adjustmentsEmmer, 350Emulsifi ed dressings, 339Emulsifi ers, 48, 59, 158, 455

as dough conditioners, 382egg yolks as, 254, 267

Emulsions, 36, 339, 455–56, 474stability of, 455–56

Emus, 172Endive, 271, 279Endosperm, 346–47, 367Energy. See Calories (kcal)

Distillation, 36, 568Distilled spirits, 562, 568, 569, 570Distilled water, 550Diverticulosis, 43Divinity, 521, 523DNA analysis, 68Docosahexaenoic acid, 554Dog, as meat source, 10, 140Doneness, determining

of cakes, 485, 488of candies, 521of cereal grains, 357of cookies, 493of dough, 422of fi sh, 202of meats, 162–63, 168of pies and pastries, 514of poultry, 178–79, 185of yeast breads, 426–27

D or L nomenclature of saccharides, 40Dough, 379, 380, 384–85, 387. See

also Cookies; Flours and fl our mixtures; Pies and pastries; Yeast breads

chilling, 507conditioners, 382cookie, 489–92enzymes in, 423excessively fi rm or soft

problems, 421fi rst rising of, 422–23kneading, 369–70, 421–22mixers, 421pastry, 500–5problems and their causes,

421, 427punching down and second rising

of, 423quick breads made from,

412–14, 415rolling, 507–9, 510testing for doneness, 422for yeast breads, 418–27

Doughnuts, raised, 431Draft beer, 564Drawn fi sh, 192Dredging, 114Dressed fi sh, 192Dressed poultry, 174Dressings, salad, 336–39, 575Dried eggs, 265Dried fruits, 313, 318Drip, 580Drip coffeemaker, 559Drop batters, 384–85, 409–12, 415

overmixing, 410undermixing, 410–11

Dropped cookies, 490–91Drug, 598Drupes, 291, 322DRV. See Daily Reference ValuesDry aging, 150Dry-heat preparation, 101–3, 117

of eggs, 259–61, 267of fi sh and shellfi sh, 201–2of fruits, 317–18of meats, 163–65of poultry, 179–83, 185of vegetables, 288–89

Dryingof dishes/utensils, 89food preservation method, 38,

576–77Dry milk, 220–21Dry sausage, 159–60Dry wines, 564, 566DTR. See Dietetic technician,

registeredDuck, 173, 180, 185Duck eggs, 255Dumplings, 412Duo-trio test, 24Durum fl our (semolina), 359, 373

DEs. See Dextrose equivalentsDescriptive tests, 24Dessert sauces, 448Devil’s food cake, 479Dextrinization, 396Dextrose, 40, 392–93, 438, 520.

See also Glucoseequivalents, 439polydextrose, 522

Dextrose equivalents (DEs), 392, 439Diabetes

Certifi ed Diabetes Educator (CDE), 615

exchange calculation on food labels, 596

qualifi ed health claims about, 598Diacetyl, 461Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono

and diglycerides (DATEM), 420Dial oven-safe thermometer, 85, 86Dial thermometer, 85Diarrhea, foodborne illnesses and, 65,

66–67, 70Dicing, 106, 107Diet

current concerns/focus in, 6factor in meat tenderness, 149hospital diets, 122

Dietary clerk/dietary aide, 616, 623Dietary fi ber, 43Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 6,

18, 125. See also Recommended daily amounts

Dietary manager, 619Dietary Managers Association, 610Dietary supplements, 598Dietetic candies, 442Dietetics, careers in, 612–16, 623Dietetic technician, registered (DTR),

612–13, 616, 623Dietitians, 612–16, 623

ancillary career options, 616Board-certifi ed specialization, 615certifi cate of training, 615Certifi ed Diabetes Educator

(CDE), 615Certifi ed Nutrition Support Dietitian

(CNSD), 615continuing professional education

units (CPEU), 613Dietetic Practice Groups (DPG), 615internships, 613licensure, 615medical nutrition therapy, 610,

612, 623payment/funding specifi cs, 612professional profi le, 245registered dietitian (RD), 122,

612–16, 623specializations, 615types of, 614–15verifi cation form, 613

Diets, hospital, 122Diet soft drinks, 443, 552Difference tests, 24Digital (instant-read) thermometer, 85Dihydrochalcones, 446Dill, 333Dilution test, 24Dinner menus/planning, 123–26Dinnerware, 136, 137Diphenylisatin, 301Diphylliobothrium latum (fi sh

tapeworm), 73Dipolar molecules, 33Dipping, chocolates, 528, 529Disaccharides, 39, 40–41Discriminative tests, 24Dishwasher, Appendix A, A-2Dishwashing, 89Dispersion phase of gel formation, 340Disposable temperature indicators, 86Disposable thermometer, 86



Licensed to:

Index I-7

Flavoprotein, 250Flavor, 4–5. See also specifi c foods

and ingredientsenhancers, 114, 436extractives, 145extracts, 380fats, 457fl avor compounds added to foods, 58profi le, 24reversion, 472

Flavored coffee, 557Flavored milks, 218–19Flavored oils, 504Flavored salt, 112Flavored teas, 561Flavorings, 111–16, 117, Appendix D,

D-1–D-3adding to food (when/how much?),

115–16on Nutrition Facts label, 596in pastry, 504in soft drinks, 552types of, 111–15

Flavor profi le, 24Flavor reversion, 472Flint corn, 352Flocculation, 36Florentines, 491Flounder, 189, 190, 191Flour compression test, 385Flour corn, 352Flours and fl our mixtures, 347,

367–87. See also Baked goods; Breads; Cakes; Cereal grains; Cookies

additives in, 382–84aging/maturing of, 383for breading, 114in cake, 482compression test, 385crumb, 368, 378, 379, 380,

381, 383dough, 369–70, 379, 380,

384–85, 387durum fl our, 359, 373eggs in, 382fat in, 380–82fl ours, 368–75, 387gluten, 368–70ingredients and their functions in,

375–84, 387kneading, 369–70leavening agents, 375–79liquid in, 380, 387measuring, 109–10milk in, 380, 387milling, 371–72non-wheat fl ours, 373–74, 387, 429nutrient content of, 372in pastry, 502patent vs straight, 372preparation of baked goods,

384–85pre-sifted/instantized, 110salt in, 380sifting, 107, 109, 372storage of, 385–86, 387sugar in, 379–80too much/too little, 379treated fl ours, 374–75, 387types of fl ours, 373–75, 387wheat fl ours, 347, 372, 373, 387whole-grain fl ours, 110, 373in yeast breads, 419yeasts and, 375–77

Flour tortillas, 412Flowers, vegetables derived from,

270, 271Fluoride, 561Foam, 341

foaming of eggs whites, 256–57, 267

sugar and, 436

Fettucine, 359, 360Feuerbach, Ludwig, 31Fiber, 41–45, 553, 554

in cereal grains, 346, 347, 349dietary vs crude, 43in fruits, 301, 302high fi ber diet, 122intake, 130in quick breads, 410resistant starch used as, 397in salads, 335soluble vs insoluble, 43structure/function claim for, 598in vegetables, 270–71, 275

Fiddleheads, 279FIFO. See First in, fi rst outFigs, 305, 306Filled milk, 219Fill, standards of, 594, 595Fillets, 192Filling, 509–12Filter coffee method, 559Filtering of wine, 565Filth, acceptable levels of, 594Finfi sh, 188, 189. See also Fish and

shellfi shselection of, 191–201storage of, 204–5structure of, 189–91

Fire point, 468First in, fi rst out (FIFO) rule, 82Fish and shellfi sh, 188–206

canned fi sh, 195–96, 205, 206chemical food hazards and, 75–76classifi cation of, 188–89, 206color in fi sh, 191common, 190complete protein from, 50composition of, 189–91, 206cost of, 127determining doneness of, 202determining freshness of, 192fabricated fi sh, 196–97fi nfi sh, 188, 189–91frozen, 192, 603as high-risk food, 79histamine food poisoning and,

75–76, 205inspection/grading of, 191–92,

601, 602mercury contamination and,

193–94mince, 195nutrient content of fi sh, 195odor of, 192, 193, 203percentage yield, 132phosphate treatment of, 193,

200, 205preparation of, 201–4, 206pufferfi sh poisoning, 76purchasing, 191–201, 206quality, xanthine oxidase and, 53raw, 204regulation of, 592, 605selection of, 191–201, 206storage of, 204–5, 206types of, 191–92

Fish and Wildlife Act (1956), 601Fish cook/poissonier, 121Fish oils, 47Fish roe, 197, 198Fish sticks, 192, 603Fish stocks, 329–330Fish tapeworm (Diphylliobothrium

latum), 73Flaked barley, 254Flakiness of pastries, 502–3Flash point, 467Flat breads, 412–13Flat frostings, 488Flatulence from legumes, 291Flatware, 136, 137Flavonoids, 273, 273, 274, 289

difference of fats vs oils, 46emulsions, 455–56fat separator, 402in fl our mixtures/baked goods,

380–82, 387food preparation with, 467–70, 474foods high in, 46frying care, 467–69functions in food, 454–57, 474homogenization, 215, 216, 218hydrogenation, 464lard/tallow/suet, 464–65lower-fat alternatives/preparation,

382, 469–70measuring, 109melting point of, 456nutrient content of, 458–59, 474nutrient retention of processed

foods, 584–85oils, 461–64in pastry, 502plasticity of, 109, 456–57, 474polymorphism of, 456proportion in human body, 32P/S ratio, 47rancidity, 470–72replacers, 465–67, 540in salad dressings, 337–38saturation, degree of, 47, 456solubility of, 457, 474storage of, 470–73, 474types of fats, 381, 457–65, 474in yeast breads, 419

Fat-soluble vitamins, 55, 585Fat sources, 130Fat substitutes, 465, 540Fatty acids, 46–48

cis, trans, and omega, 48, 456degree of saturation, 47essential, 47, 459in foods, 47length of, 456nomenclature, 47, 48omega-3, 48, 50, 195, 459,

554, 598structure of, 46–47trans-, 48, 458–59

Fatty (adipose) tissue, 143fat color and texture, 143infl uence on meat grading, 147

FDA. See Food and Drug Administration

Federal food laws, 591–93, 605Fair Packaging and Labeling Act,

595Food and Drug Act (1906), 592Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

(1938), 592, 599Safe Food Act of 1997, 592

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947), 603

Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906), 146, 601

Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 592, 603, 605

Fehling test, 27Fennel, 113, 271, 278Fermentation, 348, 448, 575

bacteria and, 377in beer production, 563changes during, 422–23food preservation and, 577food products produced by, 577food spoilage and, 575optimal temperatures for, 423overfermentation, 423, 426process of, 376proofi ng, 383, 423, 425salt and, 380sugar and, 376, 436, 448, 449unwanted, 575in wine production, 564of yeast breads, 422–23

Estrogen, 48Ethnicity, and food selection, 10Ethylene gas, 315, 321European service, 135Evaluation, food, 23–28

objective, 26–28subjective, 23–26

Evaporated milk, 214, 220Everything Added to Food in the

United States (EAFUS), 56Eviscerated poultry, 174Executive chef/chef executif, 122Expiration date, 131Extenders, fat, 465, 466Extractives, 145Extracts, fl avor, 380, 504Extrusion processing, 348, 353

FFacilities, sanitation/cleaning of, 90Fahlberg, Constantin, 443Fahrenheit scale, 104, 105Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, 595FALCPA. See Food Allergy Labeling

and Consumer Protection ActFamily service, 135FAO. See Food and Agriculture

OrganizationFarina, 350Farm Security and Rural Investment

Act (2002), 601Fassbender, Hubert, 240Fast aging, 150Fast food, 128Fat analogs, 465Fat bloom, 527, 528, 529Fat content, 130

of cakes, 484of candies, 522of cereal grains, 347, 348, 363of cheese, 214, 235–36, 241, 242,

243, 246of cookies, 494of eggs, 253, 267of fi sh, 195in frozen desserts, 536of frozen desserts, 540of fruits, 301of ice creams, 536–37, 536of meats, 143, 147, 175of milk and milk products, 212, 213,

214, 226, 228nutrient content claims allowed,

598on Nutrition Facts label, 596of pastas, 362, 363of pastries, 502of poultry, 175of quick breads, 410of salads, 335of vegetables, 274of yeast breads, 427

Fat extenders, 465, 466Fat-free (skim/nonfat) milk, 214,

216, 562Fat intake, lowering, 116Fat mimetics, 465Fat phase of candies, 518–19, 520–23,

531Fat replacers, 465–67Fats and oils, 46–49, 60, 453–74. See

also Fat content; Fatty acids; Lipids

in cakes, 482calories (kcal) from, 32, 474chemistry of, 46–49choices, 460comparison of, 471composition of, 46crystalline structure, 456defi ciency, 459dietary guidelines/

recommendations, 6



Licensed to:

I-8 Index

pectic substances in, 299–300peeling, 107percentage yield, 132preparation of, 315–20, 322processed, 312–13purchasing, 304–15, 322routinely called vegetables, 270,

271, 294, 299seasons for, 305storage of, 320–21, 322, 579texture, 316

Fruit salads, 336Fruit sauces, 398, 403Fruit spreads, 318–20Fruit sugar, 437. See also FructoseFruit vinegar, 338Fryer-roasters, turkey, 173Frying, 102–3, 467–69. See also Deep

frying; Pan-fryingcare/temperatures of fats, 467–69of eggs, 259equipment, 468of fi sh and shellfi sh, 202of fruits, 318of meats, 164–65oils used in, 462, 467–69optimal frying temperatures/

conditions, 468–69of poultry, 181–82priming/seasoning of frying

pan, 259of vegetables, 289, 289and water, 468

FSIS. See Food Safety and Inspection Service

FTC. See Federal Trade CommissionFuchsin test, 27Fudge, 519, 520, 521, 523Fugu, food poisoning and, 76Fumet, 203Functional beverages, 552–54, 570Functional chocolate, 530Functional fi bers, 43Functional food, 6, 8–10Fusarium prolifertum, 71Fusarium verticillioides, 71Fusilli, 360

