unit 3 - informal language

7/30/2019 UNIT 3 - Informal Language

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INFORMAL LANGUAGE &FALLACIES

Engineering a culture of

ReasoningUNIT 3


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EMOTIVE & NEUTRAL LANGUAGE

The statements in an argument have emotive as wellas cognitive meaning.

Failure to distinguish these two (2) factors can easilylead to errors in logic.

1. Emotive ForceThe emotive force of a sentence is the emotion thesentence expresses or tends to elicit.

2. Cognitive Meaning The cognitive meaning of a sentence is the information

conveyed by a sentence. Logic mainly has to do with cognitive meaning . That is, logical connections between content and statement 2


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Example#1

There are approximately$25,000 USA earned by each

Jamaican on average each year.

Foreign direct investment is the

major factor that explains thislevel of earnings.

Example#2

The number of murders per

year in Jamaica is now so highthat you have got to have a

death wish to walk the streets,

day or night. Every lunatic and

every thug carries a heater,

just waiting to blow you away.

Example # 1 is designed to

provide information Sentences have cognitive

meaningwhen they provide

information.

Approximately, earnings

and $25,000 help give

cognitive meaning to # 1.

Example # 2 is designed in partto express feelings or elicit an

emotional response.

Death wish, lunatic and thug

and blow away contribute toemotive force. 3


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EMOTIVE & NEUTRAL

LANGUAGE

Is it possible for a sentence to have both

emotive force and cognitive meaning?

An example such as # 1 provides both emotive

force and cognitive.

If per capita income of $25,000 USA is very

good it could invoke feeling of pride and

accomplishment in the country.

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Other Examples

1. Should capital punishment be abolished? No

way! The inmates on death row are nothing but

human vermin.

2. If we harvest the organs (heart, liver, kidneys,

etc.) of certain animals, such as baboons, and

transplant the organs into humans who need

them, many human lives will be saved.

Therefore, we ought to harvest the organs of

baboons and use the organs to save human

lives. 5


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Language, definitions & Logic

Definitions play an important role in argument:

1. Mainly because, they clarify and remove ambiguity

2. They make vague terminology more precise.

According to Wesley Salmon, the meaning of a word may be

specified either through its extension or its intention:

1. Extensional Definitions- the extension of a term consists of the set of things

to which the term applies.

2. Intentional Definitions

- the intension of a term consists of the properties a

thing must have to be included in the terms extension.

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Extensional Definition

The extensional definition specifies the meaning of

a term by indicating the set of things to which theterm applies.

Extensional definitions come in two (2) basic types:

1. Nonverbal (or ostensive)

- to give an ostensive definition one specifies the meaning

of the term by pointing to objects in its extension

2. Verbal- to give a verbal extensional definition, we name the

members of the extension individually or in groups.

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Extensional Definition

Example # 1

1. Ostensive definition we can define cars by

pointing to : Austin Cambridge, Riley,

Escort,Cummer, buwick and Morris Oxford.

2. We can define types of businesses by pointing to:Sole traders, partnership, corporations and non-

profit organizations.

Example # 2

1. Verbal definitionwe could define cars by

naming them individually, by groups or subclass

2. Types of businesses can be defined by saying the

names verbally. 8


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Intentional Definitions Intentional definitions specify the meaning of a

term by indicating the properties a thing musthave to be included in the terms extension.

Example

businesses must produce for local consumption

produce for exports and must re-plug profits

for expansion

they must be certified and pay taxes

They must have a memorandum of association.

They must be based on equity and debt capital9


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Lexical Definitions

A lexical definition reports the conventional or

established intension of the term.Example # 1

Businessmeans, a person, partnership, or

corporation engaged in commerce,manufacturing, or a service; profit-seekingenterprise or concern.

Example # 2

immanent means existing or remaining within,that is inherent.

imminent means about to occur.

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Lexical Definitions lexical definitions have truth valuesthat is,

they are either true or false as they reportconventional meanings.

They are true if they correctly report theestablished intention of the term and false ifthey fail to do this.

Dictionaries are usually updated to capture themost widely established use of words and

current use. Lexical definitions are correct insofar as they

reflect standard usage.

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Stipulative Definitions Stipulative definitions Stipulative definitions specify the

intension of a term independently of convention orestablished use.

Example:

- A writer or speaker may wish to introduce a new word intothe language or give an old word a new meaning

- A sptipulative definition is a proposal or recommendation to

use a term in a certain manner.

- A stipulative definition is neither true nor false as it is not a

lexical definition.

- If the recommendation to use a term in a certain manner

takes hold and becomes part of the established use, then the12


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Stipulative Definitions

Example

Suppose the finance minister wanted to pass lawin parliament to give a special tax break to the

poor.

He may want to define the poor as, any familythat has at least three (3) members and annual

income of $17,000 or less.

NB: once this is not a standard lexical definitionwhich makes it not a conventional or

established definition, it is stipulative.

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Stipulative DefinitionsExample

The tax break law example above is a case wherethe minister agrees to use that meaning for poor.

It is a definition byagreement which makes it

stipulative. The minimum wage lawin Jamaica and how the

concept is used is a stipulative use of the term

minimum wage to mean $3,500 per week. NB: that neither the lexicon nor any universal

convention does not have this definition using

this amount of money. 14


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Prcising Definitions

A prcising definition:a. reduces the vagueness of a term by

imposing limits on the conventional

meaning .

b. differs from the stipulative definition

because it in not independent of

conventional meaning.

c. is like a stipulative definition in that it is a

proposal to draw lines at a point not given

not given by the conventional meaning.15


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Example # 1 BusinessmanThis is an extensional

definition (indicating ostensively or naming

verbally) which could be made a prcisingdefinition by saying that, a businessman is

the person who owns the capital and takes

the risks in a business venture. This prcising definition also turns out to

be a lexical definition of a businessman.16


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Example # 2

Prcising definitions are essential in constructing laws

relating to businesses, taxes, trade and the formulation

and operation of corporations.

Suppose parliament wishes to write a legislation thatprovides a tax break to the poor.

If the line is not drawn everyone will claim they are

poor and would want to claim the tax break.

A prcising law would need to say for example that, a

poor family must have at least three (3) members and

their annual income must be $17,000 or less.

NB: this could be an example of a stipulative definition. 17


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Theoretical Definitions

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A theoretical definition is an intentional definition

It attempts to provide an adequate understanding of the things towhich the term applies.

Example

Define Knowledge - Webster Online Dictionary:

What is knowledge? Knowledge is the fact or condition of knowing.

- Define Know

1. To perceive directly: have direct cognition of

2. To have understanding of

3. To recognize the nature of

4. To be aware of the truth or factuality of: be convinced or certain of

5. To have a practical understanding of


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This definition above is wanting for thefollowing reasons:

You can know something without seeing it with

your own eyes or having direct cognition of it You can know something even if you are not

absolutely certain of it.

Philosophers define knowledge as justified truebelief.

This differs from the lexical, stipulative or

prcising definitions. 19


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Lexical definitions are not always distinct from

theoretical definitions.

Theoretical definitions are correct in so far as

they capture the true nature of the property or

thing they purport to define.

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Summary

1. Activity on lexical definition2. Activity on prcising definitions

3. Activity on stipulative definitions

4. Activity on theoretical definition

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unit 3 - informal language

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