united soybean board biodiesel perception study

United Soybean Board Biodiesel Perception Study

January 19, 2012

Overview

CCWargel Market Research

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Method

3CCWargel Market Research

Quantitative› Population – (a) row-crop farmers nationwide and (b) fleet

owner/managers and owner-operators nationwide › Electronic survey link delivered via e-blast via trusted

agricultural industry publishing vendor and trusted trucking industry publishing vendor

› Trucking surveys were completed from 12/14/11 to 1/14/12; farmer surveys were completed from 12/14/11 to 1/8/12

› Completions collected and stored in electronic data cache; means gap analysis, frequencies and descriptive analyses conducted in SPSS

› Respondents’ names placed in publicized drawing for $375 cash prize

Method


Qualitative› Three 1.25-hour Research Webinars were conducted at

time convenient to participants› Participants were recruited from leads generated via

the quantitative online survey of both farmers and trucking industry representatives

› Each participant completing a session will receive a $100 cash thank-you/incentive

› Professional moderator led discussions were recorded, transcribed, and a content analysis conducted to identify important themes

Participant Profile


All participants (or their company) own a diesel vehicle

All participants make or influence the fuel purchase decision

Respondents included a total of 675 farmers › Margin of error = +/- 3.77 percent

Respondents included 515 trucking industry representatives› 117 owner-operator/managers, 1 to 5 trucks per operation

Margin of error = +/- 9.06 percent

› 291 fleet owner/managers, 6+ trucks per flee Margin of error = +/- 5.74 percent

Annual Fuel Usage - Farmers› Average – 9,630 gallons/yr› Range – 200 to 100,000 gallons/yr

Annual Fuel Usage – Trucking Industry› Average – 2.24 million gallons/yr› Range – 300 to 240 million gallons/yr

Participant Profile

CCWargel Market Research 6

Farmer Perceptions


7

Quantitative Findings

State Percent State PercentIowa 15.3 Montana 1.1

South Dakota 8.3 Washington .9

Illinois 8.1 Wyoming .9

Nebraska 7.5 Alabama .8

Minnesota 6.7 Utah .8

Kansas 6.6 Colorado .6

Texas 6.0 Georgia .6

Missouri 4.6 Louisiana .6

Ohio 4.4 Mississippi .6

Indiana 4.1 Pennsylvania .6

Wisconsin 4.1 Virginia .6

North Dakota 3.2 Idaho .5

Michigan 2.8 Kentucky .5

Tennessee 2.0 New York .5

Oklahoma 1.7 New Jersey .2

California 1.5 New Mexico .2

North Carolina 1.5 Oregon .2

Arkansas 1.4 South Carolina .2

Participant Profile


Participant Profile

CCWargel Market Research 9n=675 farmers

Participant Profile

CCWargel Market Research 10n=675 farmers

Awareness


Q3: Are you, yourself, familiar with a product called biodiesel?Q3a: Which option below best describes your level of familiarity with biodiesel?

n=675 farmers

Perceptions


Q4: Are you aware that some biodiesel fuel is made from soybean oil? Q5: Are you familiar with the product called soy biodiesel?

n=675 farmers

Perceptions


5a: Which option below best describes your level of familiarity with soy biodiesel? (subgroup – those aware of biodiesel)

Perceptions


Q3b: Based on what you know about biodiesel, how would you describe your opinion of the fuel? Q5b: Based on what you know about soy biodiesel, how would you describe your opinion of the fuel? (subgroup – answered if said were aware of product)

Perceptions


Q6: As far as you know, are there any differences between biodiesel and soy biodiesel?

Theme Reports Detail

Feedstock 160 “One made with soybeans; other with food oil.”Biodiesel is made from other types of oils, not just soybeans as in soy diesel.”“Biodiesel does not need to have soy in it.”

Quality 65 “Better lubricity with biodiesel.”“May have more problems because of animal fat.”“Blend-ability, cloud factor.”“Cold weather performance and shelf-life.”

Don’t know

12 “Don’t know.”“Ignorant of differences.”

Cost 4 “Price of feedstock.”

How Two Fuels Differ


Q6a: How would you say the two fuels differ? (subgroup: said fuels DO differ)

Personal Use History


Q9: Have you, yourself, ever purchased any type of biodiesel to burn in a tractor, truck or other farm vehicle?Q9a: Do you know if the biodiesel fuel you purchased was made from soybean oil?