GGaidos, Dave, 617Galactose, 39, 40, 446Galette, 499Gallon, 108Game birds, 172, 173Gamma rays, 581–82Ganache, 488–89Gaping, 193Garlic, 271, 281

to be avoided in bread doughs, 429Garnishes, 116, 333, 489Garter, Barbara, 617Gas (fl atulence), 291Gas chromatography, 27Gazpacho, 330Gel, 395Gelatin, 50, 158, 339–41, 342

as additive in confections, 525in cooked fi sh, 190as an emulsifi er, 455nutrient value of, 339storage of, 341

Gelatinization, 394–95, 404factors infl uencing, 394–95

Gelatin salads, 339–41, 342unmolding a mold, 340whipping, 341

Gelation potential, 340Gelato, 536, 537Gel formation, 340, 395–96. See also

Gellingfactors infl uencing, 340–41, 404phases of, 340preparation of a gel, 339–40

foods that can be frozen, 579–80freezer burn, 167, 580of fruits, 313of meats, 167, 579of poultry, 177–78, 184problems with frozen food, 580thaw rigor, in meats, 150of vegetables, 292

Freezing point, 34, 104–5salt and, 105sugar and, 105, 436of water, 34, 104–5

French buttercream frosting, 488French fries, 289, 290French knife, 105French service, 135French toast, 79Fresh cheese, 233Freshness date, 131Fried eggs, 259, 263Frisee, 279, 334Frito-Lay, Incorporated, scientist

profi le, 316Frostings/icings, 488–89, 495

cooked, 488Frozen custard, 535Frozen desserts, 534–46

body in, 535, 540–41calories, 538factors affecting quality, 537–41nutrient content of, 540preparation of, 537–41, 546scooping, 545storage of, 543, 544–45, 546texture changes, 544–45, 544–45types of, 534–37, 546

Frozen fruits, 313Frozen yogurt, 536, 537, 544, 546Fructose (fruit sugar), 39, 40, 438

also known as levulose, 520high-fructose corn syrup, 439,

483, 551sweetness of, 446, 449

Fruit beverages, 553, 570Fruit butters, 318, 322Fruitcake, 479–80Fruit cocktail, 313Fruit drink, enhanced, 553Fruit fi llings, 509Fruit jams and jellies, 318, 322,

448, 593Fruit juices, 313–15

clarifying, 314cloudiness of, 300concentration/additions, 315enzymes and, 53labeling, 596nutrient comparison of, 314percentage of, names depending

on, 313pulp removal from, 315

Fruit leather, 313Fruits, 298–322. See also specifi c

fruitsadditives in, 304candied or crystallized, 519canned, 312–13, 317, 321, 437changes during heating, 315–17classifi cation of, 298–99, 322climacteric and nonclimacteric, 320composition of, 299–304, 322cost of, 130dried, 313, 318, 576, 577enzymatic browning of, 300–1, 315ethylene gas and, 315, 321fi llings for pies, 499frozen/refrozen, 313glacé, 519grading of, 276, 304, 313, 322,

601, 602inspection of, 601laxative properties of, 301nutrient content of, 301–2, 314

Food preservation. See Preservation, food

Food regulation. See Regulation of food, government

Food safety. See Safety, foodFood safety, 8

monitoring, 90–93Food Safety and Inspection Service

(FSIS), 601Food science, 610, 616–18, 623

food science technician, 618, 623food scientist, 616–17, 623positions in food companies,

618–19professional associations, 609, 610professional profi les, 316, 481, 539types of food scientists, 618

Food selection criteria, 1–18budgetary, 17cultural, 10–11nutritional, 5–10psychological and sociological,

13–17religious, 11–12sensory, 1–5

Food service, 120–23, 135. See also Food service

careerscleanup, 89commercial, 121–22drying, 89equipment, 89–90facilities, 90hospital, 122–23meal service types, 135organization, 120–23, 137personnel, 77–78pest control, 89–90purchasing, 126sanitation, 77, 89–90scheduling, 89standardized recipes, 133three-compartment sink, 89vendors, 127

Food service careers, 610, 618–19, 623academic preparation/internships,

618job descriptions, 120professional associations, 609, 610types of positions, 619

Food service manager, 619Foodservice Professionals Network,

610Food spoilage, 574–75, 586Food stores, 126–27Food supply terrorism, 65Food surveillance, 91Food technology. See Food scienceForecast, of food needed, 126Forks, 136, 137Fork thermometer, 85Fortifi ed, 55Fortifi ed foods. See Enriched foodsFortifi ed wines, 566, 567Fortune cookies, 491Frankfurters, 594Free radicals, 55Free range, 141Freeze-drying, 575, 576, 577Freezer burn, 167, 580Freezers, Appendix A, A-2

food safety and, 81–82Freezing, 150, 579–80

of breads, 431of cereal grains, 358cold shortening, in meats, 150commercial methods of, 579of doughs, 431of egg whites/yolks, 265of fi sh, 205of fl our mixtures, doughs, and

baked goods, 386fl uid loss due to (drip), 580

Foil-wrapped vegetables, 290Folate, 274, 561, 584Folding, 110

of egg whites, 261Folic acid, 554

qualifi ed health claim for, 598Fondant, 519, 521, 522–23Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938),

592, 599, 605Delaney Clause, 599–600misleading advertising

enforcement, 603Food additives. See Additives, foodFood allergens, 597

most common, 76prevention, 76

Food allergy, 76–77Food Allergy labeling and Consumer

Protection Act (FALCPA), 76, 597

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 604, 616–17

Food and Drug Act (1906), 592Food and Drug Administration (FDA),

593–600, 605allowable contaminants, 594allowed claims on labels, 597–98Bioterrorism Preparedness Act of

2004, 600bottled water quality regulated

by, 550Code of Federal Regulations (CFR),

Title 21, 593food additives, 598–600Food Code, 593food labeling, 595–97food scientists at, 616–17functions of, 593, 605genetically modifi ed organisms

(GMOs), 600inspections, 593–94milestones, 592research and education, 593standards, 594–95

Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet), 91–92

Foodborne illness, 64, 65–74, 94, 575. See also Safety, food

causes of, 65–74CDC and, 592, 603HACCP system of prevention, 91high-risk foods, 78–80location, 77outbreaks, 65, 603personnel and, 77–78preventing, 77–83, 94vulnerable foods, 78–80

Food careers. See Careers in food and nutrition

Food Code, FDA, 91, 593Food composition. See Chemistry of

food compositionFood cooperatives (co-ops), 127Food costs, 126–30Food defense, 65Food evaluation. See Evaluation, foodFood group plan, 6Food infections, 66, 67, 68–69Food intoxications, 66, 67, 69Food labeling. See Labeling, foodFoodNet, 91–92Food outlets, smaller, 127Food poisoning. See Food intoxicationsFood preparation basics, 99–117

cutlery techniques, 105–7equipment, Appendix A, A-1–A-13food presentation, 116heating foods, 99–105measuring ingredients, 107–10mixing techniques, 110–11seasonings and fl avorings, 111–16

Food presentation, 116, 117



Licensed to:

Index I-9

Henschicken, 172, 173Cornish game, 173turkey, 173

Hepatitis A virus, 71–72Herbal beverages, 553Herbal teas, 561Herbs, 113–14

dried vs fresh, 115in New Age beverages, 552purchasing, 113in salads, 333storing, 113–14

Herb vinegar, 338Heredity, 149Herring, 189, 190, 191

Bismark, 196matjes, 196

Herring worms (Anisakis simplex), 72Hershey, Milton, 530Hexoses, 39HFCS. See High-fructose corn syrupHigh-altitude adjustments

for baked goods, 385boiling point of water and, 35for cakes, 485for canning, 579checking thermometers for, 521for cookies, 493for yeast breads, 427

High blood pressure, sodium intake and, 113

High-conversion corn syrups, 439High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), 439,

483, 551High-pressure processing

(pascalization), 583, 585High-risk foods, 78–80High-temperature, short-time

pasteurization (HTST), 581High water activity, 80Hinduism, 11Hippocrates, 10Hires, Charles, 551Histamine food poisoning, 76, 205Holding temperature, 88, 94

time limit, 88Hollandaise sauce, 79, 161, 398,

399, 402Hominy/hominy grits, 352, 353Homogenization, 215, 216, 218Honey, 439–40, 439–40

in breads, 379storage of, 440substitution for sugar, 440sugars in, 440

Honeydew melons, 302, 308Honey wine (mead), 566Hops, 563Hormones

banned in poultry, 175in meats, 144–45in milk, 214recombinant bovine growth

hormone (rBGH), 214sterols, 48–49

Hospital diets, 122–23Hospital food service organization,

122–23Hospital menu patterns, 124Hot chocolate, 562Hot dogs, 577, 601Hot peppers, 5, 283Hot-water crust pastry, 499HTST. See High-temperature, short-

time pasteurizationHulled barley, 353Humectant, 158, 442Humidity

food preservation and, 38Humulus lupulus, 563Hushpuppies, 412Husk, 346

Hake, 190Halal, 12, 602

meats, 156Halibut, 189, 190, 191Ham, 158–59, 577

internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162

processed, 156, 158–59Hamburger

difference from ground beef, 153as high-risk food, 79

Hand-to-mouth contact, 78Hand washing, 78Hand washing sink, 78Hanpen, 197Hard alcohol, 562, 568, 569, 570Hard candies, 519, 521, 525Hard cheese, 234Hard cider, 562–63Hard sauce, 398Hard water, 35Hard wheats, 350Harrison, John, 4Haugh units, 252Hayes, Pamala, 414Hazard, defi nition of, 77Hazard Analysis and Critical Control

Point (HACCP) system, 91, 593, 601

critical control points (CCPs), 91, 601

Final Rule (1996), 601history of, 91in meat and poultry

slaughterhouses, 146seven principles of, 91

Hazards, food. See also HACCP system; Safety, food

biological, 65–67chemical, 65, 75–76HACCP system, 91, 593, 601new virulent biological, 74physical, 65, 77

Health claims, qualifi ed, 597–98Health department inspection

form, 91Health maintenance, food choices

and, 6Hearing, food selection based on, 2, 5Heart, 155, 156

conventional foods and health, 9Heart disease, 459

sodium intake and, 113Heat. See also Heating; Heating foods;

Heat transferlatent, 34–35measuring, 104–5melting/boiling point, 34–35requirements of cooking methods,

99–103scales, 104, 105of solidifi cation, 34specifi c, 34of vaporization, 35

Heatingcooling/reheating temperatures,

82, 83, 94methods/techniques, 99–103, 117ohmic, 581

Heating foods, 99–105, 117. See also Dry-heat preparation; Moist-heat preparation

Heat preservation, 581, 586. See also Pasteurization

Heat shock, 541Heat transfer, 35, 103–4, 117

fats and, 454, 474types of, 103–4, 117

Hedonic tests, 24Heifers, 140Hemicellulose, 43, 271Hemoglobin, 145Hemp milk, 220

Government food regulation. See Regulation of food, government

Grading, 600, 601–2, 605. See also USDA grading

of butter, 459, 602of cheese, 241, 242, 246of eggs, 251–52, 601, 602of fi sh and shellfi sh, 191–92of fruits, 276, 304, 313, 322, 601, 602of meat, 146–47, 149, 601, 602of milk, 214, 228, 601, 602of poultry, 174, 185, 601, 602of tea, 561USDA quality grade stamps, 602, 605of vegetables and fruits, 276,

601, 602Graduate Record Examination (GRE),

619, 621Graduate school, 619–22, 623

academic requirements, 620–21, 623examination requirement, 621graduate degree jobs, 621–22, 623GREs and, 619, 621prerequisites, 619–20professional profi le, 620TOEFL and, 621

Graham bread, 429Graham fl our, 373Grain milk, 219Grains. See Cereal grainsGrainy texture, 528Gram (metric unit of weight), 32Gram fl our, 373Granites, 537Grapefruit, 302, 306

bitterness of, 3Grapes, 299, 305, 307

wine made from, 564, 565Grape seed oil, 462GRAS. See Generally Recognized a SafeGravy, 398, 402Gray, Jonathan, 539Gray, Kristen M., 539GRE. See Graduate Record

ExaminationGreek olives, 308Greenfi eld, Jerry, 4Green meat, 150Green onions, 283Greens, 271, 279, 281

salad, 336Green salads, 336Green tea, 554, 560–61

qualifi ed health claim for, 598Griddle, Appendix A, A-3Grilling, 102

of fi sh and shellfi sh, 202of meats, 163–64of poultry, 181

Grist, 563Grits

barley, 354cooking time, 357hominy, 352, 353

Groats, 354, 355Ground beef, 153Guarana, 553Guar gum, 45, 420, 483, 540, 545Guavas, 301, 303, 307, 321Guinea fowl, 172, 173, 185Gums

arabic, 45chewing, 519, 522karaya, 45sugarless, 442tragacanth, 45vegetable, 44, 271, 455, 540

Gustatory cells, 3

HHACCP system. See Hazard Analysis

and Critical Control Point systemHaddock, 189, 190, 191

Gellingcolloidal dispersions and, 36of fruit spreads, 319–20gelation phase of gel formation, 340pectins and, 43, 319proteins and, 51

Gene contamination, 14Generally Recognized a Safe (GRAS)

GRAS list, 599Simplesse as fat replacer, 465stevia as sweetener, 445tagatose as sweetener, 446

General Mills, food scientists at, 617Genes, 14Genetically engineered foods, 14–16Genetically modifi ed organisms

(GMOs), 13, 600Génoise, 480Genotyping, 68Geography, food choices and, 11Germ, 346, 347

wheat germ, 350, 429German chocolate cake, 480Giardia lamblia, 66, 72–73Gin, 568, 569Ginger, 113, 281Gingerbread, 491Ginger root, 271, 281

storage of, 292Ginkgo biloba, 553Ginseng, 553Ginseng tea, 561Glacé fruits and nuts, 519, 521Glacés (water ices), 537Glasgow piles, 196Glass baking dishes, 104, 424Glass transition temperature, 580Glassware, 136, 137Glazes, 399, 436

pastry, 500, 512Gliadin, 368, 369, 370Globulins, 369Glucosamine, 554Glucose, 39, 40, 438, 449

also known as dextrose, 520chemical structure of, 40, 44D or L nomenclature, 40stored as starch or glycogen, 40,

43, 44sweetness of, 446

Glucose oxidase, 53Glucuronolactone, 553Glutathione, 377Glutelins, 369Gluten, 368–70

dried, 370as an emulsifi er, 455free, 371, 429, 597purpose of gluten formation, 368reactions, 371role of lipids in gluten development,

370steps to gluten formation, 368–70

Gluten fl our, 373Gluten-free bread, 429Glutenin, 368, 369, 370Glutinous rice, 351Glycemic index, 554Glycerin/glycerol, 483Glycogen, 39, 40, 41Glycyrrhizin, 446GMOs. See Genetically modifi ed

organismsGMP. See Good Manufacturing

PracticesGoat milk, 216Goji berry, 311–12Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs),

77, 593Goose, 173, 180, 185

eggs, 255Gooseberries, 305, 306Gourds, 279



Licensed to:

I-10 Index

Lactase enzyme, 53defi ciency, 219

Lactic acid, 41, 80, 150Lactitol, 441, 442Lactobacillus, 222Lactobacillus acidophilus, 223Lactobacillus bulgaricus, 222Lactobacillus caucasius, 223Lactobacillus plantarum, 429Lactose, 39, 41, 228, 438

as additive in cakes, 483functions in confections, 524hydrolysis of, 52intolerance, 211, 219low-lactose milks, 219sweetness of, 446, 449

Ladyfi ngers, 491Lagering, 564Lamb, 141, 168. See also Meat(s)

internal temperature recommended for cooked, 162

retail/wholesale cuts of, 155Lamb stock, 329Lamination, 498Lard, 381, 464–65, 471, 474Larding meat, 161Lasagne, 359, 360Latent heat, 34–35Lautering, 563Laws, federal food, 591–93, 605.

