university of maiduguri centre for distance …€¦ · · 2017-10-31before writing the main...

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURICENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

PAD 411: Development Administration (2 Units)

Course Facilitator: Dr. Raphael Adole Audu

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)STUDY GUIDE

Course Code/ Title: PAD 411: Development

Administration

Credit Units: 3

Timing: 26hrsTotal hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six

hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester.

You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours

per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course

materials you have. This implies that each course material will be

studied for two hours in a week.

Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including

all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them

adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes

(5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for

each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes

for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of

completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment.

Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study

session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need

to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed.

You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment

questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one

hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success

depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money,

do not waste it.

Reading:

When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a

novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the

main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for

checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the

glossary.

Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those

main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that

the book is not spoiled for further usage.

Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand

its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those

meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your

dictionary for further explanations.

When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that

you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to

the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in

answering those activities except when the question requires you to be

detailed.

In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer

carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the

main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)sure of what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in

your in-text carefully before you provide the answer.

Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying

attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms

and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go

into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you

engage in reading activities.

Bold Terms:

These are terms that are very important towards

comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are

bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When

you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your

book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you,

you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the

term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading

because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text.

Practice Exercises

a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each

activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and

major informations you read in the in-text. In every study

session there is one or more activities provided for you to

answer them. You must be very careful in answering these

activities because they provide you with major facts of the text.

You can have a separate note book for the activities which can

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself

for each activity you answered.

b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers

are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To

every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions

and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the

major points in your reading.

c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most

essential components of your study. It is meant to test your

understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate

attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two

hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering

the self- assessment question.

Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ,

you are expected to write down the major points related to the

particular question to be answered. Check those points you have

written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that

you can start explaining each point as your answer to the

question.

When you have completed the explanation of each question, you

can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer

to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to

grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of

performance. This procedure should be applied to all SAQ

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful

to do the right thing.

e-Tutors: The eTutors are dedicated online teachers that provide

services to students in all their programme of studies. They are

expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to

students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to

student’s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will

be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student’s enquiries.

Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-

tutors through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there

in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting

your e-tutors when in doubt about your learning.

You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you

opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost.

In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course

facilitators through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in

your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your

academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies.

Continuous assessment

The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total

marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be

through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be

required to submit your test or assignment through your email. The

continuous assessment may be conducted more than once. You must

make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to

date.

Examination

All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri

Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the

Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your

preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates

so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies

will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied.

Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you

have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social

Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find

your group.

You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must

engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies,

making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first

summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on

self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of

studies. When the examination week commences you can also go

through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to

remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there

are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell

phone, and any paper etc). You will be checked before you are

allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout

your examination period.

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)COURSE TITLE: DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

COURSE CODE: PAD 411

COURSE FACILITATOR: DR. RAPHAEL ADOLE AUDU.

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)INTRODUCTIONThe Nigerian government is increasingly assuming new functions due to the complex nature

of the Nigerian state. In an attempt to respond to the emerging social and economic

challenges, there is the need for the government prioritizes its development programmes and

projects. This can only be achieved through moving away from traditional public

administration to development administration strategies.

The issue of development and modernization has been a great concern to scholars and

policy makers. Despite the efforts of the government of Nigeria to modernize and develop the

Nigerian society, the issue of development still remained a great concern to scholars and

development planners. It is in view of the foregoing fact that this course: development

administration is designed to expose students to the various models and theories of

development administration and see how they could be applied in the Nigerian context. These

models and theories are effective tools in reviewing and controlling government

programmes, particularly as it relate to unemployment, poverty alleviation, rural and

community development and developments in Nigeria. Hence, the need for us to examine the

concept and dynamics of development and development administration and to also

interrogate the need for paradigm shifts in Nigeria and Africa in general.

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)Course objective

The course is designed to expose the students first to the meaning and dynamics of

administration and development. It also went further to conceptualize development

administration. Examines modernization and underdevelopment theories. The aim of the

course is also to find out the basis and foundation for the study of development

administration in developing countries with special emphasis on Nigeria. Furthermore, the

course examines the operations, methods and machinery of government, planning and the

nature of administration in developing countries. In fact, it focused on economic planning,

industrial strategies and budgeting in Nigeria.

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)TABLE OF CONTENTSCourse Objective .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1

Study Session 1: Basic Concepts in Development Administration

1.1 Meaning of Administration .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2

1.2 Meaning of Public Administration .. .. .. .. .. .. 3

1.3 Relevance of administration in political systems .. .. .. 5

1.4 Meaning of Civil Service .. .. .. .. .. . 6

1.5 Characteristics of the civil service .. .. .. .. .. .. 6

1.6 Functions of the civil service .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7

1.7 Meaning of Development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7

1.8 Dimensions of Development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

Self Assessment Questions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12

Study Session 2: The Meaning and Growth of Development Administration

2.1 Meaning of development administration .. .. .. .. .. 13

2.2 Features of development administration .. .. .. .. .. 14

Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16


References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18

Study Session 3: Theories and Models of Comparative Public Administration

3.1 Fredrick W. Riggs Theory of Prismatic Ssociety .. .. .. .. 20

3.3 Features of Sala Model .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 22

3.4 Max Weber Bureaucratic Model (Legal rational authority) .. .. .. 22

3.5 Criticisms of the Bureaucratic Model .. .. .. .. .. .. 24

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)3.6 Structural – Functionalism: Talcott Parsons .. .. .. .. .. 25

Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28


References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29

Study Session 4: Modernization and Underdevelopment Theory

4.1 Modernization theory .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30

4.2 Criticism against the Modernization theory .. .. .. .. .. 31

4.3 Underdevelopment theory .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 32

4.4 Features of Underdevelopment .. .. .. .. .. .. 32

4.5 Meaning of Dualism .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 33

Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 34


References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 35

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 36

Study Session 5: Planning and development Planning in Nigeria

5.1 Meaning of Planning .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 37

5.2 Factors to be considered in the planning process .. .. .. .. 37

5.3 Objectives of Planning .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39

5.4 Types of Plans .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 39

5.5 Machinery of Planning.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 40

5.6 Development Planning in Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. .. 41

5.7 Summary on the objectives of national development plans in Nigeria .. 44

Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 46


References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 57

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 58

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)Study Session 6: Poverty and Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria

6.1 Meaning of Poverty .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 58

6.2 The Nature of Poverty in Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. .. 60

6.3 Causes of Poverty in Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 61

6.4 Approaches of Poverty Reduction in Nigeria .. .. .. .. 62

6.5 Development Programmes/Poverty Reduction Strategies in Nigeria .. .. 66

Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 73


References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 74

Study Session 7: Rural Development

7.1 Meaning of rural development.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 84

7.2 Characteristics of a rural area .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 84

7.3 Aims and objectives of rural development .. .. .. .. .. 84

7.4 Problems confronting rural development in Nigeria .. .. .. .. 86

Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 86


References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 87

Activity .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 87

Appendix .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 89

Development Administration: PAD 411(UNIT 3)

Page 1 of 98

Study Session 1: Basic concepts in DevelopmentAdministration

Introduction

Before we delve into the main subject matter (Development Administration), it is importantthat we clarify some of the basic concepts that will be used in this discourse. Concepts suchas administration, civil service and development. These concepts need to be defined for youto understand the course development administration. Without you having adequateknowledge of these concepts, you will find it difficult to understand the perspectives of ournarratives as far as this course is concerned. This session will therefore discuss some of thebasic terms or concepts that are fundamental to the understanding of DevelopmentAdministration as a course of study.

Study outcomes

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

1.1 Define the term Administration

1.2 Define public administration

1.3 State the relevance of administration in political systems

1.4 Define the civil service

1.5 List the characteristics of the civil service

1.6 Highlight the main functions of the civil service

1.7 Define development

1.8 State the main dimensions of development

Bold terms1.1 Meaning of administration

Administration as a concept has attracted a lot of writings from so many scholars due to its

broad nature. Literally, the term ‘administration’ means management of affairs in an

organization. The organization could be public or private. The term management should not

be confused in any way with administration though they are most at times used

interchangeably. Management can be said to be the manipulation of both human and material

resources in order to achieve organizational goals or objectives while administration on the


Page 2 of 98

other hand is seen by E.N Gladden cited in Lamikanth (2007) as a long and slightly pompous

word with a humble meaning, for it means, to care for or look after people, to manage affairs

is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. While Nigro (1978) see

administration as the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose.

Pfiffner (1978) was also in similar frame of mind when he posited that administration is the

organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends.

The definitions given by both Nigro (1978) and Pfiffiner, (1978) are almost similar in

meaning as the writers see the use of men and material resources as very important

ingredients in administration. However, there are some other writers who have different

views on the subject matter (administration). For instance Brooks (1980:4) in his own attempt

at explaining the meaning of administration stated that: “Administration is the capacity of

coordinating many and often conflicting social energies in a single organism, so adroitly that

they shall operate as a unit”. Marx (1978) advanced that administration is a “determined

action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. According to him, it is the systematic ordering

of affairs and the calculated use of resources aimed at making those things happen which one

desires to happen and for taking everything to the contrary”. Waldo (1978) simply viewed

administration as a type of cooperative human effort that has a high degree of rationality.

From the definitions given above, administration can be seen from two perspectives.

First, the use of men and material to achieve the purpose of an organization. Second, it is a

collective group effort aimed at achieving the objectives of an organization. In fact

administration is a generic term that can be found in any organization be it public or private.

ITQ

Define the term administration

ITA

Administration can be seen from two perspectives. First, the use of men and material to

achieve the purpose of an organization. Second, it is a collective group effort aimed at

achieving the objectives of an organization.

1.2. Meaning of Public AdministrationThe word public administration means government. Hence, the focus of public

administration is on public bureaucracy, that is, bureaucratic public administration or


Page 3 of 98

administrative organization of the government. Before looking at the meaning and dynamics

of Comparative Public Administration, it is important we consider the meaning of Public

Administration because the knowledge of public administration would enable us have a better

perspective of the subject matter (Comparative Public Administration). The knowledge of

public administration would enable us compare government across national and international

borders.

Public administration refers to the processes whereby government policies are carried out by

officials of government or quasi governmental bodies. The public service includes institutions

such as: The Civil Service, the Judiciary, the Police, the Prisons, Public Corporations, the

Universities, Local Government Councils and the Political Class. In essence, public

administration is understood to mean the process of executing government policies decided

upon by the political executives who constitute the higher authority in the hierarchy.

According to Pfeiffer & Presthus (1978) public administration is concerned with the means

for implementing political values. Dimock (citing Caiden 1971) see public administration as

the accomplishment of a politically determined objective.

Adebayo (1989) in his own attempt at the meaning of public administration posit that

“public administration is when administration is qualified by the word “public” it simply

means the practice of administration in a particular segment of society; public administration

is therefore any governmental administration that operates in a particular sphere of

government. It is in fact the machinery for implementing government policy”.

From the forgoing, one could say that public administration encompasses process and

activities of government institutions and structures. Public administration can therefore be

said to be the machinery of various Ministries which advice and execute government policies

and programmes. In other words public administration refers to the agencies and institutions

in the political, administrative, economic, social and other spheres funded wholly and

partially from the nation’s wealth. In fact public administration is an aspect of the larger field

of administration. It exists in a political system for the accomplishment of the goals and

objectives formulated by the political decision makers. It is also known as governmental

administration because the adjective “public.

Woodrow (1964) view public administration as a detailed and systematic execution of law.

Every particular application of law is an act of administration. He went further to state that


Page 4 of 98

administration is the most obvious part of the government, it is the government in action; it is

the executive; the operation and the most visible side of government. Gladden (1978) stated

that public administration is concerned with the administration of government while

Laxmikanth (2007) citing Herbert Simon on his part viewed public administration as the

activities of the executive branches of National, State and Local Governments.