Biodiesel Experience


Q9c: Overall, how would you describe your personal experience in burning biodiesel?


Gel/clogging/sediment 22 “Plugged oil filters upon conversion from diesel to soy diesel.”“We constantly have to change fuel filters. In winter it gels up too easily.”“Algae forms plugging my filters.”

Performance 4 “Decreased power.”“Lost power.”“Mileage and performance.”

Cost 1 “Higher cost.”

Equipment Impact 1 “Effect on equipment.”

Smoke 1 “Tractor it was used in smoked dark smoke.”



9d. Please describe your negative experience(s) with biodiesel:

Biodiesel Supplier


Q9b: Select the option below that best describes your primary source of biodiesel. Select only one.

Biodiesel Supplier


Crosstab – “Have purchased SOY biodiesel” crosstab with “biodiesel supplier.”



Q7: Would you be more inclined to purchase soy biodiesel or biodiesel?

Theme Reports

Detail

Use My Crop 140 “Good use of soybeans.”“I am a farmer and my grain is used.”“Support ag industry.”“Profit range for soybeans.”

Quality 59 “Less likely to gel.”“More pure and handles cold weather.”“Soy component lub[ricate]s engine.”“Fuel more consistent.”“Some products like animal fats are a problem with purity and causing a problem.”

Renewable 8 “It comes from soybeans, a renewable resource.”“Easily renewable.”

Purchase Likelihood


Q8: Please explain your answer given above: (Subgroup – Would purchase soy biodiesel)


Don’t know enough

47 “Don’t know enough to prefer one over the other.”“I don’t associate them as being different.”“I don’t know the benefits one over the other.”

Availability 33 “I buy the fuel the company has on-hand.”“It depends on what my supplier has…”

Price 26 “Depends on price.”“Price-driven.”“Would purchase the best price."

Quality 19 “Depends on who makes it and how it is blended.”“No difference in performance.”“Performance is the same.”“They both work.”

Likelihood to Purchase


Q8: Please explain your answer given above: (Subgroup – Similarly likely to purchase either)


Quality 5 “Able to use in cold temperatures.”“You can run it in farm tractors.”“Only soy is a problem in winter.”“Biodiesel is more cold-weather friendly.”

Availability 3 “Able to buy.”“It is available.”

Price 2 “Soy is so expensive right now.”

Food vs. fuel 1 “Soybeans should be used only for human consumption and livestock feed.”

Purchase Likelihood


Q8: Please explain your answer given above: (Subgroup – Would purchase [regular] biodiesel)

Theme Reports

Detail

Don’t know enough 63 “Do not know enough about either.”“Don’t know enough to make that decision.”“I have not seen the difference in the fuels.”“I would have to know what differences there are.”

Quality 30 “Gelling in cold weather is a concern.”“Have lost fuel mileage with it.”“Fungus growing in my fuel tanks.”“It is not a winter fuel.”

Availability 20 “Currently unavailable.”

Price 9 “Buy whatever is cheaper.”“Not cost-effective.”

Food vs. fuel 2 “Don’t like a food staple used to make fuel!”“A crop which is used for food consumption, then I’m not going to use it.”

Purchase Likelihood


Q8: Please explain your answer given above: (Subgroup – Not sure if would purchase “soy biodiesel” or regular biodiesel)

Theme Reports

Detail

Availability 108 “Not sure we have access to any.”“Hasn’t been offered by fuel supplier.”“No location close by.”“Not available for bulk delivery to farm.”

Quality 45 “Poor performance and mileage.”“Bad experience.”“Doesn’t work in cold weather.”“Losing time cleaning screens.”“Letting others test it first.”“Not recommended for older diesel engines.”

Price 15 “Concerned about cost.”“Due to costing more than regular diesel…”

Don’t know 12 “Don’t know enough about the products.”

Why Not Purchased Biodiesel?


Q9e: Why would you say you have not purchased biodiesel?

Describe Biodiesel?


Q10: Do you agree or disagree that the following statements accurately describe biodiesel? Respond for each statement using the scale provided, where 1=Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree.

Importance of Characteristic


Q11: Regardless of your past use or non-use of biodiesel, which of the following factors is most important to you in deciding whether or not to purchase biodiesel? Respond for each statement using the scale provided, where 1=Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree.