See also Regulation of food, government

Leafy green salads, 336Leavening, 375–79, 387

in cakes, 483too much/too little, 379in yeast breads, 419

Leaves (leafy vegetables), 270, 271, 294

Lecithin, 48, 254, 267, 455, 493as additive in confections, 526

Leeks, 271, 279, 281, 283Legislation. See Laws, federal food;

Regulation of food, governmentLegumes, 285–86, 294

cancer and, 274defi ned, 274preparing, 290–91sprouting, 291–92storage of, 293

Lemon bars, 490Lemon juice, fi sh odor ameliorated

by, 203Lemons, 298, 302, 307

zest, 317Lentils, 271Lettuces, 271, 279, 281

in salads, 334, 336Leucoplasts, 271Levulose, 520. See also FructoseLicensure for dietitians, 615Licorice, 519Ligases, 52Light beer, 563Light ice cream, 535Light/lite claims, 598Light wines, 567Lignin, 44, 271Limes, 298, 302, 307

zest, 317Linens, table, 135–36, 137Line-spread test, 26Linguine, 356, 360Linoleic acid, 47Linolenic acid, 47Linzer cookies, 491Lipases, 52, 385Lipid-based fat replacers, 465–67Lipids, 46–49, 60. See also Fats and

oilscomposition of, 46foods high in, 46phospholipids, 47–48

Julienne, 106Jungle, The (Sinclair), 592

KKaiser, Lucia, 609Kale, 271, 279, 281, 334, 336Kamaboko, 197Kamut, 356Kangaroo, meat from, 140Karuna, 11Kasha, 356Katsuoboshi, 196Kava, 553Kcal. See Kilocalorie (kcal)Kefi r, 223Kellogg Company, food scientists at,

481, 617Kellogg, John Harvey, 347Kellogg’s Corn Flakes, 347Kellogg, William Keith, 347Kelvin scale, 104Kernal corn, 352Ketchup (catsup), 594Kidneys, 155, 156KGy. See KilograysKilning, 563Kilocalorie (kcal), 6. See also Calories

(kcal)measurement unit for energy,

33–34in milk and milk products,

212, 213Kilogram, 108Kilograys (kGy), 582Kilojoule (kj), 105Kimchi, 577Kinetic energy, 104Kitchen team, 121–22Kiwi/Kiwifruit, 279, 298, 302, 305, 307

as a garnish, 116vitamin C in, 301, 302

Kj. See KilojouleKluyveromyces lactis, 235Kneading, 369–70

dough development and, 369, 370function of, 368, 369–70of quick breads, 412testing for doneness, 422of yeast breads, 421–22

Knives, 105–7, 117blade of, 105–6butter, 136, 137cutlery techniques, 105–7, 117cutting styles, 106–7handling, 105–6paring, 107selecting and caring for, Appendix

A, A-8–A-9in table settings, 136, 137

Kohlrabi, 271, 279Konjac, 45Kosher foods, 12, 602

meats, 155, 168, 581salt, 112symbols, 12

Kraft Foods, 240, 539Kraft, James L., 240Kraft Singles, 240Kroc, Ray, 619Kumquats, 305, 307Kuru, 74

LL-sugars, 446Labeling, food, 595–97

allowed claims, 597–98Country of Origin, 601, 602–3exemptions, 597of irradiated foods, 583of meats, 152Nutrition Facts label, 6, 595,

596–97of poultry, 176

Instant (pregelatinized) starches, 397Instant coffee, 555, 556, 557, 576Instant fl our, 375Instant milk, 221Instant-read thermometers, 84, 85Instant rice, 351, 357Instant tea, 562Instant yeast, 377Institute of Food Technologists, 610Interesterifi cation, 465Interfering agents, 524Interfering, eggs used for, 257, 267Internal Revenue Service, alcohol

regulation, 603–4International agencies, 604International Association of Culinary

Professionals, 610Internships, 617

dietitians, 613food science, 617food service, 618pharmaceutical and nutraceutical

industries, 622Interstate commerce regulation,

601, 605Intestinal health and conventional

foods, 9Intoxications, food, 66, 67, 69Intrastate commerce regulation, 601Inulin, 44, 554Invertebrates, shellfi sh classifi cation,

188, 189Invert sugar, 437, 438, 446

in candies, 520, 524Iodine, sanitation with, 89Iodine value test, 27Ion chromatography, 27Ionization, 36–37Irish coffee, 557Irish whiskey, 569Iron (Fe), 301, 596Irradiation, 581–83, 585, 586

effects of on food, 582–83labeling of irradiated foods, 583, 602of poultry, 184process of, 581–82pros and cons, 583

Islam, 12Isofl avones, 59Isomalt, 441, 442Isomaltulose, 446Isomerases, 52Isotonic beverages, 552Italian buttercream frosting, 488

JJams, fruit, 318, 322, 448, 593Jefferson, Thomas, 534Jellies, 519, 520, 521

fruit, 318, 322, 448Jicama, 271, 279, 281J.M. Smucker Company, 617Job description, 120Joint Review Committee on

Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology (JRCNMT), 611

Joint Review Committee on Education in Radiological Technology (JRCERT), 611

Joule (j), 105Joule heating, 105JRCERT. See Joint Review Committee

on Education in Radiological Technology

JRCNMT. See Joint Review Committee on Educational Programs in Nuclear Medicine Technology

Judaism, 12Juices

clarifying, 314fruit, 53, 300, 313–15, 596vegetable, 314

Hydrationof fl our, gluten formation and,

368–69proteins and, 51

Hydration phase of gel formation, 340Hydrogenation, 464Hydrolases, 52Hydrolysis, 37, 52Hydrolytic enzymes, 52Hydrolytic rancidity, 471Hydrophilic compounds, 48, 455Hydrophobic compounds, 48, 455Hydroxypropyl cellulose, 45Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 45Hygiene, food service personnel, 78Hygroscopicity, 448, 449Hypertension

qualifi ed health claims about, 598sodium intake and, 113

IIceberg lettuce, 336, 337Icebox/refrigerator cookies, 492Ice cream, 214, 534–36, 546

additives in, 544chemistry of, 535cone, 535contents of, 535–36factors affecting quality, 537–41favorite fl avors, 546functional food, 536light, 535low-fat, 535, 536mixing and freezing, 541–44, 546nonfat, 535overrun, 541reduced fat, 535scoop, 535scooping, 545shrinkage with age, 540storage of, 543, 544–45, 546structure of, 540types of, 535, 546

Ice cream cake, 480Iced coffee, 557Iced tea, 562Ice milk, 214Icings (frostings), 488–89, 495Icing sugar, 109Identity standards, 594

for milk, 217Imitation chocolate, 530Imitation coffee, 557Imitation ham, 159Imitation ice cream, 536, 546Imitation milk, 218–19Immersion freezing, 580Incomplete protein, 50Indoles, 59Induction, heat transfer by, 103,

104, 117Infections, bacterial food, 66, 68–69Infections, toxin-mediated, 66, 67,

69–74Infrared heat lamps, 104Infrared thermometer, 85Infusion, 561Ingredients

measuring, 107–10, 117sensitive, 76substitutions for, 110, Appendix C,

C-1–C-2Inositol, 553Insects, 90Inspection. See also HACCP system

of eggs, 251FDA, 593–94of food, 80–81health department inspection form,

91, 92of meat, 146for pesticide residues, 603of poultry, 174



Licensed to:

Index I-11

of meats, 166of pasta, 362of poultry, 178, 183, 185of tea, 562of vegetables, 290of yeast breads, 427

Migaki-nishin, 196Mildew, 71Milk, 210–27. See also Cheese

additives in, 214in cakes, 483coagulation and precipitation, 215,

224–25color of, 58, 214complete protein from, 50composition of, 211–14, 228cost of, 127fl avor changes, 224, 228in fl our mixtures/baked goods,

380, 387in food preparation, 224–27, 228functions in foods, 211, 524grades of, 214, 228, 601,

602, 605heating, 36, 224homogenization of, 215, 216, 218nondairy, 219nutrient content of, 211–14,

218, 228nutritionally altered, 218–19pasteurization, 53, 214–15purchasing, 214–15, 228rennin, 225scalding, 100standards of identity for, 217storage of, 227, 228types and products, 216–24, 228vitamins A and D fortifi cation,

213–14Milk-based beverages, 562, 570Milk chocolate, 530Milk protein concentrates (MPC), 211Milk protein isolates (MPI), 211Milk solids-not-fat (MSNF), 216, 534,

535–36, 540Millet, 346, 354Milling, 371–72Mince, fi sh, 195Mincing, 106–7Mineral(s), 55–56, 60. See also

Mineral content; Sodiumcomposition of, 55foods high in, 55functions in foods, 55–56macrominerals and microminerals, 55major minerals in foods, 55nutrient retention of processed

foods, 584–85on Nutrition Facts label, 596proportion in human body, 32

Mineral contentof cereal grains, 346, 348–49, 363of cheese, 236of eggs, 253, 267of fi sh, 195of fl ours, 372of fruits, 301of meats, 147of milk, 214, 228of pastas, 363of poultry, 175of vegetables, 274, 275of water, 549

Mineral oil, 578Mineral water, 550Minestrone, 330Minimum quality, standards of,

594–95Mint, 116, 333Mirepoix, 181, 329Misleading advertising, 603, 605Miso, 286, 330, 577Miso soup, 330

kosher, 155, 168labeling, 152mechanically deboned, 160nutrient content of, 147organic, 156percentage yield, 132pigments in, 58, 145preparation of, 160–66, 168processed, 156–60, 168purchasing, 146–60, 168restructured, 160smoking of, 157storage of, 161, 167, 168structure of, 141–44substitutes, 148sun-dried, 576tenderness of, 142, 148–51,

160–61time/weight charts, 162, 163types of, 140–41, 168variety (organ), 155, 156, 168warmed over fl avor, 161Wholesome Meat Act (1967), 601wrapping of, 167

Meat analogs, 285Meat grinders/slicers, 90Meatloaf, 79Meat stocks, 329Meat thermometer, 162Medical foods, 9, 211Medical nutrition therapy, 610,

612, 623Medicine, food and, 6–8Melanins, 54, 301Meleagris gallopavo silvestris, 173Melilot, 561Mellorine, 537Melon balls, 338Melons, 305, 307–8Melting point, 34–35

of chocolate, 527of fats, 453, 474of water, 34–35

Meniscus, 109, 640Menus

checklist, 126creating, 124–26cycle, 124, 125, 126hospital menu patterns, 124menu patterns, 123–24

Mercurycontamination in fi sh, 75, 193–94

Meringue pies, 512Meringues, 79, 261, 480, 487

cookies, 490Metal salts in canned foods/juices, 315Metchnikoff, Elie, 223Methoxylation, 319Methylsufonylmethane (MSM), 554Methylxanthines, 556, 561Metric system, 32Mettwurst, 159Meunière sauce, 161Mexican wedding cakes, 491Micelles, 225Microbial, 45Microminerals, 55Micronutrients, 130Microorganisms, 38. See also Bacteria

foodborne illness and, 65food preservation and, 38temperatures needed to destroy, 83

Microscope, 26Microwave ovens, 104Microwave thermometer, 87Microwaving, 36, 101, 117

brown condiments for, 166of cakes, 485–86of cereal grains, 358of cookies, 493dry-heat preparation, 35–36, 101of eggs, 263of fi sh, 204

Maltodextrin, 420, 483, 545Maltose, 39, 41, 438, 446, 449Mandarins (tangerines), 302, 305, 307Mandelbrot, 491Mangoes, 301, 302, 303, 305, 307Mangosteen juice, 554Manicotti, 359, 360Manners, cultural infl uences on, 11Mannitol, 441, 442, 446Mannose, 43MAP. See Modifi ed-atmosphere

packagingMaple syrup, 438, 441Marbling, 143, 149–50Marchand de vin sauce, 161Marco Polo, 534Margarine, 460–61, 471Marinades, 114

tenderizing meat with, 151use with poultry, 181

Marmalades, 318, 322Marrow, 144Mashing, 563Marshmallows, 442, 519, 521Marzipan, 519Masa, 353Matjes herrings, 196Maturing agents, for fl our, 383Matzo, 413Mayonnaise, 456, 575

contamination of, 80May wine, 567Mead, 566Meal management, 120–37

food service organization, 120–23meal planning, 123–26purchasing, 126–32table settings, 135–36time management, 132–34types of meal service, 135