Carson and Harris (1978) on their part, sees public administration as the action part of

government, the means by which the purposes or goals of the government are realized. Nigro

(1978) has an all encompassing view of public administration when he stated that public

administration is:

(i) is a cooperative group effort in a public setting

(ii) covers all the three branches – executive, legislative and judicial, and their inter-

relationship

(iii) has an important role in the formulation of public policy and thus part of the

political process

(iv) It is different in significant ways from private administration; and

(v) It is closely associated with numerous private services to the community.

In summarizing the above definitions, one would discover that public administration

has been used in narrow and wider sense. In the wider sense, public administration

includes the activities of all the three branches of the government that is, the

legislature, executive and the judiciary while in the narrow sense public

administration deals with the activities of only the executive arm of government and it

is related agencies.

ITQ

What is the difference between public administration and business administration?

ITA

Public administration has to do with the activities of the government. Through its

Ministries, Departments and Agencies provide services to the citizenry on non profit

basis while the motive behind business administration is for profit maximization.


Page 5 of 98

1.3 Relevance of administration in political systemsAdministration is found in every organization. It includes all efforts geared towards the

achievement of organizational goal. Where men live together they have to work together, and

where they work, they have to be so put to their jobs and each other so as to create a

harmonious combination of men and material that is called administration.

From the forgoing, the purpose of administration can be said to:

i. Improve the wellbeing of man as such any administrative activity that has no

human element cannot be said to be administration.

ii. Promote group effort. Two or more persons must be available in an organization

before a task can be performed.

iii. The objective or goal of any organization is to achieve some goals or objectives.

These goals cannot be achieved without adequate planning. And organization

without a plan cannot achieve its goal.

iv. The use of money (finance) and material is very essential in any organization. The

availability of these factors in an organization determines its growth and

development.

ITQ

List any two relevance of administration in political systems

ITA

i. Improve the wellbeing of man as such any administrative activity that has no

human element cannot be said to be administration.

ii. Promote group effort. Two or more persons must be available in an organization

before a task can be performed.

1.4 Meaning of civil serviceThe term civil service can refer to either a branch of governmental service in which

individuals are employed on the basis of professional merit as proven by competitive

examinations, or the body of employees in any government agency other than the military.

A civil servant is a person in the public Sector employed for a government department

or agency. The status of a civil servant varies from country to country. In the United

Kingdom, for instance, only Crown employees are referred to as civil servants, county or city

employees are not. Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public


Page 6 of 98

administration. Workers in “non-departmental public bodies” may also be classified as civil

servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions.

An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee that

is employed by an international organization. These international civil servants do not resort

under any national legislation (from which they have immunity of jurisdiction) but are

governed by an internal staff regulation. All disputes related to international civil service are

brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations, for instance, the

Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization. Specific referral can be

made to the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC) of the United Nations, an

independent expert-body established by the United Nations General Assembly. Its mandate is

to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations while

promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service.

1.5 Characteristics of the civil serviceThe following are the characteristics of the civil service:

1. Permanency: The civil service is permanent in nature. Once appointed as a civil

servant, one is completely sure of his continuity in office and all benefits even of retire

unless he misbehaves and he is dismissed. The Executive and the legislature can be

disbanded or dissolved but the civil servants can continue to remain in office to serve

them next government with equal loyalty

2. Impartiality: The civil servants must be impartial in discharging their functions and

responsibility to whatever political party in power or that forms the government. To

guarantee this, civil servants should not take part in partisan politics. They are to

serve any government with equal dedication no matter their personal views or

inclinations

3. Anonymity: Even though civil servants execute and advice the executives on

policy matters, the minister or commissioner cannot mention a civil servant as being

responsible for his action when he is called to defend his policies

4. Expertise action: As civil servants were recruited on the basis of their skill and

expertise, the minister relies on them for expert advice.


Page 7 of 98

1.6 Functions of the civil serviceBelow are some of the functions of the civil servants

1. Drafters of legislation: they help as drafters of legislation and in shaping and

developing particular policies of their ministries

2. Implementation of policies: It is the duty of the civil servants to implement

policies and laws made by the National Assembly

3. Drafting of annual budgets: It the responsibility of the civil servants to draft

financial estimates annually for their ministries which are incorporated into the

annual budget.

4. Civil servants advice the executives on policy issues in their ministries.

ITQ

Who is a civil servant?

ITA

A civil servant is a person in the public Sector employed for a government

department or agency.

1.7 .Meaning of developmentDevelopment is a word with many implications. It is a changing and dynamic

concept. It covers social, economic and political life of the people as such as its implications

differ from one discipline to another. In Economics it means growth, of national economy; in

sociology it means raising the standard of life of the people, while in Political Science and

administration it means the stabilization of democratic order and the capacity of political

systems to deal with problems threatening to destroy the system.

It is in view of the above fact that Michael Todaro defines development as a multi-

dimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the

acceleration of inequality, and the eradication of absolute poverty. In similar manner, the

World Development Report (1990) attempts to define development in the context of several

indices. It advanced that the challenge of development in the broadcast sense, is to improve

the quality of life especially in the world’s poor countries, a better quality of life generally

calls for higher incomes in fact it covers better education, higher standards of health and


Page 8 of 98

nutrition, less poverty, cleaner environment, more equality of opportunity, greater individual

freedom and a richer cultural life.

The term development has also generated a lot of confusion among scholars and

writers within the social science field. The concept lacks a single definition due to its broad,

dynamic and polemic nature. However according to Adebayo A. Adedeji Development is the

fulfillment of man’s physiological, mental, and social needs. This definition is in line with

Abrahams Maslow needs theory. Dudley Seers on his part, see development as creating the

conditions for the realization of human personalities or potentialities. He went further to ask 3

questions: what is happening to poverty? What is happening to inequality? And what is

happening to unemployment? He sees human beings as the centre of development in every

society.

Walter Rodney sees development purely from the socio-economic perspective that

society developed economically as its members increased jointly in their capacity to deal with

their environment. More so, Joseph Lampobarak sees development as economic growth,

which is produced by the system, which is capable of producing political, social and

economic variables in the system.

However, S. M. Eisentsdht viewed development as the introduction of new ways of

doing things in a society in an effort to bring desired changes in the social, economic,

political and cultural areas of areas of a society. E .H Coleman looked at development from a

purely subjective perspective. He said that development is what you think it is. His argument

came as a result of the fact that there are different societies with different opinion, culture,

ideas etc what a society feels is development is regarded as development.

Professor Dennis Goulet identified at least three components or core values, which

showed same as conceptual basis and practical guidelines for the understanding of the inner

meaning of development.

These three values are:

1. Life sustenance.

2. Self esteem.

3. Freedom

They are core values because they are representing the common goods thought by individuals

in a society. They relate to fundamental human needs which find their expression in almost

all societies and cultures at all time.


Page 9 of 98

Life- sustenance

This refers to the ability to provide basic necessities of life. All people have certain basic

needs without which life would be impossible. These include:

Shelter, health, safety and protection. When any of these needs or condition is absent or in

critical short supply we may say that a condition of under development has occurred.

Self-esteem

This is another component of good life that constitutes a sense of worth and self respect of

not been used as a tool by others for their ends. In fact, all states and individuals seek some

form of identity, dignity and respect.

Freedom.

This is the final universal core value. Freedom here, seem to be understood in the more

fundamental sense of freedom or emancipation from alienating materials conditions of life

and freedom from the social substitutes of men, ignorance, misery, dogmatic beliefs etc.

Freedom involved the expanded range of choices for societies and their members, together

with the minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some goals which we call

development.

ITQ

List the three core values of development identified by professor Goulet.

ITA

1. Life sustenance

2. Self esteem

3. Freedom

1.8 Dimensions of developmentThe multi-dimensional nature as well as its complexity has led to the consideration of the

concept today in line with various aspects of human life. Thus, we now have economic

development, socio-cultural development as well as administrative development.

Economic development Economic development is concern with promotion and establishment

of an economic system that would improve the standard of living through the effective

utilization of resources for the provision of basic infrastructure, high productivity, higher per-

capita income and net capital investment in productive sectors of the economy which will in

turn lead to a higher gross national output.

Economic development is generally defined to imply a qualitative improvement in the overall

supper structure through the eradication of poverty, unemployment, provision of a good


Page 10 of 98

standard of living and effective manpower utilization. It also include improvement in material

welfare, especially for persons with the lowest incomes, the eradication of mass poverty,

diseases and early death.

Socio-cultural development

This aspect of development depends very much on advancement of the forces of production

at a particular stage and at a given time. Socio-cultural development should not only lead to

interpretation of one’s environment but also those socio-cultural forms that affects the

development efforts of individual and societies at large. Some of the socio-cultural factors

that influence development positively include:

Improved Education

1 Ability to read and write acquisition of skills as well as general enlightenment by every

member of the society.

1 Provision of adequate infrastructure light, water, energy, transport and

communication etc.

Improvement in health care services

Provision of both curative and preventive health services so as to reduce infant mortality,

maternal mortality, increase life expectancy increase productivity of labour etc finally;

Changes in the belief

And values as well as the norms of the society which cause serious problems to development

efforts e.g. language, arts, literature, music mode of dressing e.t.c

Political development

According to Huntington David Apter and Lucian Pye, political development occurs when

societies essentially exhibits high degree of order, stability, role and structural differentiation

as well as institutionalization. To the International Social Sciences Research Council (ISSRC)

a society is said to be development politically if it is able to overcome the following

challenges:

(a) The challenge of authority or state building

(b) The challenge of unity.

(c) The challenge of participation.

(d) The challenge of distribution.


Page 11 of 98

Administrative development. Development is basically the responsibility of the government

especially the in developed countries. Thus, societies develops the machineries of

government must correspondingly be equipped to cope with the new roles and demands that

accompany it i.e. vital government machineries must respond to the needs of the people

through the establishment of institutions that would plan, execute and implement the policies

of government to individuals, groups and societies at large.

In short, administrative development within the administrative sector th3e public bureaucracy

is responsible for planning, and executing governmental policies.

Thus, development administration has to do with the transformation of some subjective

immoral values such as corruption, inefficiency, apathy into objective rationalism, handwork,

accountability, and initiatives toward the development of a true science of work.

The indicators of administrative development include:

1. Administrative effectiveness and efficiency.

2. Improve attitude to work ethics

3. Minimization of corruption

4. Improve skills etc

ITQ

What is Economic development?

ITA

Economic development is concern with promotion and establishment of an economic system

that would improve the standard of living through the effective utilization of resources for the

provision of basic infrastructure, high productivity, higher per-capita income and net capital

investment in productive sectors of the economy which will in turn lead to a higher gross

national output.

Read also: what is development? http://www.cgdev.org/blog/what-development

https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/...

Summary

In Study Session 1, you have learned that:

1. Administration is the use of men and material to achieve the purpose of an

organization.


Page 12 of 98

2. It is a collective group effort aimed at achieving the objectives of an

organization.

3. Public administration covers all the three branches – executive, legislative and

judicial, and their inter-relationship

4. Public administration has an important role in the formulation of public policy

and thus it is a part of the political process

5. Administration is relevant in political systems as it Improve the wellbeing of

man as such any administrative activity that has no human element cannot be

said to be administration.

6. Civil service is the machinery made up of the personnel of the various

ministries which advice and executive government policies.

7. Development as a concept that has generated a lot of writings due to its broad

and polemic nature

8. The dimensions of development include: political, socio – cultural, economic

and administrative development.

Self assessment questionsNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved

its Learning outcomes by answering the following questions. Write your answers in your

study Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can

check your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this

Module.