Q11: Regardless of your past use or non-use of biodiesel, which of the following factors is most important to you in deciding whether or not to purchase biodiesel? Respond for each statement using the scale provided, where 1=Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree.

Gap Analysis


Factor or characteristic Importance Describe biodiesel? Difference

Engine compatibility 5.78 4 -1.78Cost comparable to

diesel 5.7 3.19 -2.51

Fuel use warranted in any engine 5.61 3.3 -2.31

Wide availability 5.35 2.9 -2.45Ease of use 5.16 4.13 -1.03

Reduce foreign fuel 4.95 4.77 -0.18Renewable 4.72 4.72 0

Support farm prices 4.68 4.53 -0.15

Contrasts mean scores for factor “importance” against mean scores for “describes biodiesel.” (rating scale question sets)

Trucking Industry Perceptions


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Quantitative Findings

Participant Profile


Q14: Please indicate your age using the categories below:

n=117 owner/operators (1-5 trucks); n=291 fleet owner/managers (6+ trucks)

Participant Profile


Q15: What is the highest level of education you have completed?


Participant Profile


Q12: How many trucks does your trucking company or fleet operate? Select the most appropriate category below:


Awareness


Q3: Are you, yourself, familiar with a product called biodiesel?Q3a: Which option below best describes your level of familiarity with biodiesel? Select only one:

Perceptions


Q3b: Based on what you know about biodiesel, how would you describe your opinion of the fuel?

Awareness


Q4: Are you aware that some biodiesel is made from soybean oil?Q5: Are you familiar with the product called soy biodiesel?

Awareness


Q5a: Which option below best describes your level of familiarity with soy biodiesel? Select only one response: (subgroup – those who said they were familiar with soy biodiesel)

Perceptions


Q5b: Based on what you know about soy biodiesel, how would you characterize your opinion of the fuel?

Fuel Differences


Q6: As far as you know, are there any differences between biodiesel and soy biodiesel?

Fuel Differences


Q6a: How would you say the two fuels differ? (subgroup – those who said they DO differ)

Theme Reports (1-5)

Reports (6+)

Detail (6+)

Feedstock 18 40 “Biodiesel is made from many vegetable products, not just soybeans.”“Bio can be made from various products including animal fat, which is the worst.”“Raw material in making the product.”

Quality 8 25 “Soy, a nice clean fuel, removes scum from tanks and smells nice out exhaust.”“Freeze point is lower in soy.”“Soy biodiesel is more consistent.”“Cold weather properties and stability is less on biodiesel made from feed-stocks other than soy.”

Don’t know enough 5 6 “I am not very familiar with the two types of biodiesel.”

Price 1 2 “Cost difference.”

BTUs 0 2 “BTU content.”

Likelihood to Purchase


Q7: Based on what you know, would you be more inclined to purchase soy biodiesel or biodiesel?



Q9: Have you personally or has your trucking company ever purchased any type of biodiesel to burn in your company’s diesel semi trucks?Q9a: Do you know if the biodiesel fuel you purchased was made from soybean oil?

Theme Reports (1-5)

Reports (6+)

Detail

Fuel Supplier/Distributor

10 41 Cennex, BP, Bell Fuels, Blue Ridge Bio, FS Cooperative, SouthEast Biodiesel, Northern BioDiesel, etc.

Pump 18 23 Love’s, Flying J, “highway service stations”

Terminal 0 2 “Local terminals”“terminal in Altoona, PA”

Fuel card 0 1 “Card lock system just said ‘biodiesel.’”

Biodiesel Supplier


Q9b: Please list below your primary source of biodiesel:

Soy Diesel Source Count PercentDistributer 6 21%

Fuel stations/truck stops 6 21%

Local Coop 3 10%

Bulk, local terminals 2 7%

Bosselman energy 1 3%

Cenex 1 3%

Sapp Bros, Omaha, NE 1 3%

Northern BioDiesel, Rochester NY 1 3%

Pacific Pride 1 3%

RKA Petroleum 1 3%

Southern Iowa Oil, Corydon, Iowa 1 3%

Trucks USA 1 3%

Western States Petroleum 1 3%

Yoder Oil 1 3%

Amoco 1 3%

Erie Biofuels, Erie, PA 1 3%

Biodiesel Supplier


Crosstab – “Have purchased SOY biodiesel” crosstab with “biodiesel supplier.”