Meal planning, 123–26, 128, 137healthful, 128

Meal service, types of, 135Mealy, 509Measuring, 107–10, Appendix B,

B-1–B-2heat, 104–5ingredients, 107–10, 117measurement equivalents, 108portion control, 132rounding off, 108standards of fi ll, 594, 595utensils, 108–9

Measuring cups, 107, 108Measuring spoons, 108Meat(s), 140–68. See also specifi c

meatsaging of, 142, 148–49, 150–51antibiotic resistance, 144aseptic and modifi ed-atmosphere

packaging of, 584carving of, 166choosing, 148color changes in, 145, 146, 162–63color of, 58, 145, 146complete protein from, 50composition of, 141–46, 168cost of, 127curing, 156–57, 577cuts of, 144, 146, 148, 152–56determining doneness,

162–63, 168effect of temperature on, 161Federal Meat Inspection Act

(1906), 601frozen, 167, 580grading of, 146–47, 601, 602, 605halal, 156as high-risk food, 78–79hormones and, 144–45inspection of, 146, 168, 601, 602internal temperature recommended

for cooked, 162

sterols, 48–49triglycerides, 46

Lipooxygenase, 384Liqueurs, 568, 569Liquid chromatography, 27Liquid diet, 122Liquid-fi lled thermometer, 87Liquid fondant, 523Liquids

in baked goods, 380, 387fl uid loss due to freezing, 580measuring, 109in pastry, 503in yeast breads, 419

Liquid smoke, 157Liquid sugar, 437Listeria, 92Listeria monocytogenes, 66, 68, 74

raw eggs and, 266Listeriosis, 68Lite beer, 563Liver, 155, 156

processed, 156Llama, meat from, 140Lobelia, 561Lobster, 189, 190, 191

necessity for live state before cooking, 575

Northern (Maine) vs spiny (rock), 199

purchasing, 199Locust bean gum, 45Lolla rosa, 334Low acidity, 80Low-fat ice cream, 535, 536, 546Low-fat milk, 214, 216, 562Low-lactose milks, 219Low-sodium milk, 219Luncheon meats, 601Lunch menus/planning, 123–26Lutefi sk, 196Lutein, 272Lyases, 52Lycopene, 59, 272, 554Lysine, 356Lysozyme, 250

MMabinlin, 446Macaroni, 359Macaroons, 489, 491Mache, 279Mackerel, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195

mercury contamination and, 194Macrominerals, 55Macronutrients, 129Mad cow disease, 73–74Madeira, 567Madeira sauce, 161Madeleines, 491Madison, Dolly, 534Maillard reaction, 54. See also

Enzymatic browningin baked goods, 379, 380, 385in breads/bread crusts, 54, 379,

380in cakes, 489in caramels, 525in cheeses, 243deep-frying and, 289in eggs, 259sugars and, 289, 436, 447in sweetened condensed milk, 220

Maître d’Hôtel sauce, 161Maki, 204Malic acid, 299, 493, 551, 552Mallon, Mary (“Typhoid Mary”), 77Malt, 354

in fl ours/baked goods, 368, 383, 385

production, in beer-making, 563Malt breads, 429Maltitol, 420, 442



Licensed to:

I-12 Index

food selection based on, 2of vegetables, 287, 288

Ohmic heating, 581Oil and vinegar dressings, 337–38Oiling off, of cheese, 243Oils, 461–64. See also Fats and oils

cold-pressed, 461deep-frying, problems and their

causes, 470difference of fats vs oils, 46in emulsions, 455essential, 114, 317extracts, 114frying care, 467–69preserving frying oils, 469refi ned, 461–62selecting, 462types of, 462–63unrefi ned, 461–62winterized, 464

Okra, 271, 279, 282Old-fashioned fi lling method, 509–10Olestra, 420, 466–67Olfactory epithelium, 2Oligosaccharides, 41Olive oil, 47, 461, 462, 463, 471

qualifi ed health claim for, 598Olives, 308, 309

fat content of, 301sizes, 309storage of, 321

Omega-3 fatty acids, 48, 50, 195, 459, 554

qualifi ed health claim for, 598Omelets, 259–60, 264Onions, 271, 273, 282–83

storage of, 292Oolong tea, 561ORAC. See Oxygen radical absorbance

capacityOrange juice, 308–9, 313Orange pekoe tea, 561Oranges, 301, 302, 308–9

zest, 317Ordinal scale, 24Oregano, 333Organic acids, 299, 554

as chemical sanitizers, 89Organic certifi cation, 16–17Organic foods, 16–17

labeling, 602Organic Foods Production Act of

1990, 16Organic meats, 156Organizational chart, 120, 121Orphan Drug Act, 9Osborne system of protein

classifi cation, 369Osmosis, 38–39, 317Osmotic drying, 576Osmotic pressure, 38–39, 448Osteoporosis, 598Ostrich eggs, 255Ostriches, 172Outbreaks, of foodborne illness, 64, 603Ovalbumin, 250Oven cord thermometer, 86Ovens, Appendix A, A-1–A-2

convection, 103–4microwave, 104rack position, 101

Oven spring, 425Overrun, 541Ovomucin, 250Ovomucoid proteins, 250Ovotransferrin, 250Oxalic acid, 299Oxidases, 575Oxidation. See Enzymatic browningOxidative rancidity, 471–72Oxidizing agents

as dough conditioners, 383enzymes, 300

of frozen desserts, 540of fruit and vegetable beverages,

314of fruits, 301–2, 322of gelatin, 339labeling, 595, 596–97of meats, 147, 168of milk, 211–14, 218, 228of pastas, 359, 362, 363of poultry, 175, 185of quick breads, 410of salads, 335of soft drinks, 218of starches, 391, 404of sugar, 438of tea, 561of vegetables, 274–75of water, 549of yeast breads, 427

Nutrient content claims, 597, 598Nutrient retention, 584–85Nutrients, 32, 129. See also Chemistry

of food compositiondaily values, 596essential, 47, 50groups of, 31intake, 128–30nutrient value of meals, 128–30on Nutrition Facts label, 596proportion in human body, 32, 59

Nutrition, 5–10, 18. See also Nutrition science; Recommended daily amounts

careers in, 609–22consumer dietary changes, 6–10Dietary Guidelines for Americans,

6, 18MyPyramid, 6, 18professional associations, 609, 610recommendations, 6,as selection criterion, 5–10, 18

Nutritional beverages, 562Nutritional yeast, 376, 377Nutrition Facts food labels, 6, 595,

596–97Nutritionist, 610–12, 623

professional profi le, 620Nutrition science, 610–12, 623

allied health careers, 611–12careers in, 610, 611–12certifi cation routes, 613dietary clerk/dietary aide, 616dietetic technician, registered, 616dietitians, 612–16medical nutrition therapy, 610, 612nutritionist, 610–12professional associations, 609, 610

Nuts, 220classifi cation of, 299nut oils, 462qualifi ed health claim for, 598toasting, for salads, 335

OOat beta-glucan, 554Oat fl our, 429Oats, 346, 354, 355, 363

cooking time, 357in yeast breads, 419

Obama, Barack, 64Obesity, 5–6

portion control to combat, 132rates, 125soft drinks and, 551sugar and, 438

Objective tests for food evaluation, 23, 26–28

Octopus, 189, 190Odors

of bread, 426classifi cation of, 2detecting, 2of fi sh, 192, 193, 203

Mustard greens, 279Mutton, 141Mycotoxins, 71Myocommata, 190Myoglobin, 145, 146, 191Myosin, 142Myotomes, 190MyPyramid, 6, 18, 125, 128, 302

NNAACLS. See National Accrediting

Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences

Napkins, 135Napoleon, 578Naruto, 197NASM. See National Associations for

Schools of MusicNational Accrediting Agency for

Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS), 612

National Associations for Schools of Music (NASM), 612

National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, 130

National Restaurant Federation, 610Natto, 286Natural foods, 17Neapolitan, 535Nectarines, 305, 308Nematodes (roundworms), 73Neohesperidine, 446Neotame, 443, 444, 445, 446Nero (Roman emperor), 534Nestlé, Henri, 530Neural tube birth defects, 598New Age beverages, 552New potatoes, 283NFDM. See Nonfat dry milkNigiri, 204Nitrites

color changes in meats and, 159in processed meats, 157, 156–57

NOEL. See No-observed-effect levelNomenclature

chemical, 48of enzymes, 52of fatty acids, 47, 48of pastas, 359of saccharides (D or L), 40

Nonfat dry milk (NFDM), 220–21, 227, 562

Nonlaminated, 498–500Nonnutritive food components,

56–59, 60Nonnutritive sweeteners, 435,

442–46, 449Nonstick pans, 424Nontempered coatings, 529No-observed-effect level (NOEL), 443Noodles, 359, 363. See also PastaNorwalk virus, 66, 71, 72, 74Nougats, 519, 521Nuclei, for crystal formation, 520Nucleus, atomic, 32NuMenues, 123–24Nutraceutical, 6, 10Nutraceutical beverages, 554Nutraceutical industry internships/

jobs, 622, 623NutraSweet. See AspartameNutrient analysis, 130Nutrient content

of cakes, 484of cereal grains, 347, 348–49, 363of cheese, 235–36, 246claims allowed on food labels,

597, 598of cookies, 494of eggs, 253, 267of fats, 458–59, 474of fi sh, 195of fl ours, 372

Mixers, Appendix A, A-5Mixing

pastries, 505–6techniques, 110–11, 117

Mocha, 557Modifi ed-atmosphere packaging

(MAP), 293, 584, 585, 586Modifi ed foods, 9Modifi ed starches, 397, 483, 520Modifi ed wheat starch, 420Moist-heat preparation, 35–36,

99–101, 117of cereal grains, 356–58of eggs, 261–64, 267of fi sh and shellfi sh, 203–4of fruits, 318of meats, 165–66of pasta, 360–62of poultry, 182, 185of vegetables, 290

Moisture absorption, 448, 449Moisture retention, sugar and, 436Molasses, 438, 440–41

in brown sugar, 437foods made with, 441

Molded cookies, 491Molds, 71

in cheese/cheese production, 237, 238, 244

foodborne illness and, 65, 71food spoilage by, 574, 575inhibitor added to baked

products, 419safety in certain foods, 71

Molecules, 32Mollusks, 189. See also Shellfi sh

selecting live, 198Monelin, 446Monitoring, critical control point, 91Mono- and diglycerides, 420, 456,

483, 545Monocalcium phosphate, 420, 483Monographs, 8Monosaccharides, 40Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 3,

114, 158in chicken nuggets, 175sensitivity, 114

Mooncake, 480Morganella morganii, 76Mormon Church, 11Mornay sauce, 161Moselle wines, 567Mother sauces, 399, 404Mousse, 537Mozzarella cheese, 233, 242, 243MPC. See Milk protein concentratesMPI. See Milk protein isolatesMSG. See Monosodium glutamateMSM. See MethylsufonylmethaneMSNF. See Milk solids-not-fatMucor miehei, 235Mucor pusillus, 235Muffi n breads, 411–12Muffi n method of mixing, 111,

408, 415Muffi ns, 384, 385, 409–411, 480

English muffi ns, 430–31ingredient proportions, 407preparation of, 410–11

Mulled wines, 567Mullet, 191Multiple fruit, 298Muscatel, 567Muscle contraction and relaxation, 142Muscle tissue, 141–42

in fi sh, 190Muscovado sugar, 437Mushrooms, 282

storage of, 292Mushroom sauce, 399Mussels, 189, 190

purchasing, 199, 603



Licensed to:

Index I-13

Pita bread, 429Pizza, 350, 428Pizza crust, 431Pizza Hut, 316Place mats, 136Plague, bubonic, 90Plain pastry, 498–99. See also Pies

and pastriesPlanning, meal, 123–26, 137Plantains, 301, 305Plant cell structure, 270–72Plant exudates, 45Plant fi bers, 45Plant protein classifi cation, 369Plant stanol esters, 49Plant sterols, 49, 59Plasticity of fats, 109, 456–57, 474Plate freezing, 580Plate presentation, 116Plates, 136, 137Plums, 305, 310Poaching, 100, 117

of eggs, 263, 264of fi sh, 203of fruits, 318of poultry, 183

Pod corn, 352Poisoning. See also Bacteria; Toxins

bacterial infections and toxins, 65–67

botulism, 67, 69Ciguatera fi sh, 75ergot, 355foodborne illness, 65–74, 575histamine food poisoning,

75–76, 205mercury, 193–94mycotoxins, 71pufferfi sh, 76red tide, 76

Polarimeter, 26Pollock, 190, 191Polo, Marco, 534Polydextrose, 522Polyethylene wax, 578Polymerization, 468Polymorphism, of fats, 456, 527Polyphenol, 302, 556Polyphenolase, 54Polyphenolic compounds, 225, 556, 561Polyphenol oxidase, 300, 315Polysaccharides, 41–45Polysorbate 60, 455Polyunsaturated fats, 47, 48, 143Pomegranate juice, 554Pomegranates, 310, 312, 321Pomes, 298, 322Popcorn, 352Popcorn balls, 519, 521Popovers, 384, 407, 409Popsicles, 537Pop-up thermometer, 86Pork, 141, 168. See also Meat(s)

bacon, 159cooking temperature, 163ham, 158–59, 577internal temperature recommended

for cooked, 162processed, 156PSE (pale, soft, and exudative), 150retail/wholesale cuts of, 153–55stock, 329tapeworm (Taenia sollium), 73Trichinella spiralis and, 72

Pork tapeworm (Taenia sollium), 73Port, 567Portions

common serving sizes, 133control, 132healthful, 128measuring sizes, 129size, 123

Post, Charles William, 347

Petit four, 480Pets, Salmonella infection from, 68pH. See also Acid(s)

changes in, 37Clostridium botulinum growth

and, 579and color in vegetables, 272of eggs/egg whites, 257exception to rules, 80food additives and, 58in heating fruit, 315meter, 27in milk, 225scale, 37of soft drinks, 552taste and, 58