SAQ 1.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 1.1)Define the term administration

SAQ 1.2 (Testing Learning outcomes 1.5)List four characteristics of civil servants

ActivityWhat is the relevance of administration in political systems?


Page 13 of 98

Relevance of administration in political systems

Relevance 1:

Relevance 2:

Relevance 3:

Relevance 4

ReferencesAke, C. (1996). Democracy and development in Africa.Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Bello, K. (2005). Essentials of Public Administration, Kano Flash Printers.

Bagchi, A.K. (1982). The Political Economy of under development London, Cambridge

press.

Barbara, I. (1993). The meaning of development interaction between “New State’ and old

ideas U.SA, University of Salford.

Frank, A.G. (2009). Development Accumulation and under development, New York monthly

Review Press

Ghosh, B.N. (2006). New Comparative Government New Delhi, Lotus press

Isaiah, O.D (2006). Essential s of Public administration. Niger State, Jube publications

Labini, P.S. (2001).Underdevelopments strategy for reform Canbridge university press.

Mbumega, A (2012). Issues of development and poerty reduction in Nigeria.Makurdi

Destiny Ventures

Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe underdeveloped Africa, Abuja.Penalf Publishing Inc.

Ron, A. (1995). Development Studies: An introduction through selected readings. Greenwich

University press.


Page 14 of 98

Study Session 2: The meaning and growth of developmentadministration

Introduction

In study session 1, you were acquainted with some of the basic concepts or terms that would

assist you to comprehend the meaning of development administration. Having familiarized

yourself with these concepts, it is important for us to examine the meaning of development

administration in this session.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this session, you will be able:

2.1. Define development administration

2.2. List the features of development administration

2.3. State the purpose of development administration

Bold term

2.1. Meaning of development administrationThe term development administration has also attracted attention from so many scholars in

the field of political science and administration. According to Irving Swerdlow development

administration is administration in “poor countries” he defined two inter-related tasks in

development administration that is, institutional building and planning. Han been Lee

advanced that development administration is concerned with the problems involved in

managing a government or an agency thereof so that it acquires an increasing capacity to

adopt to and act upon new and continuing social changes with a view to achieving a sustained

growth in political, economic and social fields. Merle Fainsod on his part stated that

development Administration is a carrier of innovating values. It embraces the array of new

functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of modernization and

industrialization. Ordinarily, development administration involves the establishment of

machinery for planning, economic growth and mobilization and allocation of resources.

Collins (1993) posited that development administration is concerned with the achievement of

change under conditions where change is difficult.


Page 15 of 98

Put more concretely, its focus is on a range of instrumentalities employed to achieve

the ends of national, social and economic development, the machinery of planning, the role of

government in development, the public corporations, marketing boards, projects and

administrative reforms at all levels. B.B Schaffer advanced that development Administration

is about development programs, policies and projects in those conditions in which there are

usually wide and in which there are peculiarly low capacities and severe obstacles in meeting

them.

See also https://www.reference.com/.../meaning...development-administration

ITQ

Development administration is about development programmes, policies and projects. True

or False

ITA

True

2.2. Features of development administrationDevelopment Administration has the following characteristics:

1. Change-oriented. That is it brings about socio-economic change rather than the

maintenance of the status quo.

2. It is goal oriented; it is aimed at achieving progress in social1 economic1 political and

cultural goals (result oriented)

3. Development Administration has commitment. High morals and motivation in work

situation to achieve developmental goals.

4. Client oriented that is meeting the needs of the specific target groups which could be

farmers, children, the vulnerable group, civic society, Bureaucrats etc.

5. Time oriented: Development administration programmes, projects or policies should be

completed within a specific period of time limit.

6. Citizen participation Enlisting popular support and the involvement of the masses in the

formation and implementation of development programmes.

7. Innovativeness: That is replacing or improving administrative structures, methods and

procedures for the effective realization of developmental goals.

Below is a Tabular explanation of the differences between development Administration and

Traditional Public Administration.


Page 16 of 98

Table 2.1.Differences between development and Traditional Public administration

Development Admin Traditional Public Admin

1. It is change oriented It is status quo oriented

2. It is dynamic and flexible It is hierarchical and rigid

3. It emphasizes on effectiveness in goal

achievement

It emphasizes on economy and efficiency

4. Its objectives are complex and multiple Its objectives are simple

5. It is concerned with new tax It is concerned with routine operations

6. It believes in decentralization It believes in centralization

7. It relies heavily on planning Does not rely on much planning

8. It has a broad scope Its scope of operations is limited

9. It has a time limit It has no time orientation

Source: Joseph Rugumyamheto (1998)

Table 2.1 shows the differences between development administrations in a country

particularly in a developing country such as Nigeria. Public administration generally deals

with the traditional function of any government that involves the provision of roads, schools,

hospitals, construction of bridges and markets. Development is a broader concept that goes

beyond this function. It has to do with how development particularly in third world countries

can be accelerated. See Table 2.2 for a better understanding of the aims and objective of

public administration and development administration.


Page 17 of 98

Table 2.2: Paradigm shift: from Traditional Public Administration to Result Oriented

Management

Source: Joseph Rugumyamheto (1998)

Deriving from the analysis in Table 2.2, we can see that most governments in Africa are

rushed to the bureaucratic cultures of their public administrative systems, conformity and

control. There is this prevailing philosophy that much greater flexibility is required in the

management of the public service in order to improve morale and productivity. In addition,

many governments have encouraged the shift of emphasis from administration to service

delivery or the delivery of programmes. Therefore, through the civil service reforms and the

introduction of development programmes, the governments are in hot pursuit of a paradigm

shift, from bureaucratic – oriented management to a results–oriented management. Table 2.2

shows the features of traditional public administration and result oriented management.

TRADITIONAL PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

RESULTS ORIENTED

ADMINISTRATION

1. Weberian/hierarchical organizational

structure

2. Rules – driven decision

3. Rules and procedures

4. Executives appraisal based primarily on

compliance with the rules.

5. Focus on the tasks/functions

Flexible/professionally oriented structures

Result driven decision making

Results based performance appraisal

Focus on the client/target service

beneficiaries.


Page 18 of 98

ITQ

List any three features of Public administration

ITA

1. It is status quo oriented

2. It is hierarchical and rigid

3. It emphasizes on economy and

efficiency

2.3 Purpose of development administrationThe term development administration was first used in 1955 by an Indian scholar called

Goswami. The concept later became more popular with writers like: Edwin Weidner,

Fredrick W. Riggs, Joseph Lapolombra, George Gant etc. Development administration

emerged as a sub-field of Public Administration in the 1950s and 1960s. The factors which

led to its emergence include:

1. Over-emphasis on the study of the means of public administration and the under

emphasis on the study of the goals of administration by the traditional public

administration.

2. The emergence of newly independent developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin

America due to the collapse of colonialism and imperialism;

3. United Nations sponsored development schemes in developing countries through

multilateral technical aid and financial assistance;

4. Extension of American Economic and Technical assistance and plans to newly

emerged developing countries;

5. Setting-up of the Comparative Administration Group (CAG) in 1960 under the

umbrella of the American society for public Administrative (ASPA); and

6. Search for a new indigenous administrative model to meet developmental needs of

developing countries due to the failure of the western model of development in these

countries.


Page 19 of 98

ITQ

List any two motivational concerns of development administration.

ITA

1. Over-emphasis on the study of the means of public administration and the under

emphasis on the study of the goals of administration by the traditional public

administration.

2. The emergence of newly independent developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin

America due to the collapse of colonialism and imperialism.

SummaryIn Study Session 2, you have learned that:

1. Development administration is administration in “poor countries”.

2. Development administrations have two inter-related tasks that are, institutional

building and planning.

3. Development administration is concerned with the problems involved in managing a

government or an agency thereof so that it acquires an increasing capacity to adapt to

and act upon new and continuing social changes with a view to achieving a sustained

growth in political, economic and social fields.

4. Development Administration is a carrier of innovating values. It embraces the array

of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of

modernization and industrialization.

5. Public administration has to do with traditional functions of government such as

maintenance of peace and security.

6. Development administration involves programmmes, and projects that will produce

social, political and economic development in developing countries.

7. One of the main motivational concerns of development administration is the extension

of American Economic and Technical assistance and plans to newly emerged

developing countries.


Page 20 of 98





Module.

SAQ 2.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 2.1)Define the term development administration

SAQ 2.2 (Testing Learning outcomes 2.2)List four characteristics of development administration

ActivityList the main differences between public administration and development administration.

Differences between public administration and development administration

Public Administration Development administration

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6

7.

ReferencesAke, C. (1996). Democracy and development in Africa.Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.



press.

Barbara, I. (1993). The meaning of development interaction between “New State’ and old

ideas U.SA, University of Salford.


Page 21 of 98


Review Press





Destiny Ventures



University press.


Page 22 of 98

Study Session 3: Theories of development administration

Introduction

Politics and administration have been studied from ancient times to the present. The

contribution of early theorists in the study of organization constitutes the foundations upon

which modern organizations are studied today. It is in line with the forgoing statement that

this session was designed to introduce you to some of the theories and models used in

understanding or explaining problems in developing societies. Theories are also useful

sources of conceptual framework and concepts that are used in political and administrative

studies.

Learning outcomes

At the end of this session, you will be able to:

3.1. Highlight the main features of Fredrick Rigg’s Agraria – Industria model

3.2. Outline the features of Fused – Prismatic – Diffracted model

3.3. Highlight the features of the Sala Model

3.4. Outline the features of Marx Webber Bureaucratic Model

3.5. Give the criticism against Bureaucracy

3.6. List the features of Structural –Functionalism

Bold terms

3.1 Fredrick W. Riggs Theory of Prismatic SocietyTheory is a coherent group of propositions formulated to explain a group of facts or

phenomena in the natural world and repeatedly confirmed through experiment or observation.

In the field of social sciences, a model is an imitation of or an abstraction from reality that is

intended to order and simplify the view or perceptions of that reality while still capturing

some essential characteristics. Model and theories are most often than not used

interchangeably. A model is often characterized by the use of analogies to give a more

graphic or visual representation of a particular phenomena.


Page 23 of 98

Fredrick Riggs is the foremost model-builder in comparative public administration. Rigg’s

book “Administration in Developing Countries: The theory of prismatic society (1964)”

continues to be probably the most notable single contribution in comparative public

administration. Riggs constructed his two ideal models (theoretical models) to explain the

administrative systems in a comparative context, these are:

1. Agrarian – industrial model

2. Fused – prismatic – diffracted model

Agraria – Industrial model

Riggs developed the Agrarian – Industrial model in 1956. This model distinguished between

two types of societies.

a. A society dominated by agricultural institution and

b. A society dominated by industrial institutions

The former represents imperial China, the Asian minors and other third world countries in

Africa while the latter represent industrial society i.e the capitalist west where we have the

USA, Britain, France etc. According to Riggs all societies move from an agrarian stage to an

industrial stage. A view which is similar to Rostow’s stages of economic growth. He

identified the structural features of these two societies as shown in Table 3.1

Table 3.1. Features of Agrarian – Industrial Model

S/N Agraria Industrial

1. Ascriptive values Achievement values

2. Particularistic norms Universalities norms

3. Diffuse patterns Specific patterns

4. Stable local groups and limited mobility High degree of social and

5. Simple and stable occupational differentiation Spatial mobility

6. Differential stratification system Well developed occupational

system.


Page 24 of 98

7. Egalitarian class system i.e

prevalence of Associations

which are functionally

specific and non ascriptive

Source: F.W Riggs (1956)

As you can see from Table 3.1, the Agrarian society is a traditional society that is basically

primitive and unstable while the industrial society is a stable society with a well developed

economic and political system.

The Agrarian – Industrial model was however not free from criticism from scholars.The

model was criticized for the following reasons:

1. It does not provide enough mechanism to study mixed – type societies i.e society that

have both agrarian and industrial features.