Q9c: Overall, how would you describe your company’s experience in burning biodiesel?

Theme Reports (1-5)

Reports (6+)

Detail

Quality 8 27 “Fuel problems in cold weather and build-up of green sludge in truck tanks…”“Gels up three times faster than No. 2 diesel.”“Didn’t burn good. Fuel mileage was not as good.”“Algae present in fuel plugging filters and injectors.”“Ten percent fuel mileage decrease.”“Residue signs in tanks, filters.”“Freezes up. Poor mileage. Plugged filters. No power.”

Cost 0 3 “Higher operating cost.”“Just more expensive.”



Q9d: Please describe your company‘s negative experience with biodiesel: (subgroup – those who said they had a negative experience)

Describe Biodiesel?


Q10: Do you agree or disagree that the following statements accurately describe biodiesel? Respond for each statement using the scale provided, where 1=Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree. (6+ truck responses shown)



Q11: Regardless of your past use or non-use of biodiesel, how important are the following factors in your decision of whether or not to purchase biodiesel? Use the scale to rate importance, where 1=Not at all important and 7=Extremely important.

Theme Reports (1-5)

Reports (6+)

Detail (6+)

Availability 21 70 “Not readily able to buy in my area.”“It has not been conveniently accessible.”“Not easily available to me.”

Quality 21 35 “I don’t think it’s a perfected product yet.”“It’s not consistent and most manufacturer warranties are voided…”“Engine warranty issues.”“Reduces my miles per gallon.”“Fear of gelling in cold temperatures.”

Don’t know enough 13 27 “Unfamiliar with the product.”“Do not know if it would benefit our operation.”“Limited knowledge of impacts on vehicles.”

Price 5 16 “Price is still not competitive with regular diesel.”“No cost savings to our company.”“Not cost-effective.”

Fuel program 1 1 “Fuel program.”

Authority 0 4 “Have not got the okay from higher.”“Leasor does not approve of bio in their vehicles.”

Why Not Purchase Biodiesel?


Q9e: Why would you say you have not purchased biodiesel?

Gap Analysis


Factor or characteristic ImportanceDescribe

biodiesel? DifferenceBurn in any engine 5.78 4.00 -1.78

Similar cost 5.70 3.19 -2.51

Warranted 5.61 3.30 -2.31

Available 5.36 2.97 -2.39

Easy use 5.16 4.13 -1.03

Reduce foreign reliance 4.95 4.78 -.17

Renewable 4.73 4.72 .00

Support ag 4.68 4.53 -.15

Contrasts mean scores for factor “importance” against mean scores for “describes biodiesel.” (rating scale question sets; mean represents combined scores for all truckers, 1-5 trucks and 6+ trucks)

Farmer Perceptions


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Qualitative Findings

Participants


Participant State # Acres

Dan H IL 500+

Craig M KS 500+

Kevin G WI 500+

Dennis V IA 500+

David T MI 4000-9999

Victor B NE 500+

Kent H IL 500+

Jim G IA 500+

Roger B IA 1000-3999

Ron C MN 1000-3999

Everyone aware of biodiesel prior to survey Most have clear understanding of what biodiesel

is:› “It’s a cleaner burning fuel.”› “It’s generally either one of two things – soy biodiesel or the

animal fat biodiesel.”› “….made from renewable products.”

Most understand, on a basic level, the difference between “biodiesel” and “soy biodiesel”› “…about 55% of all biodiesel being manufactured is

soy-based and the balance coming from other feed stocks…”

Awareness & Perception


Farmers believe biodiesel benefits soybean markets, and that is a very important motive for their biodiesel use:› “It helps me as a farmer to get a better price for my

soybeans.”› “It’s a homegrown fuel. We grow it; we should burn it.”› “It does help the price for our beans.”