Phadnis, Shashikant, 444Pharmaceutical industry internships/

jobs, 622, 623PhD. See Graduate schoolPheasant, 172Phenolase, 300Phenolic compounds, 44, 300–1, 561Phenol oxidase, 53, 300Phenols, 59Phenylalanine, 444Phenylketonuria (PKU), 444Phosphated fl our, 374Phosphates

in meats, 158treatment of fi sh and shellfi sh, 193,

200, 205Phosphatidylcholine. See LecithinPhosphatidylserine, 598Phospholipids, 47–48Phosphoric acid, 551, 552Photosynthesis, 436Phyllo pastry, 500, 509, 510Physical hazards, 65, 77, 94Physical leaveners, 375Physical tests for food evaluation,

26–27, 28Phytochemicals, 59, 274, 301, 554Pickles/pickling, 577–78

as a garnish, 116cancer and, 600

Picnic ham, 159Pies and pastries, 498–515. See also

Pastriesalternative piecrusts, 509baking, 513decorative piecrust edges, 508and eggs. 504and fat, 502fi llings, 509–12fl akiness of pastries, 502–3and fl our, 502ingredients of, 500–5and liquids, 503preparation of, 500–13, 515problems and their causes, 514and salt, 504storage of, 514, 515and sugar, 504testing for doneness, 513toppings, 512–13types of, 498–500, 515

Pigeon, 172, 173, 185Pigments. See also Color(s)

in meats, 58, 145in plants/vegetables, 271, 272–73,

287–88in poultry, 173

Pike, 189, 190Pilaf method, 358Pineapples, 298, 305, 310, 338

as a garnish, 116cutting, 311storage of, 321vitamin C in, 302

Pink wines, 568Pinot, 567Pint, 108

Pastries, 384, 498–515. See also Pies and pastries

baking, 513and eggs, 504and fat, 502fi llings, 509–12fl akiness of, 502–3fl avoring and, 504and fl our, 502ingredients of, 500–5and liquids, 503preparation of, 500–13, 515problems and their causes, 514and salt, 504storage of, 514, 515and sugar, 504testing for doneness, 513toppings, 512–13types of, 498–500, 515

Pastry-blend method of mixing, 111Pastry chef/patissier, 121Pastry fl our, 373Patatopita, 500Patent fl our, 372Pathogenic bacteria, 65Pathogen Reduction Act (1997), 601Peaches, 299, 300, 303, 305, 309–10Peanut allergies, 76Peanut brittle, 448, 519, 520, 521, 525Peanut butter cookies, 491Peanut oil, 461, 462, 471Pearled barley, 354Pearl onions, 283Pears, 299, 300, 301, 305, 310Pear wine, 567Peas, 271, 279, 283Pectic substances, 43, 271, 299–300

juice cloudiness and, 300Pectin, 39, 40, 299–300

in confections, 530formation in ripening fruit, 300in fruit spreads, 319juice cloudiness, 300methoxylation and, 319in soft drinks, 552structure of, 299use by food industry, 300

Pectinase, 315Pectinates, 578Peeling, 107, 338

to eliminate bitterness in vegetables, 287

Pemberton, John, 551Penetrometer, 26Penicillium, 71Penicillium roqueforti, 238Pepper, 113Peppercorns, 113Peppers, 271, 279, 283

bell, 279, 283chili, 113hot, 5, 283red, 279sweet, 283

Peptide bonds, 50Percentage yield, 132Perch, 189, 190, 191Percolator, 559Périgueux sauce, 161Perishability. See also Preservation, food

water activity and, 38Peroxide value test, 27, 472Perry (pear wine), 567Persian melons, 308Persimmons, 300, 310Personal preference tests, 24Personnel, food service, 77–78, 94

hygiene, 78training, 78

Pest control, 90Pesticide regulation, 592, 600, 603, 605Peterson’s Guide to Graduate

Schools, 619

Oxtail, 155, 156Oxygen

and food, 80removal to prevent food spoilage,

575Oxygen radical absorbance capacity

(ORAC), 312, 472Oysters, 189, 190

purchasing, 198, 603raw, Vibrio infection from, 71Rockefeller, 202shucking, 198

Ozonation, 584

PPackaging

aseptic, 584, 586Fair Packaging and Labeling

Act, 595fl avor protection by, 4modifi ed-atmosphere, 293,

584, 586of pastas, 584shrink-wrapping, 293

Pack date, 131Paella, 176Paired comparison test, 24Paired preference tests, 24Palm oil, 46, 47, 463, 471Pan-broiling, 103

of meats, 164, 165Pancakes, 384, 408–9

ingredient proportions, 407Panel thermometer, 86Pan-frying, 103

of meats, 164–65Pannell, Lisa, 617Panocha, 521Pans, Appendix A, A-6–A-7. See also

Pots and pansPantry chef/chef garde manger, 121Pantry pests, 90Papain, 52, 151, 157Papayas, 301, 302, 303, 305, 309Paprika, 113Paraffi n, 578Paraffi n oil, 578Parasites, 65, 72–73Parboil, 100Parenchyma cells, 271–72Parfait, 535Paring knife, 107Parmesan cheese, 234, 238, 242,

243, 244Parsley, 271, 283, 333

as a garnish, 116Parsnips, 271, 279, 283Pascal, Blaise, 583Pascalization, 583, 586Pastas, 347, 358–62, 363

cloudy pasta water, 361high-protein, 359, 363nomenclature of, 359nutrient content of, 359,

362, 363packaging of, 584preparation of, 360–62, 363storage of, 362, 363types of, 359–60, 363

Pasta salads, 336Pasteurization, 53, 214–15

cold (irradiation), 581–83as food preservation method, 581of fruit/vegetable juices, 314high-temperature, 581of milk, 214–15nutrient retention and, 586temperatures, 215ultrapasteurization, 215

Pasteurized beer, 564Pasteurized eggs, 264–65Pasteur, Louis, 578Pastrami, 156



Licensed to:

I-14 Index

Quick oats, 354Quinoa, 356

RRack position for baking, 101, 102Radiation, heat transfer by, 103, 104,

117Radiccio, 279, 334Radish, 271, 273, 284Raffi nose, 41Raisin bread, 594Raisins, 301, 315, 576Ramen, 359, 362Rancidity, 158, 470–72, 528, 580Range, Appendix A, A-1Ranking tests, 24Rapid mix method, 421Raspberries, 301, 302, 305Raspberry tea, 561Ravioli, 359Raw fermented sausage, 159Raw fi sh, 204Raw sugar, 437RBGH. See Recombinant bovine

growth hormoneRD. See Registered dietitianRDI. See Reference Daily IntakesRecalls, 594Recipes, 133–34

standardized, 133styles of, 133–34substitutions for ingredients, 110,

Appendix C, C-1–C-2Recombinant bovine growth hormone

(rBGH), 214Recommended daily amounts, 6, 124.

See also Acceptable daily intake (ADI)

of calories from carbohydrates, 427of cereal, grain, or pasta, 6, 349Daily Reference Values (DRV), 596of fats, 6, 458of fi ber, 427of fruits and vegetables, 6, 302of meats and legumes, 6of milk, 6, 213Reference Daily Intakes (RDI), 596of sugars, 438

Recovery beverages, 552Recrystallization, 580Red cabbage, 273Red chard, 334Red color

in chocolate cake, 379in fi sh and shellfi sh products, 197in fruits, 315in meats, 145in plants/vegetables, 272, 273, 287

Red currants, 306Red leaf lettuce, 334Red mustard, 334Red onions, 283Red peppers, 279Red potatoes, 273, 279, 284Red tide, 76Reduced-fat milk, 214, 216, 562Reducing agents, 383Reducing sugars, 447Reduction, 402Red wines, 567, 568Reference Daily Intakes (RDI), 596Reference protein, 253Refrigeration, 80, 81, 579

of meat, 167Refrigerator cookies, 492Refi gerator/freezer thermometer, 86Refrigerators, Appendix A, A-2

food safety and, 81temperature of, 579

Registered dietitian (RD), 122, 612–16Regulation of food, government,

64–65, 591–605Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC), 603, 605

Proteinases, 575Protein-based fat replacers, 465, 466Protein complementation, 50Protein content

of cereal grains, 348, 363of cheese, 236, 246of eggs, 250, 253, 267of fi sh, 195of fl ours, 372high-protein pasta, 359, 363of meats, 147of milk, 212, 218, 228on Nutrition Facts label, 596of pastas, 359, 362, 363of poultry, 175of soybeans, 285of vegetables, 275of yeast breads, 427

Protein fi lms, 578Protein quality, 50Protein salads, 336Protons, 32Protozoa, 72, 73Proximate analysis, 27Prune juice, 301Prunes, 301, 304Pseudoterranova dicipiens

(codworms), 72, 73P/S ratio, 47Psychological criteria for food

selection, 13–17, 18Puddings, 448, 584Pufferfi sh poisoning, 76Puff pastry, 500, 505

rolling, 509, 510Pull date, 131Pulque, 567Pulsed light, 583, 586PulseNet, 74Pumpernickel bread, 429Pumpkin, 271Punching down dough, 423–24Purchasing, 80, 94, 126–32, 137

of cheese, 241–42, 246of eggs, 251–54, 267of fi sh and shellfi sh, 191–201, 206of fruits, 304–15, 322of meats, 146–60, 168of milk, 214–15, 228of poultry, 174–76, 185of vegetables, 276–84, 294

Pure Food Law. See Food and Drug Act (1906)

Purifi ed water, 550

QQuail, 172, 173Quail eggs, 255Qualifi ed health claims, 597–98Quality control, 80Quality grades, 146, 601–2. See also

Grading; USDAof meat, 147USDA stamps, 602

Quality standards, 594, 595Quantity grades, 601Quart, 108Quaternary ammonium

compounds, 89Quiche, 79, 264, 498Quick breads, 367, 407–15

from drop batters, 384, 385, 409–12, 415

ingredient proportions, 407kneading, 412, 415muffi n method, 408, 415nutrient content of, 410from pour batters, 408–9, 415preparation of, 408, 415problems and their causes,

411, 415unleavened breads, 412–13varieties of, 408–14, 415

Quick-mix method, 110

Preparation of food, 82–83, 94food (See specifi c foods)

Pre-preparation of food, 83, 94Presentation, food, 116, 117Preservation, food, 38–39, 574–86

artifi cial “rain” in supermarket displays, 38

aseptic and modifi ed-atmosphere packaging, 584, 586

cold preservation, 579–80, 586enzymes used for, 53food spoilage, 574–75, 586heat preservation, 581, 585, 586high-pressure processing, 583, 586humidity/water activity and, 38irradiation, 581–83, 585, 586, 602methods of, 575–79, 585nutrient retention and,

584–85, 586ozonation, 584pascalization, 583, 586preservatives in soft drinks, 552pulsed light, 583, 586sugar and, 436, 448, 449

Preserved fi sh/roe, 196Preserves, fruit, 318, 322Pressed cookies, 491Pressure canning, 579Pressure cookers, 101Pretreatments for drying fruits, 577Pretzels, 431Preventive measure, 76Price comparisons, 130, 131Priestley, Joseph, 551Primal cuts. See Wholesale (primal)

cutsPriming of frying pans, 259Prions (mad cow disease), 73–74Prior sanction, 599Probiotics, 222–23, 554Process (processed) cheeses, 233,

240–41, 243Processed fruits, 312–13Processed meats, 156–60, 168

lower-fat, 160Processed poultry, 175–76Product codes, 131Production manager/sous chef, 122Product recall, 594Professional associations, 609, 610Professor, career as, 612, 618,

622, 623Prolamines, 369Proof, 383

of alcoholic spirits, 568Proof boxes, 423Proofi ng, 383, 423, 425

overproofi ng, 425second, 424–25underproofi ng, 427

Propionic acid, 89Propylene glycol monoesters, 455Propyl gallate, 158, 473Proteases, 52, 385, 423, 575Protein(s), 49–54, 60. See also Protein

content; specifi c proteinsamino acids in, 50, 51, 52biological value of, 339calories (kcal) from, 32chemistry of, 49–54complete vs incomplete, 50composition of, 52denaturation/coagulation, 52foods high in, 50functions in food, 51–54nutrient retention in processed

foods, 584–85Osborne classifi cation system, 369plant, 369proportion in human body, 32recommended intake, 130reference, 253sources, 130

Proteinase inhibitor, 250

Potassiumdietary guidelines/

recommendations, 6in fruits, 301

Potassium benzoate, 551Potassium bisulfi te, 304Potassium bromate, 383Potassium chloride, 113, 483Potassium metabisulfi te, 304Potassium sorbate, 483, 493Potato chips, 462Potatoes, 271, 279, 283–84

baked, 288–89color of, 273cream of tartar and, 289fi ber content, 273french fries, 289, 290preparation of, 288–89seasons for, 279soup, 331specifi c gravity of, 288storage of, 293sweet potatoes, 271, 274, 284

Potato fl our, 374Potato starch, 43, 391, 392, 394, 396Pot barley, 354Pots and pans, Appendix A, A-6–A-7

for baking cakes, 483–84for baking pies and pastries, 513for baking yeast breads, 424color of, effect on baking, 101–2placement, 484primed (seasoned), 259

Pottage, 327Poultry, 172–85. See also Meat(s);

specifi c type of poultryadditives in, 176basting, 180brining, 178calories, 176carving, 181, 185classifi cation of, 172–73, 185color change, 178color/pigment in, 173, 174composition of, 173, 185determining doneness, 178–79, 185dressed, 174eviscerated, 174grading of, 174, 601, 602, 605as high-risk food, 78–80hormones and antibiotics in, 175inspection of, 174, 601, 602internal temperature recommended

for cooked, 178irradiation of, 184labeling, 176microwaving, 183modifi ed-atmosphere packaging

of, 584nutrient content of, 175percentage yield, 132preparation of, 176–83, 185processed, 175purchasing, 174–76, 185safety tips, 177–78Salmonella and, 68, 183stocks, 329storage of, 183–84, 185stuffi ng, 178, 180–81time/weight charts, 178–79trussing, 180types and styles of, 174–76

Poultry Buyers Guide, 176Poultry Products Inspection Act

(1957), 601Pound (unit of measurement), 108Pound cake, 480Pour batters, 384, 385, 408–9, 415Powdered butter, 459Powdered sugar, 109, 437Practice Groups, Dietetic, 615Prawns, 200Prebiotics, 222–23Precipitate, 36



Licensed to:

Index I-15

Schlatter, James, 443Schmidt, Arno, 99Science. See Food science; Nutrition

scienceScientist, food, 616–17

professional profi les, 316, 539Scombrotoxism, 75, 205Scones, 413–14Scoring bread, 425Scotch (whiskey), 569Scrambled eggs, 259, 263–64Scrapie, 74Scurvy, 591Sea bass, 190, 192Seafood. See Fish and shellfi shSea mammals, 189Searing of meat, 102, 161Sea salt, 112Seasoning of frying pans, 259Seasonings, 111–16, 117, Appendix D,

D-1–D-3. See also Salt; specifi c seasonings

adding to food (when/how much?), 115–16

for grains, 358for meats, 161–62types of, 111–15

Seaweeds, 45Seed, for crystal formation, 521Seeding method of tempering

chocolate, 528Seeds

gums, 45vegetables and fruits derived from,

270, 294, 272Selection criteria. See Food selection

criteriaSelenium, 598Self-rising fl our, 375Semi-hard cheese, 234Semisweet chocolate, 530Semolina (durum fl our), 359, 373Sensitivity tests, 24Sensory criteria, in food selection,

1–5, 18Sensory evaluation of food, 23–26Separation of water and oil, 575Serving number, food labeling, 596Serving sizes

common, 133food labeling, 596of fruits and vegetables, 302portion control, 132

Serving temperature, 89, 94Sesame oil, 462Seventh-Day Adventist Church, 11, 347Shad, 190, 191Shallots, 271, 283Shark, 189, 190

mercury contamination and, 194Sheep milk, 216Shelf life

extension by sugar, 436improved by biotechnology, 14

Shellfi sh. See also Fish and shellfi shbaking, 201–2certifi cation, 192classifi cation of, 188–89common, 190complete protein from, 50inspection of, 601, 602Interstate Certifi cate Shellfi sh

Shipper List, 603preparation of, 201–4, 206purchasing, 191–201, 206red tide algae and, 76“R-month rule”, 198selection of, 197–201, 206shucked, 192shucking, 198steaming, 203–4storage of, 204–5, 206types of, 191–92

Shen Nung (Chinese emperor), 559

Salmonella, 66, 68, 90cross-contamination, 83eliminated by irradiation, 583poultry and, 178, 183raw eggs and, 257, 266testing for, 601

Salmonella enteritidis, 266Salmonella typhi, 66Salmonellosis, 68Salsify, 279Salt(s), 111–13. See also Sodium

adding in food preparation, 112curing/preservation with, 577effect on freezing, 543effect on milk, 225in fl our mixtures/baked goods,

380, 387forms of, 55–56functions in foods, 56, 111–12in gel formation, 341meat tenderizing with, 151in pastry, 504pickling, 600in processed foods, 112sources in diet, 112substitutes, 113too much/too little, 380types of, 111–12, 380value of, 112in yeast breads, 419yeast growth and, 380

Salt and pepper shakers, 136Salt formation, 37Salting (curing), 156–57, 577Salty taste, 3Sanding sugar, 437Sanitation, 89–90Sanitation Standard Operating

Procedures (SSOPs), 601Sanitizers, chemical, 89Saponins, 59Sardines, 190, 191, 196Sashimi, 204Sassafras tea, 561Satiety, 457, 474Satsuma-age, 197Saturated fatty acids, 47, 48, 456Saturated solution, 36Saturation, degree of, 47, 456Sauce chef/saucier, 121Sauces, 397–403, 404

for beef, 161functions in foods, 398gravy, 402mother, 399, 404small, 399storage of, 403, 404thickened, 399–401, 404types of, 398–99unthickened, 401–3, 404white sauce, 261

Sauerkraut, 577Sausage, 159–60, 577Sautéing, 102–3

of cereal grains, 358of fi sh and shellfi sh, 202of fruits, 318of meats, 164of poultry, 181

Sauternes, 567Savory, 333Savory (umami) taste, 3Scalding, 100Scales

Celsius (centigrade), 104, 105Fahrenheit, 104, 105Kelvin, 104for measuring ingredients, 109ordinal, 24

Scallions, 279Scalloped, 286Scallops, 189, 190

purchasing, 199, 603Scampi, 200

Root beer, 551Root vegetables, 270, 271, 294Rope, 431Rose hip tea, 561Rosemary, 116, 177, 333Rosé wines, 567Rotavirus, 66, 72Roughage. See FiberRoulade, 480Rounding off of weights and

measures, 108Rounds cook/tournant, 122Roundworms, 72, 73Roux, 399Rum, 568, 569Russian service, 135Russian tea cookies, 491Rutabagas, 271, 279, 284Rye, 346, 355, 356, 363

cooking time, 357Rye (whiskey), 569Rye breads, 429Rye crackers, 429Rye fl our, 374

SSablés, 489, 492Saccharides, 39–46. See also

Carbohydrate(s)disaccharides, 40–41D or L nomenclature, 40monosaccharides, 40oligosaccharides, 41polysaccharides, 41–46

Saccharin, 443, 444, 552, 600Saccharometer, 544Saccharomyces carlsbergensis, 563Saccharomyces caucasius, 223Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 375, 377, 418Saccharomyces kefi r, 223Safety, food, 64–94. See also

Regulation of food, governmentbacteria and, 65–74biological hazards, 65–74canned goods (home-canning), 579chemical hazards, 65, 75–76cream soups, 332detecting contamination, 74eggs, 265–66FDA and, 593–600foodborne illness, 64–65genetically modifi ed organisms

and, 14HACCP system, 91inspector, professional profi le, 183molds and, 71national surveillance, 91new virulent biological hazards, 74parasites and, 72–73physical hazards, 65, 77poultry preparation, 177–78prions—mad cow disease, 72–73Safe Food Act of 1997, 592severity of risk, 65viruses and, 71–72

Saffl ower oil, 461, 462, 471Saffron, 113Sage, 333Saint John’s wort, 553Sake (rice wine), 567, 577Salad dressings, 336–39, 575Salad plate, 136, 137Salads, 332–39, 342

fat and fi ber in, 335importance of salt in, 332ingredients, 332–35preparation of, 335–36, 337, 338types of, 332, 333

Sales and marketing jobs, 519Salmon, 189, 190, 194, 195

canned, 196color of, 192roe, 197, 198smoked, 196

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 603, 605

federal food laws, 591–93, 605Food and Drug Administration

(FDA), 593–600, 605international agencies, 604, 605other regulatory agencies,

603–4, 605U.S. Department of Agriculture

(USDA), 600–3, 605Reheating foods, 82, 83, 88–89Relief cook/tournant, 122Religion

food choices and, 11–12, 18genetically engineered foods and, 14

Rennin, 53, 225, 235Replacers, fat, 465–67Reptiles

Salmonella infection from, 68Researcher, 621, 623. See also Food

science; Nutrition scienceResinated (Greek) wines, 567Resistant starches, 396–97, 554Respiration rate, 292Restructured meat, 160Retail cuts of meat, 152–55

of beef, 152, 153bones identifying, 144of lamb, 155of pork, 153–55of veal, 153

Retrogradation, 384, 396. See also Syneresis

Rheology, 27Rhine wines, 567Rhizomes, 113Rhubarb, 299, 310Ribose, 39, 40Rice, 350–52, 363

basmati, 346, 351, 357classifi cation of, 351cooking times, 356–57forms of, 351–52percentage of world grain

production, 346preparation of, 356–58

Rice bran, 351Rice bran wax, 578Rice fl our, 373, 429Rice milk, 219Rice starch, 391, 392Rice vinegar, 338Rice wine (sake), 567, 577Riesling, 567Rigor mortis, 150, 151, 193Ripening

of cheese, 236–39of fruits, 300

Risk, 77high-risk foods, 78–80severity of, in biological food

hazards, 65–66Risotto, 351“R-month rule”, 198Roast cook/rotisseur, 121Roasters, chicken, 172Roasting, 102

of coffee, 555of meats, 163of poultry, 179–81temperatures for meats, 163of vegetables, 289

Robert sauce, 161Rock salt, 112Rodents, 90Roe, fi sh, 196, 197Rolled cookies, 491–92Rolled oats, 354, 355Rolled wheat, 350Rollmops, 196Rolls, 429, 430Romaine lettuce, 279, 281

green, 334red, 334



Licensed to:

I-16 Index

Stevioside, 445Stewing, 100

of fruits, 318of meat, 166of poultry, 182–83

Still-frozen desserts, 537, 544, 546Stir-frying, 102–3

of poultry, 182of vegetables, 289

Stirring, 110Stocks, 328–330Storage. See also Packaging

of breads, 431, 432of brown sugar, 437of cakes, 489, 495of candies, 530, 531of cereal grains, 358, 363of cheese, 244–45, 246of chocolates, 530, 531of coffee, 559controlled atmosphere, 293, 294of cookies, 494, 495edible fi lms/coatings, 292of eggs, 264–66, 267of fats, 470–73, 474of fi sh and shellfi sh, 204–5, 206of fl ours, fl our mixtures, and

doughs, 385–86, 387food additives and, 59of frozen desserts, 543,

544–45, 546of fruits, 321–21, 322, 579of frying oils, 469of gelatin, 341of herbs and spices, 113–14of honey, 441of ice cream, 543, 544–45, 546of meats, 161, 166–67, 168of milk products, 227, 228nutrient retention and,

584–85, 586of pasta, 362, 363of pastries/pies, 514, 515of poultry, 183–84, 185of soup stocks, 330of starches and sauces, 403, 404of tea, 562, 570temperatures, 82times, 82, 94of vegetables, 292–93, 294, 579

Storage eggs, 264Straight dough method of mixing, 421Straight fl our, 372Strawberries, 299, 301, 302, 305

grades of, 603Stream, in fl our sifting/classifi cation,

372Streptococcus lactis, 221, 223Streptococcus pyogenes, 66Streptococcus thermophilous, in

yogurt, 221Streusel topping, 508Structure/function claims, 597, 598Strudel, 500Stuffi ng, poultry, 178, 179, 180–81

as a high-risk food, 79Sturgeon, 190, 192

caviar and roe, 197, 198Subjective tests for food evaluation,

23–26, 28Sublimation, 576Substitutions for ingredients, 110,

Appendix C, C-1–C-2Substrate, in enzymatic reaction, 52Sucralose, 443, 444–45, 552Sucrose, 39, 40–41, 446

in candies, 520forms of, 437hydrolysis of, 37solubility of, 446–47sources of, 437

Suet, 464–65Sufu, 286

Spirits (hard alcohols), 562, 568, 569, 570

proof, 568types of (common), 568, 569

Splenda. See SucraloseSpoilage, food, 574–75, 586Sponge cake, 487Sponge method of mixing, 111, 421Spoonful. See AspartameSpoons, in table settings, 136Spore, 82Spors, Derek, 4Sport beverages, 552–53Sprats, smoked, 196Spring water, 550Sprouts, 284

preparing, 291–92storage of, 292

Spun sugar, 519Squab, 172, 173Squash, 271, 279, 284Squid, 189, 190SSOPs. See Sanitation Standard

Operating ProceduresStabilizers, 59

in frozen desserts, 534, 540proteins as, 51, 52

Stachyose, 41Stag meat, 140Staling of breads, 381, 431Standardized recipes, 133Standards, FDA, 594–95

of fi ll, 594, 595of identity, 594of minimum quality, 594, 595

Staphylococcal food poisoning, 69Staphylococcus aureus, 66, 67, 69Starch(es), 41–45, 391–404. See also

Saucescharacteristics, 394–97, 404chemical structure of, 43, 44cross-linked, 397dextrinization, 396digestible, from animal sources

(glycogen), 42digestible, from plant sources, 41in fl ours, 368food containing, 392–93gelatinization, 394–95instant or pregelatinized, 397modifi ed, 397, 483, 525nutrient content of, 391, 404oxidized, 397resistant, 396–97, 554retrogradation, 396, 397sources of, 391–92, 404storage of, 403structure, 393testing for, 394as thickeners, 391–93, 404undigestible, 43–44uses in food products, 392–93

Starch syrups, 393Starter, 377State regulatory agencies, 604, 605Stations, kitchen organization based

on, 121–22Steaks, fi sh, 192Steam, as leavening agent, 375Steamers, Appendix A, A-3–A-4Steaming, 101

as convection cooking, 103of fi sh and shellfi sh, 203–4of meats, 166of vegetables, 290

Steel-cut oats, 354, 357Steeping, 563Steeping method, 559Steers, 140Sterilization, 579

aseptically packaged food and, 584Sterols, 48–49Stevia, 445

Sodium sorbate, 551Sodium sulfi te, 304Soft cheese, 233–34Soft diet, 122Soft drinks, 448, 551–52

additives in, 552caffeine in, 551, 556cocaine in, 551diet, 443, 444, 552early, 551health concerns, 551–52nutrient content vs fat-free

milk, 218nutrient content vs fruit/vegetable

juices, 314processing, 551sweeteners in, 551–52, 570water in, 551

Soft water, 35Soft wheats, 350Sol, 340, 395Solanine, 284Sole, 190, 192Solubility, 36, 446–47

effect of temperature on, 447of fats, 457, 474sugar and, 436, 446–47universal solvent (water), 36

Solute, 34, 38Solution, 36Solvent, 36Sorbet, 537, 544, 546Sorbic acid, 304, 551, 552Sorbitan monostearate, 483Sorbitol, 442, 446, 522, 530Sorghum, 346, 354, 363

fl our, 374Souffl és, 261Sound, in food selection, 1, 2, 5Soup cook/potager, 121Soups, 327–32, 342

clear and thin, 330, 342cream, 331–32, 342stocks, 328–30, 342storage of stocks, 330thickened, 330–31, 342types of, 327–28, 342

Sour cream, 213, 223storage of, 227

Sourdough bread, 428–29Sour taste, 3Soybean lecithin, 493Soybean oil, 461, 462, 471Soybeans, 285–86. See also Miso

fermented soybean foods, 286meat analogs, 285paste, 330sprouts, 291textured vegetable protein

(TVP), 285tofu, 285–86

Soy beverage, 553Soy fl our, 374Soy isofl avones, 554Soy milk, 219Soy sauce, 286, 577Spaghetti, 359, 360Spanakopita, 500Sparkling water, 551Sparkling wines, 567Spearmint tea, 561Special dietary use foods, 9–10Specifi cations, in food purchasing,

126Specifi c gravity, 288Specifi c heat, 34Spectrophotometer, 26Spelt, 350Spices, 113–14, Appendix D, D-1–D-3

on Nutrition Facts label, 596purchasing, 113storing, 113–14

Spinach, 271, 279, 284, 334, 336

Sherbet, 214, 537, 544, 546Sherry, 567Shigella, 67, 68, 69, 92Shigella dysenteriae, 66Shirred eggs, 260, 263Shortbread, 490, 492Short dough pastry, 499Shortened cakes, 478–80, 483–88Shortening power, 454–55, 474Shortenings, 381, 454, 461. See also

Fats and oilscomparison of, 470superglycerinated, 461

Shortometer, 26Shredding, 106Shrimp, 189, 190, 192

canned, 200peeling and cleaning, 200prawns, 200purchasing, 200scampi, 200shucked, 198

Shrimp sauce, 399Shrinking, 261Shrink-wrapping of vegetables, 293Sight, food selection based on, 1–2Silence cloth, 136Silliman, Benjamin, 551Simmering, 100, 117

of cereal grains, 356–58as convection cooking, 103of fi sh and shellfi sh, 203of meats, 166of pasta, 360–62of vegetables, 290

Simple fruit, 298Simplesse, 465Simple syrup, 518Sinclair, Upton, 592Single-stage method of mixing, 111Sinks

hand washing, 78three-compartment, 89

Skillet, Appendix A, A-3Slicing, 106Slurry, 400Smart beverages, 554Smell, food selection based on, 2.