2. It does not examine transitional societies such as ours.

3. The agrarian – industrial model as postulated by Riggs was also too abstract with

little resemblance to concrete reality.

It is in the light of the above criticism that Riggs abandoned this model and came up with the

fused – prismatic- diffracted model.

Fused – Prismatic – Diffracted Model

The fused – Prismatic – Diffracted model was propounded by Riggs as a response to criticism

leveled against the agrarian -industrial model.

The fused – prismatic – diffracted model represents the undeveloped, developing and

developed societies respectively. According to Riggs, Traditional agricultural and folk

societies (agrarian) represent the fused model, and modern industrial societies (industrial)

represent the refracted model. The former is functionally difused while the latter is

functionally specific i.e. the structural performs limited functions. In between these two polar

extreme, comes the prismatic society. The prismatic society is a traditional society and hence

combines the features of both the agrarian and industrial societies as you can see in Table

3.2.


Page 25 of 98

Table 3.2. Features of Fused – Prismatic – Diffracted Model

S/N Fused Prismatic Diffracted

1.

2.

3.

Ascription

Particularism

Functional diffusion

Attainment

Selectivism

Poly-Functionalism

Achievement

Universalism

Functional Specific

Source: Riggs (1962)

Since Riggs was mainly concerned with how administrative system interact with their

environment, he thus constructed the prismatic – Sala model. Prismatic represents

transitional society and sala represents the administrative sub-systems with the following

features:

3.3 Features of Sala ModelHeterogeneity: A prismatic society has a high degree of heterogeneity that is a simultaneous

presence side by side, of quite different kinds of systems, practices and viewpoints. The sala

(administrative sub system) is also heterogeneous as it combines the element of fused

society and bureau of a diffracted society.

Formalism: A prismatic society has a high degree of formalism, that is, a degree of

discrepancy or incongruence between the formally prescribed and the effectively practiced,

between norms and realities. In short it refers to the gap between theory and practice.

Overlapping: Overlapping in Sala refers to what is described as administrative behavior but

which is actually determined by non-administrative criteria which include:

Nepotism: In recruitment, appointments promotions, award of contracts etc in Nigeria these

problems are some of the problems affecting administrative development. It is in view of

these the budget procurement and contract award office (the due process) was established in

2003 to check contract scams.

Polynormativism: These exist side by side in a Sala administrative system traditional and

modern norms thus leading to lack of consensus on norms of behaviours. The consequence is


Page 26 of 98

that there would be no set of standard in the system. The implication is efficiency and

effectiveness would be stifled.

Polycommununalism: Under the sala administrative system as propounded by Riggs in the

polycommunual system there exist ethnic and religious groups competing in a hostile

environment. The consequence of such interaction is administrative and political instability

because of the conflict that such interaction would spawn.

Bazaar – canteen model that have both the features of traditional and modern economic

system. Such a system encourages fluctuation in market prices and inconsistencies in

government policies.

Authority verses control: A Sala prismatic society has an unbalanced polity in which

administrators dominate the politico administrative system.

3.4. Max Weber Bureaucratic Model (Legal rational authority)The concept bureaucracy is derived from the word bureau. Max Webber, the father of

bureaucracy, described bureau as a “formal, hierarchical organization staffed with persons,

publicly paid, holding life-time jobs won in open competition. (Mitchell and Simmons,

1994). It is a fact that Webber constructed his model of organization bureaucracy from the

word bureau. But before we look at how bureaucracy functions, it is important to discuss

the types of Authority which Webber identified in the management of public affairs. He

categorized three types of authority:

1. Traditional Authority,

2. Charismatic Authority and

3. Legal Regional Authority

Traditional authority is the authority given to Kings, Queens, Chiefs, Emirs, Obas to

perform certain tasks by their subjects. In fact Traditional Authority rested on established

belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of status of those

exercising authority. Charismatic Authority on the other hand is the innate personal quality

of an individual that makes him a leader. These qualities range from his intelligence, wealth,

family background, height, eloquence, beauty etc. Charismatic authority rested o the

devotion to specific and exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an

individual person while Legal Regional Authority rested n the belief in the legality of

patterns of normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority, under such rules to

issue commands.


Page 27 of 98

Webber believed bureaucracy was the purest form of organization and that is why over

the years scholars often use Webber’s ideal type of organization for the purpose of

comparism because they are assumptions or hypotheses put forward by Webber.

Lawton and Rose (1994) identified three major forms of bureaucracy. In the first place, it

is seen as a form of government, which is distinguished from other forms such as monarchy

or democracy. The bureaucrats are employees of the state. He went further to assert that

bureaucracy is conceptualized as a system of administrative efficiency. In this light,

bureaucracy is a complex organization with a hierarchy, which can be found in both the

public and private sectors of the economy. Lastly, the word bureaucracy is most often used

in pejorative terms of abuse, delay or red tape in the public service by political, economic,

social, religious or other factors – it has the different aspects which that is, Max Weber

(Bureaucracy).

Weber sees this as the dominant institution of modern society. The system is called legal

rational because the means are specifically designed to achieve certain specific goals. This

is legal because it operates by means of a system of rules and procedures through the office

which an individual occupies at a given time.

For most people the word “Bureaucracy” conjures up visions of large complex

government agencies where red tape make it practically impossible to get anything done.

But it is important to note that bureaucracy as a form of organization may either be good or

bad, depending on how it is managed. A bureaucracy may be large or simple although the

usual connotation is a large and complex organization.

For our purposes, a bureaucracy will mean a relatively formal and impersonal model of

organization and management, a theory that reflects many of the principles of classical

theory. It may apply to the public or private organization model, and like most models, it is

seldom found in a pure form.

When he developed his model of bureaucracy, he did not intend it to be a model for a real

organization. Rather he intended it to be a conceptual tool, a strictly logical, rational

organization design that could serve as a standard of comparism or as a skeleton for the

development of structure for an actual organization.

According to Johari (2006) Max Weber bureaucratic model have eight fundamental

principles of rational legal authority which include:


Page 28 of 98

1. Organization of official functions on a continuous rule – bound basis

2. A specified sphere of competence and distinct functions based on systematic division

of labour

3. Principles of hierarchy with a lower office under the control and supervision of a

higher one

4. Trained personnel for the conduct of business

5. Complete separation of members of administrative staff from the ownership of the

means of production of administration, with a clear separation likewise in principle of the

property belonging to the organization and controlled within the sphere of office and the

personal property of the official available for private use.

6. A complete absence of appropriation of official position by the incumbent,

7. The formulation and recording in writing of all acts, decisions and rules and

8. The ideal type being the purest form of legal authority or imperative coordination

In simple terms the above fundamental principles which are also believed to be the main

features or characteristics of bureaucracy are summarized as followed:

i. The activities required to achieve the purpose of the organization are divided into

a set of clearly defined spheres.

ii. Along with the assignment of duties there is assignment of commensurate

authority to carry them out.

iii. Measures are adopted to ensure that only those qualified on the basis of generating

standards are employed such managers are trained to be experts. They are paid according to

be basis of their status that is according to rank and possibly length of service.

iv. There is official hierarchy the organization and low jobs are supervised by those

of higher rank, decision made of the lower can be appealed to a still higher level.

v. The management of the organization is based on written document (the files) and

follows general rules i.e. rigid application of rules and regulations.

vi. This type of organization according to Weber is characterized by: precision,

speed, unambiguity, knowledge of the files, continuity, discretion, unity, strict

subordination, reduction of friction and material and personnel cost.

3.5 Criticisms of the Bureaucratic Model1. Speed and precision which Weber associated with the hierarchy may not be

fully realized because however ideal the organization and however well trained its officials


Page 29 of 98

are, natural differences of opinion will arise over interpretation of orders, and a good part of

the machine like precision will be lost.

2. Inflexibility: The men at the top are far removed from contact with the actual

day to day work of the organization would not know when to change the rules and

regulations i.e. there will be inflexibility.

3. Size / complexity: as an organization expand in size there are bound to be a lot

of complexities ranging from delays in decision making to implementation.

4. Specialization / professional pyramid: vocation or professional training can

make the worker to have a where mind about the overall objectives of the organization i.e.

leading to professional pyramid.

3.6 Structural- Functionalism: Talcott ParsonsStructural functionalism was for many years the dominant sociological theory. Ritzer (2008)

citing colony stated that the structural functional approach or structural functionalism is a

theoretical “tradition”. The structural functionalism is now mainly of historical significance,

although it is also notable in the role it played in the emergence of Neo – functionalism. Neo

functionalism is another sociological theory that came up as a result of the decline of

structural – functionalism. The two prominent writers that wrote extensively on the structural

functional approach popularly known as Structures Functionalism were Talcott Parsons and

Robert Merton. In this session, we shall discuss the contributions of these exponents to the

development of structural functionalism theory (structural functionalism) though, has over

the years declined in relevance but it is still used in explaining how administrative systems

functions that it is often regarded as an explanatory theory.

Talcott Parsons contributed a great deal to the development of modern sociological theory. In

fact his contribution to the growth and development of modern sociological theory cannot be

over emphasized. We shall begin the discussion of Parsons structural functionalism with the

four Functional Imperatives for all “Action” Systems, his famous AGIL scheme.

AGIL

Talcott Parsons believes every society has a function to play in meeting its needs in the

society. According to Rizter citing (2007) and Rocher (1975) a function is “a complex of

activities directed towards meeting the need or needs of the system”. According to Parsons,

there are four functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems. These include:

i. Adaptation (A)


Page 30 of 98

ii. Goal attainment (G)

iii. Integration (I), and

iv. Latency (L)

The imperatives which he said must be present in all systems is what he described as AGIL.

Parsons believe is that no system can survive if it failed to perform these four functions.

These AGIL as discussed below:

Adaptation: Every system exists in an environment. This environment can be ecological,

legal, social, technological, religious or political. Each environment exists with some

problems or obstacles that can affect its development. The ability for this system to survive

these challenges or obstacles makes it to function successfully.

Almost all the countries of the world have one form of problem or the other. It could

be political, economic, or socio-cultural. The ability for these countries to survive threats or

adapt to these threats or obstacles put them in a pole position to develop and function

properly. For instance, Israel as a country has been able to adapt to the security obstacles or

threat in the Middle East. Israel has been able to function politically, economically and

militarily etc as a result of its adaption to the security threats to its external environment. Any

country that cannot adapt to its external environment would definitely find it difficult to

function that is why some countries find it difficult to develop because of their inability to

adapt to the threats confronting them.

Nigeria can also be cited as a good example too as regards to the issue of adaptation. The

problems associated with Nigerian federalism since independence has not been completely

addressed. The problem of ethno-religious conflicts, the National question, federal character

principle, fiscal federalism etc. are still perceived as serious threats to the survival of the

Nigerian Nation. Yet, to adapt to these challenges by coming up with policies and

programmes that have helped in safe guarding its existence.

Goal Attainment: Every system has a goal to attain. It is as a result of this fact that

organizations, states or countries are established. It is this goal that almost all the units or

sectors that make up the system must cooperate to achieve. For instance Nigeria has a

National agenda which include among others: Mass literacy, women empowerment, balanced

development, basic health etc. It is expected that all units in the country must cooperate to see


Page 31 of 98

to the actualization of these objectives if on the other hand a unit decides to abandon the

general objectives for sectional or individual interest then the entire system would fail.

All system must ensure that the general objectives or goals are achieved. The only

way to achieve this is for the government to create enabling environment for all the units in

the system to operate. Financial, human and material resources must be provided and

motivated to achieve the set objectives. In the case of Nigeria which we cited earlier, all the

three tiers of government i.e. the federal, state and local governments must cooperate to

achieve the goal of the country.