Benefits


To some degree, farmers see value of health and environmental impacts:

“You don’t see as much black smoke…” “I think it’s better for us, on our health…” “A lot of school buses in our area are using biodiesel

because it doesn’t make the kids sick…” “We’ve got the EPA breathing down our neck these days

about everything…Anyway we can produce less pollutants is going to be to our advantage…”

Benefits


Farmers observe quality and performance benefits with biodiesel:› “…it has the ability to burn cleaner.”› “…added lubrication power.”› “My supplier promoted it due to lubricity.”› “It performs very well for my equipment.”› “I really want to use it because I think we’re harming

our engines with this low-sulfur diesel fuel if we don’t get some lubrication…”

Benefits


In some cases, performance limits farmer usage of biodiesel:› “I do not buy it on the road because I do not know where the

source is...It’s important to buy from a reliable supplier.”› “We don’t burn in the winter because of the gelling problem.”› “We’ve come across some situations where there’s algae

growing in the tank.”

Fuel economy may be a barrier for some. Experiences are mixed:› “My neighbor’s a trucker. He said his fuel mileage goes down 1

mile/gallon using biodiesel.”› “If an engine is well lubricated it will run just a little easier…

and it didn’t take as much energy just to running the engine.”

Barriers


Price still varies considerably by geographic region, and can be a barrier for some:› “It’s one reason we dropped it. …We paid a premium of a

nickel/gallon…but it’s went up quite a bit since then.” › “It goes in and out of favor with price.”

Availability varies greatly by geographic region and this is a barrier, for some:› “We weren’t going to use it until it becomes more readily

available here.”› “I haven’t a reliable supplier that would take the time to do it.

I think a big thing that helps is when it’s at the terminal.”› “It’s been hard to get in our area.”› “In Nebraska, at the retail level, it’s a problem to try to get it

into the pumps, but on tank-wagon services it’s more readily available…”

Barriers


Farmers believe hold-outs still may switch to biodiesel—where it is available:› “A man running a tank wagon thought it was a good

idea. That’s how I got started on it.”› “The majority of farmers are using it…it’s just

autopilot.”

Information


Trucking Industry Perceptions


65

Qualitative Findings

Participants


Participant Role State Business Description

David HVP Maintenance MI

Trucking logistics warehousing firm; responsible for fleet operations, fuel purchase

Tom H

Transportation Systems Manager CA

Organic produce distributor; distribute through eight Western states; purchases everything related to transportation

Ron S Fleet Owner CAOwner of 50-truck operation running in CA and eleven Western states

Glen H Fleet Owner OH Six trucks; operate in 48 states

Kurt MOperations Manager

MI 80-truck fleet hauling bulk commodities from dock trailers to tankers

Bob R Fleet Owner MA Small fleet delivering fuel products

Don ZOperations Manager

MI Haul fuel and lubricants to 48 states

Roseanna Z Fleet Owner ID Four or five trucks

Participants


Participant

Role State Business Description

Les C Fleet Manager NJOversees 30 two-ton trucks for US Postal Service

Ed H Owner ILOperate five trucks hauling rock and snow; dump trucks

Keith C Fleet Manager WYSchool district operating125 diesel buses

Larry WOperations Manager

MA Manages 70 local and regional trucks

Clint SPresident WI Ten trucks, tankers mainly

Bill OFleet Owner NY Twenty-seven trucks; five diesel trucks running mostly

on biodiesel

Justin HFleet Owner AZ Moving company operating four diesel semi trucks

Awareness & Perception


Everyone was aware of biodiesel prior to the online survey

Not everyone has the accurate story on what biodiesel is/how it’s made:› “A portion of that biodiesel is from soy…”› “Leftover meats…things you would throw away with the fat…

can be made into biodiesel. It can be made from corn, soy. There’s a new process to create diesel from…bacteria.”

› “…just about anything that can be pressed into an oil can be made into biodiesel.”

› “Biodiesel is actually treated and changed so it operates exactly like diesel so you don’t have to do anything to your vehicle…”

Differences


Participants are aware that biodiesel has different, renewable feed stocks as compared to regular diesel. They also noted other differences: › “The gel point for diesel is different…depending upon the

feedstock that’s used for that particular biodiesel.”› “It has a different odor.”› “The composite of how it’s made…”› “Smaller carbon footprint.”