See also OdorsSmoked eels, 196Smoked meats, 157Smoked salmon, 196Smoked sprats, 196Smoked trout, 196Smoke point, 467Smoking cured meats, 157, 577Smoothies, 562Smucker Company (J.M. Smucker), 617Snails, 189Snapper, red, 189, 190, 191Soba, 359Sociological criteria for food selection,

13–17, 18Soda. See Soft drinksSodium, 55–56. See also Salt

content in processed foods, 112dietary guidelines/

recommendations, 6, 113functions in foods, 56health concerns and, 113low-sodium milk, 219on Nutrition Facts label, 596reducing, 113sources of, 55

Sodium benzoate, 551Sodium bicarbonate, 420. See also

Baking sodaSodium bisulfi te, 304Sodium caseinate, 158, 483Sodium erythorbate, 158Sodium metabisulfi te, 304Sodium nitrate, 158Sodium propionate, 431, 483



Licensed to:

Index I-17

selecting, 84testing for accuracy, 521types of, 85–87

Thickened sauces, 399–401Thickening agents

pectins, 43in pies and pastries, 504–5in sauces, 399–400starches, 391–93, 399

Thin soups, 330–32Thiobarbituric acid (TBA), 472Thomas Food and Beverage Market

Place, 617Thompson, Judy, 245Three-compartment sink, 89Three-Day Rule, 131Threshold test, 24Thyme, 333Tilapia, 190Tilefi sh, 194Time

estimating, 132–33management, 132–34, 137storage, 82

Time temperature indicators, 86Time/weight charts

for meats, 162, 163for poultry, 178–79

TMAO. See Trimethylamine oxiceTiramisu, 480Tiropita, 500Tocopherols, 274, 473TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign

Language), 621Toffee, 519, 521Tofu, 241, 285–86

as a high-risk food, 79Tokay, 567Tomato aspic, 340Tomatoes, 284

acid in, 299classifi cation as fruit, 299genetically modifi ed, 14, 15qualifi ed health claim for, 598seasons for, 279storage of, 292

Tomato paste, 584Tomato sauce, 398, 399, 401, 403Tongue, taste areas on, 3Tongue (meat), 155, 156Tonka beans, 561Toothpicks, 116Tortellini, 359Tortillas, 350, 410, 412Torula kefi r, 223Total fi ber, 43Touch

determining doneness by, 163, 178food selection based on, 2, 5

Toxin-mediated infections, 66, 67, 69–74

Toxins, 65bacterial food intoxications, 69ciguatoxin, 75mycotoxins, 71in plants, 59tetrodotoxin, 76

Toxoplasma gondi, 73Training, food service personnel, 78Trans-fatty acids, 458–59Transmissible spongiform

encephalopathy (TSE), 73–74Trehalose, 446Trialkoxytricarballate (TATCA), 465Triangle test, 24Trichinella spiralis, 72, 73

not killed by microwaving, 166Trichinosis, 72Triglycerides, 46, 47

hydrolysis of, 38Trimethylamine, 195, 203Trimethylamine oxice (TMAO), 195Tripe, 155, 156

for baking, 101, 484–85, 486–87, 488, 493

in candy preparation, 520–21carryover cooking, 162danger zone, 81in deep-frying, 103, 105dishwashing, 89in dry-heat preparation methods,

102–3effect on meat, 161effect on solubility, 447enzyme activity and, 53for food storage, 82of frying fats, 467–69for gelatinization, 394, 404glass transition, 580important in preparing foods, 105internal, recommended for cooked

meats, 162internal, recommended for cooked

poultry, 178minimal internal, 83in moist-heat preparation methods,

100–1pasteurization, 215refrigerator, 105, 579scales, 104storage, 82taste and, 4time/weight charts for cooking,

162, 163, 178–79Temperature danger zone, 81Temperature-time monitoring

program, 88Tempering, 527–29Tempura, 197Tenderizing of meats, 148–51

artifi cial, 151natural, 148–51sugar and, 436

Tendernessof fi sh, 202of meats, 142–43, 148–51, 160–61of pastries, 501, 502, 503

Tenure track, 621Tequila, 566, 568Terrorism, food supply, 65, 600Tertiary butylhydroquinone

(TBHQ), 473Testosterone, 48Tests

food evaluation, 23–26, 28sample preparation, 25–26

Tetrodotoxin, 76Texture. See also specifi c foods and

ingredientsof frozen desserts, 538–40,

544–45, 546fats, 457fruit, 316measurement, 26sugar and, 448, 449

Texture analyzer, 27Textured vegetable protein (TVP), 285Texture profi le, 24Thaumatin, 446Thawing, 83Thaw rigor, 150Theobroma cacao, 465, 525Theobromine, 556, 561Therapist, allied health careers,

610–12Therapy, medical nutrition, 610, 623Thermistors, 85Thermocouplers, 85Thermometers, 84–89

calibration, 84–89candy, 521care of, 84dial readings, 84how to use, 84instant-read, 84meat, 162

Sweet wines, 564, 567Swing cook/tournant, 122Swiss buttercream frosting, 488Swiss chard, 281Swiss cheese, 234, 238, 241, 242, 243Swordfi sh, 189, 190, 192

mercury contamination and, 194Syneresis, 341, 396, 401, 575Synthesized gums, 45Syrup phase of candies, 518–19,

520–23, 531Syrups, 438–41, 449, 521

corn, 40, 157, 353, 393, 438–39measuring sugar concentration,

544simple, 518solubility and, 446–47starch, 393

TTablecloth, 136Table salt. See SaltTable settings, 135–36, 137Tablespoon, 108Table sugar. See SucroseTable wines, 567Tabliering method, of tempering

chocolate, 527–28Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), 73Taenia sollium (pork tapeworm), 73Taffy, 519, 525Tagatose, 446Talin, 446Tallow, 464, 474Tamari, 286Tangerines. See Mandarins

(tangerines)Tango, 334Tannins, 561Tapeworms, 73

beef (Taenia saginata), 73fi sh (Diphylliobothrium latum), 73pork (Taenia sollium), 73

Tapioca, 43, 391, 392, 394in pies and pastries, 505

Tarragon, 333Tartaric acid, 299Tartar sauce, 398, 401, 403Tartlets, 509Tarts, 499, 509, 511Taste

factors affecting, 4, 59fi ve stimuli, 3food selection based on, 2–5interactions, 3–4mechanism of, 3

Taste buds, 2, 3Taste panels, 25Taste testers, 4

of Louis XIV, 327TATCA. See TrialkoxytricarballateTaurine, 553TBA. See Thiobarbituric acidTBHQ. See Tertiary butylhydroquinoneTea, 559–62, 570

composition of, 561grades of, 561health benefi ts of, 561preparation of, 561–62processing, 559storage of, 562, 570types of, 560–61

Tea breads, 412Tea cup, 136, 137Teaspoon, 108Technicians

allied health, 611–12dietetic, 616, 623food science, 618, 623

Tempeh, 286Temperature, 81–82. See also Boiling

point; Freezing point; Heat; specifi c foods and processes

Sugar(s), 379–80, 436–38, 449. See also Sweeteners

browning reactions, 447in cake, 482calories from, 437, 438in candy preparation, 520, 522, 523caramelization of, 379, 387,

436, 447chemistry of, 40in fl our mixtures/baked goods,

379–80, 387functions in foods, 379, 436,

446–48, 449in gel formation, 341inhibition of gelatinization by, 395measuring, 109, 440measuring concentration of, 544moisture absorption

(hygroscopicity), 448nutrient content of, 438in pastry, 504reducing, 447refi ned, 437, 438, 449sources of, 436–38substitutes, 379, 440sweetness of, 446too much/too little, 379–80types of, 379, 436–38in yeast breads, 419

Sugar alcohols, 441–42, 449, 522Sugar beets, 435, 436, 437Sugar bowl, 136Sugar cane, 435, 436, 437Sugar cookies, 492Sugarless gums, 442Sulfi tes, 304Sulfur dioxide, 304, 315, 577Summer squash, 284Sunchoke (Jerusalem artichoke),

271, 279Sundae, 535Sun drying, 576Sunette. See Acesulfame-KSunfl ower oil, 461, 462, 471Sun tea, 562Superbugs, 145Superfruits, 311–12Superglycerinated, 461Supermarkets, 126–27Supersaturated solution, 36Supper, word derivation, 327Supplements, dietary, 598Surfactants, 455, 483Surimi, 196, 197Sushi, 72, 204, 601Suspension, 36Sweating, 115Swedish rye crackers, 429Sweetbreads, 155, 156Sweet chocolate, 530Sweet corn, 352Sweet cream butter, 459Sweet dough pastry, 499Sweetened condensed milk, 220Sweeteners, 435–49. See also

Sugar(s)functions in foods, 379, 436,

446–48, 449natural, 436–42, 446, 449nonnutritive, 442–46, 449photosynthesis and, 436relative sweetness of, 446in soft drinks, 551–52, 570in yeast breads, 419, 420

Sweetness, 446, 446of nonnutritive sweeteners,

443, 446of sugars, 446

Sweet-n-Low, 443Sweet One. See Acesulfame-KSweet potatoes, 271, 274, 284

yams, 287Sweet taste, 3



Licensed to:

I-18 Index

composition of, 33contaminates, 551content in foods, 33free vs bound, 33freezing point of, 34, 104–5functions in food, 35–36hard vs soft, 35loss (syneresis), 341, 396, 575measuring calories, 33–34melting point of, 34–35mineral content, 549osmosis/osmotic pressure, 38–39proportion in human body, 32requirement for life, 549in soft drinks, 551specifi c heat of, 34in stock, 329types of, 550–51universal solvent, 36

Water activity, 38, 80Watercress, 279Water glass, 136, 137Water ices, 537, 544, 546Watermelons, 305, 308

slicing, 309Water-soluble vitamins, 55Waxes, edible fi lms from, 292, 578Waxy maize starches, 393Websites. See listings at end of each

chapterWeeping (syneresis), 261, 396, 401Weight. See also Obesity

equivalents, 108gram, 32measurement, 26, 108–9rounding off, 108standards of fi ll, 595

Well water, 550Wet aging, 150Wheat, 346, 350, 363. See also Cereal

grains; Flours and fl our mixturesclassifi cation of, 350cooking time, 357forms of, 350percentage of world grain

production, 346sprouts, 291structure of, 345–47, 363

Wheat berries, 350, 358Wheat bran, 350Wheat bread, 428Wheat fl ours, 347, 372–73, 387

classifi cations, 372types of, 373in yeast breads, 419

Wheat germ, 350, 429Wheat starch, 391, 392, 394

modifi ed, 420Whey, 211, 212, 228, 239–40

as additive in cookies, 493cheeses, 240cultured, 420dried, 158, 240products, 239–40

Whey powder, 211Whey protein isolates, 211, 212, 292Whipped butter, 459Whipped cream frosting, 488Whipped evaporated milk, 227Whipped milk products, 225–27Whipped nonfat dry milk, 227Whipping, 110

gels, 341time, 226–27

Whipping cream, 224, 226–27Whisk, 110Whiskeys, 569White bread, 428White chocolate, 530White/distilled vinegar, 338White fl our, 373, 385White granulated sugar, 109, 438White onions, 283

Vertebrates, fi sh classifi cation, 188–89Very hard cheese, 234Vibrio, 71, 92Vibrio cholerae, 66 71, 74Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 66, 67, 71Vibrio vulnifi cus, 66, 67, 74Vichyssoise, 327Vinaigrette, 337Vinegars, 262, 338–39Vintage, 568Viral gastroenteritis, 65, 72Virulent biological food hazards,

new, 74Viruses, 65, 71–72

bacteria-killing, 68Viscometer, 26Viscosity, 26, 27

apparent vs relative, 27measurement, 26

Visual evaluation, 26Vitamin A, 213, 272Vitamin B complex. See B vitaminsVitamin C (ascorbic acid), 301, 383, 420

fruits high in, 302nutrient retention issues, 584–85

Vitamin contentof cereal grains, 347, 348–49, 363of cheese, 236of eggs, 253, 267of fi sh, 195of fruits, 301of meats, 147of milk, 213, 228of pastas, 363of poultry, 175of vegetables, 275