Integration: For a system to function properly, all the units must cooperate with one another.

Such cooperation leads to integration. It is therefore the responsibility of those in charge of

organizations to ensure that departments or units in the organization lead to team work and

better performance. Integration discourages conflicts. According to Joseph (2005) negative

sanctions are available to correct those who flout the rules of proper conduct. Positive

sanctions are also available to reward those who play according to the rule. The sub system

responsibility for the interpretation of rules and sanctioning of derelicts is the judiciary. It

interprets the law and enforces compliance.

Latency: Joseph (2005) again stated that social order does not only reside in being able to

perform the roles expected of people occupying certain statuses in the system. These roles

could be performed just to satisfy the expected demands but with no moral basis to respect

the rights of others in the system who also have roles to perform. Joseph citing Turner (1978)

went further to add that latency is a double faceted phenomenon involving tension

management and pattern maintenance. It is true that in every system or organization conflicts

abound since it is the nature of man. Human nature is unpredictable so it is the ability of the

society or system to ensure that all players in the system and sub-system conform to the

expected patterns or behaviors so as to enable them perform their expected functions. The

system should endeavour to appreciate hard work and symbolic roles by rewarding those who

perform exceptionally.

Tarcott Parsons AGIL scheme laid the conditions in which all system must used to function

properly. Any system or sub-system that wants to survive must ensure that these four

imperatives are present or available. Without the imperatives, Parsons believed that most of

the problems within a system would remain unresolved.


Page 32 of 98

From the discussion above, Parsons’s AGIL scheme could be used at all levels as seen

in his theoretical postulation. Below is a diagrammatic representation of AGIL Scheme.

Table 3.3 Structure of the General Action System.

L I

Cultural

System

Social

System

Behavioral

Organism

Personality

System

A G

Source: George Ritzer (2005)

Now, you can see in Table 4.3 above that the Behavioral organism is the action system that

handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the external world. The

Personality system performs the goal-attainment function by defining system goals and

mobilizing resources to attain them. The Social system copes with the integration function by

controlling its components parts. Finally, the Cultural system performs the latency function

by providing actors with the norms and values that motivates them for action (Ritzer, 2005).

The features of the Action scheme can be thus be summarized as follows:

i. Social systems must be structural so that they operate compatibly with

other systems.

ii. To survive, the social system must have the requisite support from other

systems.

iii. The system must meet a significant proportion of the needs of its actors.

iv. The systems must elicit adequate participation from its members

v. It must have at least a minimum of control over potentially disruptive

behaviour.

vi. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled.

vii. A social system needs a language in order to survive.

See the meaning of bureaucracy http://www.investopedia.com/.../bureaucracy


Page 33 of 98


1. The Agrarian - Industrial model is a theoretical postulation that described the main

administrative and political features of traditional and industrial society.

2. The Agrarian – Industrial model was criticized for failing to examine the transitional

societies such as Nigeria.

3. That the prismatic society represents a transitional society which is between the

Agrarian – Industrial societies.

4. That Bureaucracy its criticized for its inflexibility, size, professional pyramid etc

5. Structural – functionalism is a theoretical approach that used the AGIL Scheme to

explain functions which individuals and societies perform.

Self assessment questionNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved

its Learning outcomes by answering the following question. Write your answers in your study

Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can check

your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 3.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 3.6)How will you describe the role of Latency under Tarcott Parsons’s AGIL scheme?

Activity1. What are the roles of the bureaucracy in your country? Are there challenges in carrying out

these roles?

Roles of the bureaucracy Problems and challenges in carrying out

the role

Role 1:

Role 2:

Role 3:

Role 4:

Role 5:


Page 34 of 98

2. In line with the theoretical approaches discussed in this session, list any four challenges

facing development in Nigeria.

Challenge 1:

Challenge 2:

Challenge 3:

Challenge 4

ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna:Mike BPublications Limited





Destiny Ventures



University press.


Page 35 of 98

Study session 4: Modernization and Underdevelopmenttheory

Introduction

In Study session 3 we discussed how politics and administration have been studied from

ancient times to the present using relevant theories. In this session, we shall continue with the

discourse by looking at other theories which scholars had also used in explaining

phenomenon particularly in third world countries such as Nigeria. You will therefore be

acquainted modernization and underdevelopment theories.

Learning outcome

At the end of this session, you will be able to:

1.1. Discuss the modernization theory

1.2. Highlight the criticism against the modernization school

1.3. Discuss underdevelopment theory

1.4. List the features of underdevelopment

1.5. Define Dualism

1.6. Highlight the features of domestic and international dualism

1.7. Discuss how dualism can be applied in Nigeria.

Bold term

4.1. Modernization theory

There are two main writers that have written on the issue of modernization. They are S.N

Elsendaht and David Apter. Modernization theory is used to explain the process of

modernization within societies. Modernization refers to a model of progressive transition

from a pre – modern or traditional to a modern society. The theory looks at the internal

factors of a country while assuming that with assistance, traditional countries can be brought

to development in the same manner more developed countries have been. Modernization

theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 950s and 1960s.Modernization

theory maintains that traditional societies will develop as they adopt more modern practices.


Page 36 of 98

Proponents of modernization theory claim that modern states are wealthier and more

powerful than that their citizens are freer to enjoy a higher standard of living. Corroborating

this view, Esientadht view modernization as the process by which new institutions, new ideas

and new ways of doing things are introduced in a society in an effort to bring desired change.

Thus a society is said to be modernizing when these innovations are introduced in an effort to

bring about those types of social, economic and political patterns that are regarded as modern.

ITQ

Discuss briefly the underlying tenets of modernization theory

IT A

Modernization refers to a model of progressive transition from a pre – modern or traditional

to a modern society. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that

with assistance, traditional countries can be brought to development in the same manner more

developed countries have been.

4.2. Criticism against the modernization theory

1. Modernization theory has no doubt contributed significantly to the advancement and

sustenance of liberal social science and the propagation of an ideology that seeks to

promote subordinate relations between third world and the developed societies.

2. The theory has provided the ideological and intellectual frame work for understanding

strategies in economic,political,social and cultural aspects of life that are carried out

by western societies in their interactions with less developed countries

3. However, the modernization theory is ahistorical, undialect and ethnocentric. It is one

sided and too focused on the western world.

4. The theory thus suffers from the worst form of economic determination. It is assumed

that when economic take off is achieved, some how other aspects of development will

be transformed as well. From the modernization perspective, the practical battle for

development among third world countries is economic growth that is why it

encourages foreign aid and economic reforms by their financial institutions such as

World Bank and the international monetary Fund.

5. The theory entirely ignores the impact of colonialism and imperialism on developing

countries.


Page 37 of 98

ITQ

Give one criticism leveled against the theory of modernization

ITA

The theory thus suffers from the worst form of economic determination. It is assumed

that when economic take off is achieved, somehow other aspects of development will be

transformed as well. From the modernization perspective, the practical battle for

development among third world countries is economic growth that is why it encourages

foreign aid and economic reforms by their financial institutions such as World Bank and

the international monetary Fund.

4.3 Underdevelopment theory

It emerged as a theoretical tool for analysis in the late 190s and1970s amongst scholars in

third world countries when it became apparent that the modernization school could not

adequately explain the problem of development in third world countries. It echoed the

nationalistic expression and anti – imperialistic drive for auto – centric development in third

world states.

The Underdevelopment theory central proposition is that, under development which is

epitomized by economic stagnation, poverty and unemployment is not the natural state of

third world countries contrary to conventional liberal or bourgeoisie analysis propelled by

modernization. Under development should therefore be understood from the historical

context of world capitalist system: Colonialism, slavery and neo – colonialism.

ITQ

What is the central concern of the underdevelopment theory?

ITA

The Under development theory central proposition is that, under development which is

epitomized by economic stagnation, poverty and unemployment is not the natural state of

third world countries contrary to conventional liberal or bourgeoisie analysis propelled by

modernization.


Page 38 of 98

4.4 Features of underdevelopment

The following are the main features of underdevelopment:

1. Creation of an unstable state

2. Creation of a decadent, dependent and largely unproductive bourgeoisie

3. Dependence of African states on the production and exploitation of a narrow range of

cash crops for foreign exchange earnings

4. Dominance of their economies by multinational corporations in critical sectors of

their economies.

5. Scientific and technological backwardness

6. The peripherization of Africa in the world capitalist economy with an infinitesimal

contribution to world production and near total irrelevant in world affairs.

ITQ

List any two features of the underdevelopment theory

ITA

1. Creation of an unstable state

2. Creation of a decadent, dependent and largely unproductive bourgeoisie

Read also modernization theory http://www.imprint.co.uk/.../modernization-theory

4.5. Meaning of DualismThe main view of the theory of dualism is that the economic laws that are found valid in

advanced capitalist countries do not exist in third world countries. Simply put, the process of

modernization has led to the polarization of the world. This thus gave birth to the

development two worlds i.e. the developed and developing countries with their distinctive

features. And within the developing society there is the existence of two different i.e.

domestic dualism. A country that is internally polarized with modern and primitive sector

side by side(urban and rural).


Page 39 of 98

Features of dualism

1. The existence of two set of conditions both modern and traditional institutions co –

existing with a traditional economic system e.g. the first and third world countries at

the international level.

2. The co existence is permanent and not transitional. The relationship takes a longer

time to be separated.

3. Widening gap between the two sectors. The gap in development between two sector is

widening every day.

4. The backwash effect: The interrelations between superior and inferior elements are

such that the existence of the superior elements does nothing to help the inferior

sector. Rather the superior element retards the development of the inferior element.

This is known as the backwash effect.

Features of domestic dualism

1. The standard of living varies between the ruling elites and the masses (High level of

poverty amongst the masses.

2. Majority of those few rich ones live in urban centres while majority of the poor

masses live in the rural areas

3. In the urban areas pockets of great wealth exist side by side with slums

4. There are differences in the level of technological development. Extensive and

mechanistic farming against traditional labour intensive and limited local needs.

5. Widening gap between the rich and the poor and between modern and traditional

methods of production.

Application of the theory of dualism in Nigeria

The theory of dualism can be applied in Nigeria in the following ways:


Page 40 of 98

Education: Educational elites, intelligentsias living side by side with millions of illiterates

Economic sector: Few very successful business men i.e. the likes of Michael Adenugas,Aliko

Dangotes,Dantatas living side by side with poor or peasant entrepreneurs.

Industrial locations: Most industries are located in urban centres against rural areas

Urban/rural divide: Urban areas are well developed with good roads, housing, and

infrastructures. The rural areas lack basic amenities

Rich/ poor: A few wealthy people in Nigeria living side by side with the poor masses


1. Modernization refers to a model of progressive transition from a pre – modern or

traditional to a modern society. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country

while assuming that with assistance, traditional countries can be brought to

development in the same manner more developed countries have been.

2. Modernization theory has no doubt contributed significantly to the advancement and

sustenance of liberal social science and the propagation of an ideology that seeks to

promote subordinate relations between third world and the developed societies. The

theory has provided the ideological and intellectual frame work for understanding

strategies in economic,political,social and cultural aspects of life that are carried out

by western societies in their interactions with less developed countries.

3. The Under development theory central proposition is that, under development which

is epitomized by economic stagnation, poverty and unemployment is not the natural

state of third world countries contrary to conventional liberal or bourgeoisie analysis

propelled by modernization.

4. Dualism is the process of modernization has led to the polarization of the world. This

thus gave birth to the development two worlds i.e. the developed and developing

countries with their distinctive features.

5. The existence of two set of conditions both modern and traditional institutions co –

existing with a traditional economic system e.g. the first and third world countries at


Page 41 of 98

the international level. The co existence is permanent and not transitional. The

relationship takes a longer time to be separated.