Environmental concerns fall behind cost, availability and performance in importance: › “Am I out to destroy the environment? Absolutely not, but it’s

definitely not No. 1.”› “Number 1 is reduce cost…and down the list somewhere is

environment.”› “I am concerned about [the environment], but I don’t think that the

difference going from standard diesel to biodiesel is going to make much impact…”

Truckers don’t necessarily believe biodiesel addresses their particular environmental pressures:› “New engines and new trucks will meet a newer emission standard.”› “Using biodiesel doesn’t change the fact that we have to put urea

injection systems on our trucks.”› “[CARB] is concerned about the pollution side of [biodiesel] because it

puts our a lot of NOX.”

Environmental Issues


Participants are not at all aware of biodiesel’s potential direct benefits to their operation. They lack “why should I try it” facts and arguments.

Long-term efficiencies and equipment benefits--were noted by very few:› “..non-sulfur-based fuel seemed to lessen his

maintenance cost …give him a little more longevity in his equipment. Trucks were running cleaner, he could get longer oil change intervals…”

General benefits identified include helping agriculture, reduces greenhouse gas emissions and reduce dependence on foreign oil.

Benefits


Some participants feel differences in feedstock contribute to inconsistency in quality, performance:› “…with different feed stocks having a higher gel

point...that may be an issue with you in the Northeast…”

› “I can control exactly where I’m buying biodiesel..and know the gel point. I’ve never had a gelling issue in wintertime.”

Barriers


Some participants dislike not knowing where biodiesel is made and from what:› “…the pumps, you have no idea what’s going in

there…”› “By law in Illinois, at least they have to mark the pump

as to what the stuff is…(10% blend) but they don’t tell you what it’s made from.”

› “You don’t know what the feedstock was for the biodiesel portion.”

› “The most important is the performance of it and made in America.”

Barriers


Cost is very critical to participants› “We have no clue what [the biodiesel] is made of, but if that

price is down, that’s what goes in [the trucks].”› “When the [fuel] price goes up, I can’t raise my prices.”› “We’d rather buy this fuel even at say $.25 a gallon higher, if

it does the same job for us. At $1-$2, it’s not going to work.” Convenient access is high on the list of fuel needs for

participants, but access is limited:› “I can’t go searching around for it. I have to get it within the

parameters of my runs.”› “I’ve looked around for it somewhat. I have no idea where to

purchase it…”› “Even I deliver the product, and I don’t know where I would

get it other than my own [client] supplier.”

Barriers


Performance issue rumors are common:› “[Drivers] all complain it gels up in winter.”› “…in the winter, as soon as it starts to get cold, they

guys are just told [to avoid biodiesel]”› “The people who manufacture biodiesel to sell it..have

to know about [gelling]. This is the world of modern chemistry here. Why is this a problem at this stage?”

› “The biggest problem is trying to balance price with the gelling issue, and of course, having it available.”

Barriers


For participants, burning a new fuel requires upfront research:› “I would test it…in a couple of my trucks to see how it

performs and availability and the price…”› “We test technologies based on mpg and what can we

purchase as an investment in the equipment…”› “I calculate the through impact of the diesel…Am I

compromising my fleet, making my fleet liable for breakdown, how am I handling the fuel, what’s the extra time for the driver?”

› Small fleets and older, varied equipment make test determinations more difficult, several agreed.

Trying Biodiesel


Some showed interest in trying biodiesel, but say they lack information and many don’t see biodiesel ads or hear about it at conferences:› “Is there anything special you have to do to your

vehicle?”› “I have never seen any ad or heard an ad even once

about biodiesel.” (echoed in IL, NJ, MA)› “…advertising I’ve seen is…trying to convince dealers

that have gas stations…but acceptance in lukewarm.”› “I’ve seen quite a big push very recently…in petroleum

dealer trade magazines.”

Trying Biodiesel


Participants say links and programs involving trucking associations, engine makers, truck builders and fuel dealers will help inform and educate the trucking industry of biodiesel:› “I think there needs to be somewhat of a tie with your

associations and larger chain truck stops. We’re all driving down the road and not going out of our way to find biodiesel…”

› “You’re making as assumption that the average fleet owner cares about biodiesel… Give me an incentive to become a biodiesel user. If you buy a certain amount of biodiesel and guarantee it, we’ll take a tanker to your place, fill your vehicles and give you a certain rebate.”

Trying Biodiesel


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united soybean board biodiesel perception study

Documents

biodiesel fuel

hour research webinars

soy biodiesel

farmers margin of error

new mexico

new jersey

new york

fleemargin of error