Vitamin D, 213Vitamin E, 56, 473Vitamins, 55–56, 60. See also Vitamin

contentA and D fortifi cation in milks,

213–14composition of, 55enriched foods, 55, 59, 347,

350, 420fat-soluble, 55, 585foods high in, 55functions in food, 55–56major vitamins in foods, 55nutrient retention of processed

foods, 584–85on Nutrition Facts label, 596water-soluble, 55, 585

Vitelline membrane, 250Vitus vinifera, 564Vodka, 568, 569Volatile molecules, 2

in coffee, 556Volume, 26

in baked goods, 375–79measurement, 26, 108–9proof, 383standards of fi ll, 595

Vulnerable foods, 78–80

WWafer cookies, 491Waffl es, 384, 407, 408, 409Wakefi eld, Ruth, 490Walnuts, 598Warehouse stores, 127Warmed over meat fl avor, 161Warner-Bratzler shear, 26Washing

dishwashing, 89hand washing, 78

Washington, George, 534Water, 33–39, 60

as beverage, 549–51, 570boiling point of, 35chemical reactions of, 36–38chemical structure of, 33chemistry of, 33–39

of milk, 214, 228of poultry, 174, 185quality grades, 146–47, 601–2of vegetables and fruits, 276yield (quantity) grades, 147, 601

USDA inspection, 601of eggs, 251inspection stamps, 146of meat, 146of poultry, 174

USDC. See U.S. Department of Commerce

Utensils, Appendix A, A-7–A-13. See also Equipment

drying, 89fl atware, 136, 137measuring, 108–9

VVacuoles, 272Vacuum coffeemaker, 559Vacuum drying, 576Vacuum-packed aging, 151Vanilla, 523

beans, 114extract, 114favorite ice cream fl avor, 546

Vanillin, 530Variety (organ) meats, 155, 156, 168Veal, 140, 141, 168. See also Meat(s)

cooking temperature, 163internal temperature recommended

for cooked, 162processed, 156, 159retail cuts of, 153

Vegetable beverages, 570Vegetable cook/entremetier, 121Vegetable gums, 44, 271, 455, 540Vegetable juices, 313–14

nutrient comparison of, 314Vegetable oils, 461, 462, 474, 578Vegetables, 270–94. See also specifi c

vegetablesadditives, 275–76classifi cation of, 270, 271, 294color/pigments of, 270, 271,

272–73, 287–88composition of, 270–76, 294cost of, 130cruciferous, 274, 287, 288dried, 576edible fi lms/coatings, 292fermented, 286, 577grading of, 276, 601, 602inspection of, 601legumes, 285–86, 294nutrient content of, 274–75nutrient retention, 288odors of, 287, 288percentage yield, 132phytochemicals in, 59, 274,

301, 554preparation of, 286–92, 294purchasing, 275–84, 294respiration rates, 292seasons for, 277, 278–79serving size of, 302in stock, 329storage of, 292–93, 294, 579vs fruits, 294, 299

Vegetable salads, 336Vegetable stocks, 330Vegetarianism, 6

genetically engineered foods and, 14

healthy meals and, 125–26Velouté sauce, 399Velveeta, 240Verifi cation form for dietetics

programs, 613Verifi cation, HACCP, 91Vermicelli, 360Vermouth, 567

Trisodium phosphate (TSP), 184Triticale, 356Triticale fl our, 374Tropical fruits, 310Tropical oils, 463Trout, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195

smoked, 196Trussing poultry, 180Trypsin, 250TSE. See Transmissible spongiform

encephalopathyTSP. See Trisodium phosphateTubers, 271, 294Tuna, 189, 190, 192, 195

canned, 190, 195–96excessive histamine in, 205nutrition facts label for, 596salads, 79

Turbinado sugar, 437Turgor, 272, 287Turkey, 172, 173, 185

carving, 181classifi cation of, 173color/pigment in, 173, 174fat content of, 175internal temperature for

cooked, 179stuffi ng, 178, 179, 180–81time/weight chart for, 179

Turkey eggs, 255Turmeric, 113, 420Turnips, 271, 273, 279, 284TVP. See Textured vegetable protein “Typhoid Mary”, 77Typhus, 90Tyrosinase, 54, 300

UUHT. See Ultrahigh-temperatureUltrahigh-temperature (UHT), 215, 218Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT)

pasteurization, 581of milk, 215, 218

Ultrapasteurization, 215, 227Ultrapasteurized milk, 215Umami (savory) taste, 3, 114Uncooked ice cream, 241–42Uniforms, 78United Nations, 604U.S. Department of Agriculture. See

USDAU.S. Department of Commerce (USDC),

592, 603, 605U.S. Food and Drug Administration.

See Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

University professor, 618, 621, 623Unleavened breads, 412–13Upside-down cake, 480Uramaki, 204Urinary tract infections, 553

conventional food and health, 9USDA (U.S. Department of

Agriculture). See also USDA grading; USDA inspection

Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), 601

food scientists at, 616–17functions of, 600–1grading, 600, 601–2, 605inspections, 601menu patterns, 123–24MyPyramid, 6, 18, 125, 302products regulated, 592, 601, 605Table of Nutrient Retention Factors,

585USDA grading, 601–2

of butter, 459of cheese, 241, 242, 246of eggs, 251–52of fi sh and shellfi sh, 191–92of fruits, 276, 304, 313, 322of meat (quality grades), 146–47



Licensed to:

Index I-19

proofi ng, 425, 432punching down and second rise

of, 423shaping, 423–24, 432storage of, 431, 432testing for doneness, 426–27varieties of, 424, 428–31, 432

Yersenia, 92Yersenia enterocolitica, 66, 68–69, 74Yersiniosis, 68–69Yield grades, 147, 601–2Yogurt, 213, 214, 222–23, 448

bacterial cultures in, 222, 223calorie and fat content, 213,

214, 222cheese, 236frozen, 536, 537, 544, 545low-fat/reduced fat, 214offi cial defi nition of, 222probiotics/prebiotics in, 222–23storage of, 227

Yonts, Carrie, 617“You are what you eat”, 31

ZZeaxanthin, 272Zest, 317Zinfandel, 567Zizania aquatica (wild rice), 352Zucchini, 279

baker’s, 376, 377beer production and, 563–64brewer’s, 376, 377cold water and, 377contribution to fl avors, 426dry (active), 376–77, 419food spoilage by, 574–75fresh, 377, 419instant, quick-rising,

fast-acting, 377as leavening agents, 375–77nutritional, 376, 377salt, effect on growth, 380in yeast breads, 419

Yeast breads, 367, 418–32additives in, 420–21baking, 425–27, 432baking pans, 424decorating, 425, 432fermentation and fi rst rise of,

422–23fl avors and aromas, 426high-altitude adjustments, 427ingredients and their functions,

418–19kneading, 421–22, 432mixing methods, 420–21nutrient content of, 427preparation of, 418–27, 432problems and their causes, 427

sweet vs dry, 564, 566types of, 566–67vintage, 568

Wine vinegar, 338Winter squash, 284Woks, Appendix A, A-4Wong, Lance, 183Woodruff, 561World Health Organization

(WHO), 604food safety plan, 92food scientists at, 616–17

Worms, as food safety hazards, 72, 73Wrigley, Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company,

539Written specifi cation, 80

XXanthan gum, 45, 483, 540, 545Xanthine oxidase, 54Xanthomonas campestris, 45Xanthophyll, 272Xylitol, 442, 446, 522Xylose, 43, 442

YYams, 287Yeast(s), 375–77, 574

active vs inactive, 376activity related to temperature, 376

White rice, 351, 357, 358White sauce, 261, 398, 399, 400White stock, 328White sugar, 109, 437, 438White teas, 561White wines, 567, 568WHO. See World Health OrganizationWhole grains, 347, 348, 349Whole milk, 214, 216Wholesale (primal) cuts of meat, 152

of beef, 152, 153of lamb, 155of pork, 153–55

Wholesome Meat Act (1967), 146, 601Whole wheat bread, 428

nutrient content of, 410Whole wheat fl our, 373Whole wheat pasta, 359, 363Whole wheat products, 349–50Wild rice, 352, 357Wines, 448, 562, 563, 564–68, 570

aging, 565colors of, 568evaluating, 565fermentation, 564fi ltering, 565fortifi ed, 566government regulation of, 604racking, 564selecting, 566



Licensed to:

S T A N D A R D C A N S I Z E S

Can Cups Average Net Weight* Volume

Nonmetric Metric Nonmetric Metric ounces/lbs grams fluid ounces milliliters

6 oz 3⁄4 6 oz 170 5.75 1708 oz 1 8 oz 227 8.3 245No. 1 Picnic 11⁄4 101⁄2 oz 298 10.5 311No. 211 Cylinder 11⁄2 12 oz 340 12 355No. 300 13⁄4 14 oz 397 13.5 399No. 303 2 16–17 oz 454–482 15.6 461No. 2 21⁄2 1 lb 4 oz 567 20 591No. 21⁄2 31⁄2 1 lb 13 oz 822 28.5 843No. 3 Cylinder 53⁄4 3 lb 1360 46 1360No. 5 61⁄2 3 lb 8 oz 1588 56 1656No. 10 13 61⁄2–7 lb 2722–2948 103.7 3067

* Net weight/can varies slightly due to food density differences.

W E I G H T S A N D M E A S U R E S

Converting Temperature Measurements

To Find Farenheit: To Find Celsius: °F = (°C x 1.8) + 32 °C = (°F -32) ÷ by 1.8

Abbreviations for Measurements

Nonmetric Metric

Volume/Capacity Volume

Teaspoon = t or tsp milliliter = mlTablespoon = T or Tbsp liter = Lfluid ounce = fl ozCup = c or C WeightPint = pt microgram = ugQuart = qt milligram = mgGallon = gal gram = gPound = lb kilogram = kg

Equivalents of Nonmetric and Metric Measurements

Nonmetric Metric

Customary Precise

Volume

1 teaspoon = 5 milliliter (4.9 milliliters)1 tablespoon = 15 milliliters (14.8 milliliters)1 fluid ounce = 30 milliliters (29.57 milliliters)1 cup = 240 milliliters (236.6 milliliters)1 pint = 0.50 liter (0.47 liter)1 quart = 0.95 liter (0.94 liter)1 gallon = 3.8 liters (3.79 liter)

Weight

1 ounce (dry) = 30 grams (28.35 grams)4 ounces = 125 grams (113.40 grams)8 ounces = 250 grams (226.80 grams)1 pound = 450 grams (453.60 grams)2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram (997.92 grams)

Converting Nonmetric & Nonmetric Measurements

When You Know You Can Find If You Multiply By

Volume

teaspoons milliliters 5tablespoons milliliters 15ounces milliliters 30cups millliliters 237cups liters 0.24pints liters 0.47quarts liters 0.95gallons liters 3.8milliliters ounces 0.034milliliters pints 2.1liters quarts 1.06liters gallons 0.26

Weight

ounces grams 28pounds grams 454pounds kilograms 0.45grams ounces 0.035kilograms pounds 2.2

34981_Back endsheet SE.indd 66534981_Back endsheet SE.indd 665 4/30/10 8:14:09 PM4/30/10 8:14:09 PM


Licensed to:

R E F R I G E R A T I O N

Storage Temperature and Times

Food Temperature Days

Meat 40°F (4°C) 3–5 Ground 40°F (4°C) 1–2 Gravy/Broths 40°F (4°C) 1–2 Bacon 40°F (4°C) 7 Ham Canned 40°F (4°C) 6–9 months Cooked/Whole 40°F (4°C) 7 Cooked/Half or Slices 40°F (4°C) 3–5 Luncheon Meats Unopened 40°F (4°C) 2 weeks Opened 40°F (4°C) 1 week Sausages Fresh 40°F (4°C) 7 Smoked 40°F (4°C) 3–7 Dry 40°F (4°C) 2–3 weeks

Fish/Shellfish 40°F (4°C) 2–5

Poultry 40°F (4°C) 1–2

Dairy Products

Milk 40°F (4°C) 3 Eggs (in shell) 40°F (4°C) 7 Butter 40°F (4°C) 14 Cheese Soft 40°F (4°C) 7 Hard 40°F (4°C) 6 months

Produce

Leafy Vegetables 45°F 7 Fruits Peaches, berries, plums 50°F 7 Apples, pears, citrus 50–70°F 14

D R Y S T O R A G E


Food Temperature Days

Root Vegetables 50–70°F (10–21°C) 7–30Breads/Cereals 50–70°F (10–21°C) variesTomatoes 50–70°F (10–21°C) 3–5Bananas 50–70°F (10–21°C) varies (3–4)Canned Goods 50–70°F (10–21°C) 12 monthsHard-Rind Squash 50–70°F (10–21°C) varies

Source: USDA. A quick consumer guide to safe food handling. US Dept. of Agriculture. Home and Garden Bulletin No. 248, 1995.

F R E E Z I N G


Food Temperature Months

Meat 0°F /–18°C 1–9 Ground 0°F /–18°C 3–4 Gravy/Broths 0°F /–18°C 2–3 Pork Large cuts (roasts) 0°F /–18°C 6 Small cuts (steaks/chops) 0°F /–18°C 3 Bacon 0°F /–18°C 1 Ham Canned 0°F /–18°C Not recommended Cooked/Whole 0°F /–18°C 1–2 Luncheon Meats 0°F /–18°C Not recommended Hot Dogs 0°F /–18°C 1 Sausages Fresh 0°F /–18°C 2 Smoked 0°F /–18°C Not recommended Dry 0°F /–18°C Not recommended

Fish* 0°F /–18°C 2–9 Most Shellfish 0°F /–18°C 6–9 Breaded Fish/Shellfish 0°F /–18°C 12–18

Poultry Whole 0°F /–18°C 12 Pieces 0°F /–18°C 9 Giblets 0°F /–18°C 3–4 Duck 0°F /–18°C 6

Dairy Products Ice Cream 0°F /–18°C 3

Produce (commercially frozen) Vegetables 0°F /–18°C 8–12 Fruits 0°F /–18°C 12 Nuts Unsalted 0°F /–18°C 9–12 Salted 0°F /–18°C 6–8 Herbs 0°F /–18°C 8–12

*Recommended storage times apply to commercially frozen fish. Storage length drops by about half if fish/shellfish is frozen at home. Freezing is not recommended for shucked clams and oysters, blue crabmeat, and whole lobsters.

34981_Back endsheet SE.indd 66634981_Back endsheet SE.indd 666 4/30/10 8:14:09 PM4/30/10 8:14:09 PM


understanding food principles and preparation...understanding food principles and preparation fourth...

Documents