Self assessment questionNow that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved

its Learning outcomes by answering the following question. Write your answers in your study

Diary and discuss them with your Tutor at the next study Support Meeting. You can check

your answers with the Notes on the Self-Assessment questions at the end of this Module.

SAQ 4.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 4.4)How is dualism applied in Nigeria?

Activity1. List the main features of developed societies and underdeveloped societies

Developed societies Underdeveloped societies

Feature 1

Feature 2:

Feature 3:

Feature 4

Feature 5

2. What programmes should the government of Nigeria initiate in order to develop

the country?

Programme 1:

Programme 2:



Page 42 of 98






Destiny Ventures



University press.


Page 43 of 98

Study session 5: Planning and development Planning inNigeria

Introduction

Planning is very important in our daily lives as individuals, groups and even to organizations.

Without a good plan no individual or organization will meet its set objectives. Nigeria as a

country also has her own plans on how to put the country on a part of development and

modernization. This session is therefore designed to examine relevance of planning to

individuals and societies particularly in less developed countries such as ours.

Learning outcomesBy the end of this session, you will be able to:

5.1 Define planning

5.2 State the factors to be considered in the planning process

5.3 Discuss machinery of planning in Nigeria

5.4 Discuss development plans in Nigeria

5.5 Summarize objectives of the various development plans in Nigeria

Bold term

5.1. Meaning of PlanningIn its simplest form, planning can be defined as thinking before acting. Planning could mean

to “scheme” arrange beforehand. In fact planning is a broad human attribute. Koontz defined

planning as deciding in advance what to do how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.

Planning bridges the gap from where we are to where we want to go. It makes it possible for

things to occur which would not otherwise happen.

From the statement above it is very easy to deduce that planning is very important to

individuals, organizations and even the wider society. In fact planning is a pre- requisite for

any form of development, more particularly in developing countries where development is

indeed lacking. Right from the days of Yore ancient cultures as Egypt, china, Indian, Greece,

and the Roman Empire planned their various societies as proven by scattered evidence.


Page 44 of 98

5.2. Factors to be considered in the planning process.

In carrying out any plan, the following factors must be considered in the planning process:

1. The stage of development

2. Institutional structure

3. Availability and quality of statistical information

4. Resource constraints.

Stages of developmentIn designing development plans, the stage of the country’s development must be taken into

consideration. A complex plan is not necessary for a developing country whose

infrastructures are under developed. A complex plan would be inadequate in a country that is

permeated by small scale subsistence agriculture, limited monetary sector and little or no

inter-industry relations such a country would be more appropriate to concentrate individual,

social overhead such as public investment projects aimed at establishing the necessary

conditions to introduce economic transformation.

Institutional structureThe nature of political institutions determines the character of planning. In a socialist

institution, the planning in a socialist economy with pre dominantly socialist institutions, the

planning process must be socialist also in an economy dominated by a private sector; the

planning process must reflect a private sector arrangement.

Availability/ quality of statistical information.One of the objectives of planning is to bring change using economic variables. This cannot be

done without adequate and accurate statistical data. Without accurate facts the planning

process would be affected. In fact certain models of planning cannot be used or designed

without accurate information particularly when using formal planning models like the

algebraic and numerical mathematical models. In Nigeria, The Federal Bureau for Statistics,

the National Population Commission, the Central Bank of Nigeria and the like are some of

the institutions that carry out planning needs of the country.


Page 45 of 98

Resource constraintsAvailability of resources must be taken into cognizance when designing plans. The

implementation of development plans depends largely on the availability of resources.

Resources both human and material are very essential in planning process.

ITQ

What are the factors to be considered in the planning process?

ITA

1. The stage of development

2. Institutional structure

3. Availability and quality of statistical information

4. Resource constraints.

5.3. Objectives of planning.Objectives of planning are usually seen from the individual and corporate levels. They are

most often divided into two; namely prime and instrumental goals.

Prime objectives; the prime objectives are basically linked to man or an individual. They

include;

1. Physiological gratifications such as food, shelter, sleep, comfort etc.

2. Love and affection

3. Excitement

4. Novelty

Instrumental or coordinate objectives

These include:

1. Freedom

2. Rationality

3. Democracy

4. Equality

5. Security

6. Progress

5.4. Types of plansDevelopment plans could be classified according to time, horizon, geographical scope,

institutional character and activity coverage. The commonly used plan particularly in


Page 46 of 98

developing countries is the time plan which is divided into short, medium and long term

plans.

Short term plans: - Are those starting from daily plans to annual plans. it is very uncommon

to here daily plan but it is important to state here that the day to day activities of workers in

an organization is always based on daily plan. There are also weekly, monthly and annual

plans which we called the budget in Nigeria. There are also some specific plans designed to

achieve certain objectives by the government. This type of plans could be described as

operated or adjustment plans.

Medium term plans: - This type of plan is always between two to six years. Never the less a

typical medium term plan is always four to five years. A very good example of a medium

term plan is the: 1962-1968, 1970-1974, 1975-1981 Development plans in Nigeria.

Long term plan:- Any plan that covers a ten year period could be described as a long term

plan. There are in fact certain things that cannot be planned within a short period e.g.

population growth, Transportation system, Agricultural development and the like. Such

issues can be properly organized in a long termperiod.lt is important to also re-state here that

there are still other types of plans such as: Sectoral plans (key sectors) functional plans (6-3-

3-4 system of Education) plan of key projects (power energy projects refineries e.t.c) local

plans meant for local government councils, regional/state plans (annual budgets) National

plans that covers the whole country (National development plans of 1962-1968, and the

Millennium Development Goals e.t.c.

ITQ

The 1970 -1975 development plan in Nigeria is a good example of:

a. Long term plan

b. Short term plan

c. Medium term plan

d. Rolling plan

ITA

Medium term plan

5.5. Machinery of PlanningNo meaningful plan would succeed if the machinery charged with the responsibility of

implementing the plan is weak. The success of a well formulated plan depends heavily on the

agency charged with the responsibility for its execution.


Page 47 of 98

The national planning commission is must at times charged with the formulation and

implementation of national plans in Nigeria.lt is clear from empirical data that one of the

reasons for the failure of development plans in Nigeria was the inability of the government to

set up a viable machinery of planning. For example in 1955, the National Economic Council

(NEC) was established to take care of issue of planning among other things. The

ineffectiveness of the commission led to the establishment of the Joint Planning Commission

and the National Manpower Board in 1958-1962 respectively.

Due to the failure of the joint planning commission and national economic council (NEC)

were abolished by the Ironsi regime (1966) 2which later established a national economic

advisory group. The establishment of the planning machinery continued until the Second

Republic (1979-1983) with an attempt to establish some form of stability. Like most

institutions in Nigeria, the planning machinery was characterized by the following:

a. Dearth of trained administrator with technical knowledge or expertise on planning related

issues.

b. The dearth of facts and figures i.e. lack of statistical data to carry out effective planning.

c. Other factors like primordial factors where administrators are influenced by tribal,

religious, ethnic and cultural sentiments.

d. Political instability

e. Political interferences

f. Over centralization of politics and projects.

ITQ

List any three planning institutions you know in Nigeria

ITA

National Planning Commission

National Population Commission

Central Bank of Nigeria

Read also Machinery of planning in Nigeria http://www.krepublishers.com/.../jss-20-03-19

http://www.africabib.org/rec.php?RID

http://www.academia.edu/.../development-plans

5.6 Development planning in NigeriaEconomic planning as described by Todaro in his book “Development planning” is the

conscious effort of a central organization to influence the effort in some cases, even control

changes in principal economic variables e.g. consumption, investment, saving e.t.c of a


Page 48 of 98

certain country or region over a course of time in accordance with a predetermined set of

objectives. Economic planning or development planning is aimed at influencing, directing

and controlling state machinery towards a desired goal called economic growth. Development

planning can also be described as a specific set of qualitative economic targets to be reached

in a given period of time, It may be a comprehensive plan with major aspect of the national

economy, and/or partial which covers only a part of the national economy of the country

towards some desired goals and activities usually through series of rationally co-ordinated

inducement, restrictions, programmes and investment. In this way the state sets the limits and

general direction of the movements of all other sectors of the economy. Therefore, the

ultimate goal of all the national development plans in Nigeria is to bring order, priority and

foresight in to the economic activity not only of the state but in the state. In this wise, I am in

total support of Gunnar Mydral in his book “Asian Drama” where he defines economic

development as nothing less than the “Upward movement of the entire social system” C.E.

Black in his book “The dynamics of modernization” define economic development as a tool

for the attainment of a number of ideals of modernization such as the rise n productivity,

social and economic development, modern knowledge, improve institutions and rationally co-

ordinated system of policy measures that can remove a host of desirable conditions in the

social, economic and political system that have perpetuated a state of underdevelopment.

As enumerated above, planning is aimed at achieving economic growth and

development, here I shall give a brief description of what economic growth means. Economic

growth is described as an increase in the capital income of a country over time. Economic

development on the other hand however is the process whereby the real perceptual income

increases overtime. In considering this look at those characteristics of the economy which

make possible sustained and commutative growth in the real per capita income among which

we have qualitative improvement in labour, a rational system of resource allocation in the

interest of efficiency, the development of administrative political and physical infrastructure,

and a distribution of income conductive to national integration. Development planning in

Nigeria therefore is a process aimed at paving way for the above features of economic

development in terms of the desired development.

The country has had four national development plans since independence in 1960. But

the record would not be complete if we sidetracked the first plan drafted for Nigeria during

the colonial era. The plan tagged the ten year plan for development arid welfare for Nigeria,

1946; was made to cover up to 1960. It was prepared at the request of the colonial office in


Page 49 of 98

London to guide in its distribution of the aid supplied by the colonial Development and

welfare Act of 1940. The total cost was to be 4106.6 million of which 46 million were to be

supplied by colonial development and welfare funds, 431.6 million was to be raised as loan

and the remainder to be obtained from Nigeria revenue resources. The target was to improve

the general health and mental conditions of the people and to provide those physical facilities

which may be regarded as the minimum necessary. For the general development of the

country and its populations; the priority then was placed accordingly on social services —

water supplies and health education and on transport and communication; small amounts

were to be expended upon agriculture and forestry development. Industry was not given any

attention but mention was only made on village industries, pottery and textile and improved

palm oil extraction techniques. In 1951 however the plan was reviewed to take account of the

previous year’s success and particular the failure to reach the stipulated goal of the existing

plan by 1951.The revised plan remained the same as those of original one but its overall

scope in real term was reduced. Two factors necessitated the review was the visitation of the

International Bank of Reconstruction and development team in Nigeria in 1954 which issued

a weighty report with many precise recommendations.

The National Development plan 1962 -1968 constituted the first attempts in Nigeria at

comprehensive, integrated planning. For the first time projections were made and targets

were formed for the performance of the entire Nigerian economy both public and private

sectors, capital and current needs.

The objectives of this plan was to raise the growth rate of gross domestic product

from 3.9% per annum to 4.0% per year and this was aimed to achieved through gross

investment of 15% of gross domestic product per annum directed towards the productive

sectors. This growth rate was estimated to permit 1% per annum per capital private

consumption. 2/3 of the total projected investment of 2,396.6 million (excluding defense) is

to be undertaken by public sector (i.e. 433.6 million by the private sector and total investment

of 779.0 to come from foreign sources. The implementation of this plan was interrupted in

1966 by the political and civil war. During this period annual budget was employed as the

instrument of control and allocation of development recourses.

The 1962 — 1968 plan laid down 3 basic national objectives and goals the attainment

of growth rate of 4.0 per annum over the plan period; a raise in self-sustaining growth,

attainment of a modernized economy consistent with democratic, political and social

aspirations of the people, and objectives which includes the attainment of a more equitable


Page 50 of 98

distribution of income both among the people and among the regions and the creation of job

opportunities in the non-agricultural occupations. Highest priority of the plan was accorded to

agriculture, industrial and technical training, (trade, primary production) electricity and

transport together accounted for over 63.3% of total expenditure. The Objectives of the plan

were:

(a) A united, strong self-reliant nation.

(b) A great and dynamic economy.

(c) An egalitarian society.

(d) A land of bright opportunities for all citizens and

(e) A free and democratic society.

The main instrument for achieving this planned objective has been a public sector investment

programme. The sectoral allocation of planned capital expenditure in the plan broadly reflects

these priorities enumerated above.

With the problems confronted by the first national development plan the second

national development plan in 1970-1974 was launched. This was a four-year development

plan. It was launched shortly after the end of civil war as a means of re- constructing the

facilities damaged by the war and promoting economic and social development through the

nation. The plan aimed at a capital expenditure of the 3.192 billion during the four years

distribution between the private and public sectors, with the public accounting for 2.10 billion

and 1.56 billion by the private sector. The plan aimed at annual growth not of 7.0% per

annum as against the actual realized growth rate of 8.2% per annum.

However, the growth rate within this period experienced some fluctuations for

example it fell from 18.4% in 1971-1972 to 7.3% in 1973 — 1974 raising thereafter to 9.5%

in 1973 — 1974 and 1974 — 1975 respectively. Decline in the growth rate in 1972 — 1973

was due to an absolute fall of about 7% in agricultural sector which was as a consequence of

the adverse effect of drought on agricultural activity especially in the northern part of the

country and an unusual prolonged dry season in the southern part of the country. Another

factor was a result of a fall in the rate of expansion of the mining and the quarrying sector

during that year, the growth fell from 40.4% in 1971 — 1972 to 18.4% in 1972 — 1973.

Although manufacturing sector experience increase in growth rate of 24% but this does not

complement the fall in growth in the mining, quarrying and the agricultural sectors.

The second National development plan placed more emphasis on agriculture, Mining

and manufacturing. Mining was very high during this period, the contributions of agriculture


Page 51 of 98

and manufacturing fell below expectations. Among the problem associated during this period

(1970 — 1974) were the difficulties in getting feasibility studies on time, scarcity of technical

partners and infrastructural constraints

Another importance of this plan was the growing dominance of building and

construction as an item of capital formation. This is due mainly to the extensive

reconstruction of facilities damaged by war and the implementation of the large road

programmes of federal Government. There was an increase in the participation of the private

sector to the growth rates with private constructions of 48.4% as against public contribution

of 41.6%.

With all the failures and success is in mind, Nigerian government came up with the

third National Development plan from 1975 — 1980. The objectives are to be geared towards

increase in per capita income (to raise standard of living); more equitable distribution of

income; Diversification of the economy; balanced development and indigenization of

economic activities. The growth rate was the highest ever-recorded averaged 9.5% per annum

during the first year of plan; GDP recorded about 2.5% above the projected plan. At the

beginning of the plan period mining and agriculture as projected to contribute to about 45%

and 23% total GDP respectively and by 1980 it has assumed dominance, but their actual

contribution was 37.5% and 19.9 respectively in that year. The GNP was project to grow that

annual growth rate of 16%. This significant performance could be traced to the indigenization

policy and consolidations of the national gains arising there from the realized revenue.

The plan also made a lot of improvement in the banking and finance sectors, capital

formation also increased tremendously and investment, construction and building continue to

grow in size. Public finance also rose significantly during this plan period this was due to the

federal Government assumption of full responsibility of primary education and teacher

training throughout the country. The substantial Government participation in the petroleum

sector fetched more revenue to our coffers in terms of foreign reserve and this had a positive

role to the economic activities. It contributed about 44% to GDP during this plan period.

However planning in Nigeria continue to face problem of technical manpower, lack fund,

lack of executive capacity and lack of project evaluation of past plans, led to the failure of the

plan.

The fourth national development plan of 1981 — 1985 was launched in 1981 and had

has its main objectives the building of a strong, dynamic and egalitarian culture. The plan

was aimed at increasing real income, even and equitable distribution of income, increased


Page 52 of 98

supply of skilled manpower and attainment of national self reliance. The aim was to invest

one for every individual on the country for the next four years overall growth rate was

estimated at 7% per annum. The total investment was 82 billion of the sum 70 billion was to

be accounted for by the various government of the federation and their agencies. The federal

government to be responsible for 40 billion with state and local government handling 20

billion; 25 billion was allocated to the federal capital development authority. The private

sector was responsible for 111 billion.

ITQ

What is a development plan?

ITA

“Development planning” is the conscious effort of a central organization to influence the

effort in some cases, even control changes in principal economic variables e.g. consumption,

investment, saving e.t.c of a certain country or region over a course of time in accordance

with a predetermined set of objectives. Economic planning or development planning is aimed

at influencing, directing and controlling state machinery towards a desired goal called

economic growth. Development planning can also be described as a specific set of qualitative

economic targets to be reached in a given period of time, It may be a comprehensive plan

with major aspect of the national economy, and/or partial which covers only a part of the

national economy of the country towards some desired goals and activities usually through

series of rationally co-ordinate inducement, restrictions, programmes and investment.

5.7 Summary on the objectives of national development plans in NigeriaThe colonial welfare development plan (1946 - 1956) it was the first plan made for Nigeria

by the colonial masters. The plan was estimated to cost 106 million.

Main objectives of the plan

a. Provision of a country wide systems of communication network.

b. The provision of adequate funds for the spread of higher education and fundamental

research.

c. Provision of social services for the federal territory of Lagos.

d. Provision of public services and utilities

e. Provision of adequate machinery for safe guarding Nigeria’s security

f. Provision of loans for statutory corporation (marketing boards).

The first national development plan 1962 — 1968.


Page 53 of 98

The plan had an estimated cost of 2.4 billion.


a. To raise the gross domestic product from 3.9 — 4%

b. To develop rapidly in areas education, health and employment modernize agriculture,

creation of more managerial opportunities, and provision of necessary infrastructure.

c. Improve fiscal and monetary policies and stability.

The second national development (1970 — 1974).

The Nigerian civil war 1967 — 1970 brought the first national plan to an end. Nevertheless

after the civil war the sum of 3.3 billion was earmarked for the 1970— 1974 plan.

Main objectives

a. The reconstruction of facilities damaged by the war.

b. The rehabilitation and settlement of persons displaced by the war

c. Establishment of an efficient administrative system.

d. Creation of job opportunities.

e. The production of high level and intermediate man power

f. Promotion of balanced development between the urban and rural areas.

The third national development (1975 — 1980)

The third national plan which was estimated to cost 53.3 billion had the following objectives;

a. Equitable distribution of income.

b. Improvement in the standard of living.

c. Adequate supply of all categories of man-power required for sustained economic growth.

d. Reduction in the level of unemployment

e. Increased diversification of economy through rapid expansion of industrial activities.

f. Balanced development

g. Indigenization of economic activity.

4. The fourth national development plan (1979 — 1985)

The Alhaji Shehu Shagari’s administration of (1979 — 1983) introduced the fourth national

development plan in 1981 with an estimated cost of 82 billion.


a. Increase in the real income of the average citizen.

b. Equitable distribution of income

c. Reduction of unemployment.


Page 54 of 98

d. Increased in the supply of skilled manpower.

e. Balanced development.

f. Development of technology.

g. Reduction in rural urban migration.

The Fifth national development plan (1990 — 1992) (the rolling plan) introduced by the

Babangida’s administration with an estimated cost of 114.2 billion was introduced to correct

the problems of past national development plans. The plan was meant to cover only a two

year period as against previous plans that had 5-6 year time limit.

The economic crisis that confronted Nigeria since 1993 needed immediate attention as such

planning for a period of 4 years was deemed unnecessary by the Babangida’s administration.

The plan had the following priorities.

1. Consolidation of the gains of the structural adjustment programme

2. To deal with the pressing problems of inflation, unemployment, weak industrial base of the

country and the slow growth of non-oil export.

3. To curb social vices such as drug abuse and armed robbery.

The plan was thus hinged on agricultural development, provision of infrastructure, rural

development e.t.c.

It was based on the foregoing that the Babangida’s Administration created or initiated

Agricultural development programmes such as: River Basin Development Authorities, State

Ministries of Agriculture, the Directorate of food, Road and Rural infrastructures (DFRRI)

and agricultural finance institutions to encourage rural community development.


1. Planning has to do with the activities of the future. Planning is deciding in advance

what to do how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.

2. In the planning process, the following factors are to be considered: Level of

developmet,institutional restructure, resource constraint and availability of statistical

data

3. Planning from the individual level (prime objective) and at the state level (coordinate

objective)


Page 55 of 98

4. No meaningful plan would succeed if the machinery charged with the responsibility

of implementing the plan is weak. The success of a well formulated plan depends

heavily on the agency charged with the responsibility for its execution.

5. Types of plan: short term, long term and medium term plans

6. “Development planning” is the conscious effort of a central organization to influence

the effort in some cases, even control changes in principal economic variables e.g.

consumption, investment, saving e.t.c of a certain country or region over a course of

time in accordance with a predetermined set of objectives.

7. Development plans in Nigeria include the Colonial welfare plan,1962 -168 plan,

1970 – 1974 plan, 1975 – 1980 Plan, 1981 -1984 plans





Module.

SAQ 5.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 5.7)List the main objectives of the 1970 – 1974 development plans in Nigeria

SAQ 5.2 (Testing Learning outcomes 5.7)List the factors that led the collapse of the 1962 – 1968 plans in Nigeria.

Activity

1. List any five practices that work against development plans in Nigeria

i. __________________________________________________

ii. __________________________________________________

iii. __________________________________________________

iv. ___________________________________________________

v. ___________________________________________________


Page 56 of 98







Destiny Ventures



University press.


Page 57 of 98

Study Session 6. Poverty and poverty alleviationprogrammes in Nigeria

Introduction

Poverty is one of the challenges confronting the development of Nigeria. It is a serious

problem that has attracted much attention from national as well as the international

community because of its implications on the socio – economic development. This study

session was designed to examine poverty and some of the poverty alleviation programmes in

Nigeria.

By the end of this study session, you will be able to:

6.1. Define poverty

6.2. Discuss the nature of poverty in Nigeria

6.3 State the causes of poverty in Nigeria

6.4. Discus the approaches to poverty reduction

6.5. Enumerate some of the development programmes in Nigeria.

Bold term

6.1. Meaning of povertyPoverty as a concept has attracted a lot of attention from different scholars.It is a

multidimensional phenomenon. It is also a social problem. According to Townsend (1997)

poverty is a situation where individuals or families are in command of resources which

overtime; fall seriously short of the resources commanded by the average family.Johnsons

(2006) explained that poverty may be defined “as existing when resources of families or

individual are inadequate to provide socially acceptable standard of living”.

Per Park (2004) state that “Poverty can be expressed as inability to satisfy basic needs

of human life due to lack of income” poverty standard environment characterized with

absolute poverty which is refer to as insufficient resources which an individual is so pressed

to have example, food, shelter, cloths e.t.c.


Page 58 of 98

Transitional poverty is a short temporary poverty otherwise known as the poverty to

“hopeful” its causes includes both natural and manmade disaster like drought earth quake,

theft and ward. However, subjective poverty in Nigeria is widespread and serves, The most

recent poverty indicators such as illiteracy, youth unemployment, lack of access to safe water

and the growing number of poor people have revealed that Nigeria rank’s below Kenya

Ghana and Zambia.

Nigeria’s gross national product per capital is lower and its purchasing power

continues to decline with high inflation and increasing income inequality (Otiagbe 2002).

Renata (2005:3) is of the opinion that those who subscribed to the human capability concept

of poverty maintained focus, expanding people opportunity and span. Poverty is

impoverishment due to lack of social status as well as personal circumstances to lead valuable

and valued lives. The emphasis on empowering the poor, facilitating their participation in

society and enabling them to move upward on the socio -economic ladder is central to human

capability approach to poverty reduction.

In an attempt to suggest possible ways of reducing poverty in Nigeria, (Eware

2007:22) identified the following approaches.

i. Increasing the poor and vulnerable, access to productive assets.

ii. ii. Raising the return on assets to which the poor and vulnerable have access.

iii. iii. Promoting employment opportunities.

iv. Investing in human capital available to the poor sufficient and relevant

qualities of education health nutrition and food security.

v. Empowering the poor to expand their economic and social participation, this

can be achieved by supplementing their’ resources and initiative with adequate

and relevant transfer.

Poverty at the individual and national level cannot be eradicated. However, it can be

alleviated or its ravaging effects can be ameliorated and thus there is room for well-designed

poverty programmes to address the root cause as well as the impacts and the manifestation of

poverty. Good poverty reduction programmes take time to design and need intelligent

planning human and technical resources as well as established administration capability. To

implement (Daily Trust 2002) “poverty alleviation programmed in Nigeria has failed of

poverty reduction related programmes in Nigeria include programme inconsistency poor

implementation, corruption of government officials and servants, poor targeting mechanism


Page 59 of 98

and failure to focus directly on the poor (Kani Kerenda et. Al., 2000: Ogwun Mike, 1998 and

Egware, 1997).

ITQ

Define poverty

ITA

Poverty can be expressed as inability to satisfy basic needs of human life due to lack of

income. Poverty standard environment characterized with absolute poverty is referred to as

insufficient resources which an individual is so pressed to have example, food, shelter, cloths

and the like.

6.2. The Nature of Poverty in NigeriaIn Nigeria the problem of poverty has a fairly long-time history being a cause for

concern to the government, town and country initiating practical measures of dealing with the

problem.

Evidence shows that in Nigeria the number of those in poverty level has increased

over time. An estimate has that more than 70% of Nigeria lives in poverty (Fashola 2005).

The Nigeria economic policy (1999 2003) also reveals that only 40% have access to primary

health care, 40% have access to portable water supply, 34% have access to electricity in rural

areas, illiteracy level still at 57% and while almost all Nigerians consume less than one thirds

of the minimum required protein and vitamin intake due to low purchasing power. The

implication of such report of World Bank development report, according to research in rural

terms is that Nigeria is worst off its standard of living compared to its counterpart’s

developing countries like South Africa.

The same report reveals that Nigeria has one of the lower per capital income in the

world even if compared to its counterpart. Nigeria per capital income today is 30 Dollars per

annum. Ghana has about 40 Dollars capital income per annum; Togo has 32 Dollar per

annum.

Information from the Federal Office of Statistics showed that the incidence of poverty

increase sharply both between 2002, 2004 and 2006. In 2004, the National planning


Page 60 of 98

commission (NPC) after considering preliminary outputs form the collaborative work on the

poor assess, took the initiative to set up Poverty Alleviation Programme Development

Committee (PAPDC). This consists of representatives of government agencies, non-

governmental organization, and community development associations, academia and business

communities. PAPDC’S main task was to advice the government on the design of poverty

alleviation programme, the PADC commission research from consultative survey of 36 rural

and urban communities in six zones, across Nigeria. In March 2005, the surveys access

current poverty alleviation activities being implemented by government, non-governmental

organization and community base organization evaluate the capacity and performance of the

local implementation institute and the level of population participation in the programmes

and sough for views of communities PAPDC reports recommend that to be effective any

rational poverty alleviation programme would need to be flexible enough to address the

diversity of the need of poor individuals and communities (World Bank, 2006).

ITQ

What is the nature of poverty in Nigeria since 2011?

ITA

Evidence shows that in Nigeria the number of those in poverty level has increased

over time. An estimate has that more than 70% of Nigeria lives in poverty. The Nigeria

economic policy also reveals that only 40% have access to primary health care, 40% have

access to portable water supply, 34% have access to electricity in rural areas, illiteracy level

still at 57% and while almost all Nigerians consume less than one thirds of the minimum

required protein and vitamin intake due to low purchasing power.

6.3 Causes of Poverty in NigeriaIn Nigeria poverty can be caused through many factors. Some of these factors among

other include the following:

i. Administration and institutional factors.

ii. Unfair income distribution.

iii. Mismanagement and corruption.

iv. Dependence on one export commodity and over dependence on imports


Page 61 of 98

Administrative and Institutional Factors

Nigeria mass and object poverty can be traced to mal-administration such as negative

correlation between population and national income and low human capital resources.

Similarly it is said that the country is poor because it lacks administration talent and technical

experience to carry out feasibility studies on how to implement government policies and

programme.

Unfair Income Distribution

Reports show and indicate that Nigeria does not have a fair distribution analysis. The

World Bank survey shows that Nigeria income inequality is worse than any of its African

Neighbors, which still makes the Country’s poverty level uncontrollable, it is estimated that

40% of the Nigeria wealth is shared by just 10% of the National population, 60% shared a

party of 1% of the nation’s wealth. There pitiable income distribution inequalities must be

addressed so as to avoid head cost.

Mismanagement and Corruption:

The major cause of poverty in Nigeria is as a result of corruption and

mismanagement. For instance during the administration of Ibrahim Babangida there was an

alleged case of gross mismanagement of huge amount of money believed to have been

released during the 1992 gulf war. The illegal plight of such an amount of money from the

national treasury has denied the masses good health care, education, employment, portable

water etc. So many Nigerians such as the Sambo Dasukis, Farouk Lawan, Bades, Allison

Maduwekes, and the Metuhs have recently been indicted for stealing billions of naira from

the national treasury.

Dependence on one export commodity and over dependence on imports

This also contributed to poverty in Nigeria since 1980; Nigerian solely depends on oil

as the only commodity for export. The oil sector which accounted for only 22% of the Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) provides about 80% of government revenue and over 90% of the

export earning in Nigeria. Also mostly, we maintain a culture over dependence on

importation of goods and services thus making the country a dumping ground for foreign

products particularly from Europe and Asia.

ITQ

List any two causes of poverty in Nigeria


Page 62 of 98

ITA

1. Administration and institutional factors.

2. Unfair income distribution.

6.4 Approaches to Poverty Reduction in NigeriaThe following are the various approaches to poverty reduction in Nigeria

Economic growth approach

Given the labour absorption capacity of the industrial sector, broad based economic

growth should be encouraged. This should focus on capital. Humana capital has to do with

education, health, nutrition and housing needs. This is obvious from the fact that investment

in these sources of human capital improves the quality of labour and thus its productivity.

Rural development approach

This approach sees the rural sector as a unique sector in term of poverty reduction. This is

because majority of the poor in the developing countries fails in this sector. The government

needs a proper implementation of politics that will improve the quality of lives of the rural

people.

Basic need approach

This refers to the provision of basic need such as food, shelter, water, sanitation health

care, basic education and transportation e.t.c. the basic needs may or may not directly have

positive effect on the lives of the poor because of its implementation, but it is of great help to

the poor.

Target approach

This approach favour directly of poverty reduction programme to specific groups

within the country. This approach includes such programme as social safety needs, micro

credit and school meal’ programme. This required proper identification of the target group so

as to minimize leakages.

Alain (2000) pointed out that despite the fact that the first explicit declaration of

poverty reduction as a national problem was made in 1989, it must be recognized that past


Page 63 of 98

government attempt at poverty reduction dates back to 1977, programmes and strategies

aimed at poverty reduction by the past government include, community board 1971, farm

settlement (FS) 1959, research institute (RI) 1965, Nigerian entrepreneurship development

work for yourself (NEDIWY), National accelerated food development programme (NAFDP),

Nigeria agricultural and co-operative Bank (NACB), 1973:2. River basin with poverty being

on the increase rendering individuals helpless due to little or no access o basic infrastructure

and amenities, insecurity, high rate of death, corruption in, the level of the society and

government, the need for poverty eradication becomes imperatives.

A very strong foundation is essential for the successful implementation of poverty

eradication scheme in’ any developing country these solid bases are in the area of:

i. National security and political stability.

ii. Discipline

iii. Infrastructural development

Economic stability and provision of adequate welfare services.It has been pointed out that

genuine poverty reduction must be intersectoral with most of other development arid social

change initiative of the government, private sector and nongovernmental organization

(NGO’s). The starting point is a measured of public education efforts which incorporates, but

is not limited to the mass-media and rises mostly on personal and community channels to

convince us in imperatives and community channels to convince us in imperatives of poverty

reduction. They presuppose that the leaders understand poverty reduction and not see it as

sharing the national cake (Daily Trust, 2003:53).

Poverty reduction programmes in Nigeria has failed to produce reduction of poverty,

this include, programme inconsistency, poor implementations, corruption’ of government

officials; poor targeting mechanism and failure to focus directly on the masses (Kankwenda).

Strategies identified include legally security entitlement to productive assets (especially land

and water), preventing access to technology, about all for increasing the output and yield of

stable food, access to macro finance (2005:2), and access to market opportunity to participate

in decentralized resources management. Three quarters of billion of people who live in,

extreme poverty live and work in rural areas.

Almost 75 percent of the people residing in rural area surviving from agricultural

(IFAD) which typically represent the target economic sector in most developing


Page 64 of 98

countries.The state of affairs above therefore, suggests the need for addressing the

widespread of rural poverty. But this agricultural sector has sometimes been given low

priority. This evident in the usual misdirection of public expenditure allocation for

agricultural development there by providing positive impact on reduction in our rural

environment, until the programme has wider coverage and of people interest. In contrast to

this finding, many poverty reduction strategies focus predominately on promoting growth in

manufacturing trade and service industries which are often concentrated in urban centre,, with

respect to rural development. Poverty reduction strategies often largely rely on the indirect

trickle- down effects. The main idea of this mechanism is not any investment in urban area

though the industrial sector will eventually benefit the rural area where most of the poor live.

Yet, empirical evidence does not seem to support the nation that stimulating economic

growth in urban area improve rural as benefit of urban area led to do appear to significantly

trickle down to rural area for instance, Rawqali on and Daff (2005:25), shows that while

urban likely to do so for rural poverty reduction. In fact there is increasing evidence from

developing countries which suggest ‘that the opposite may be true; meaning that improving

economic condition in rural area is likely to spill into urban centres.

Additionally, poverty reduction in agricultural sectors is closely associated with the

concepts of food security. According to recent projection, the majority of the three quarters of

the food who live in rural areas will continue to live into the 21st century (IFAD 2001), since

the rural populace depend primarily on agriculture and other related activities for their

survival, the production of stable food life rice, maize, sorghum millet and wheat and root

tubers such as yam and cassava will continue to be central in the livelihood of the rural

people.

Though, there has been much debate about whether to the development of local roads

and other types of infrastructure (capital based) benefit the poor. Some evidence suggests that

certain type of infrastructure such as road, transport facilities as well as electricity supply and

telecommunication. This research work is done based on social indicators which are after

referred as “Basic need” for development. The basic needs focus on reduction of poverty

providing the needs to the people (poor) such as health, food water, sanitation and housing as

recognizing by Hicks and Streater (2007).

Basic needs approach becomes necessary due to its concern with ends which are

human development more so, because poverty affects in a shorter period on and fewer


Page 65 of 98

monetary resources than other strategies which only aim at increasing productivity and

income of the poor in the long run, lastly basic needs leads to higher level of productivity and

income through human development in the form of education and health people (Jinghan

2000).

Dissatisfies with growth, employment, marginal productivity and redistribution with

growth approaches to development and against the back growth approach economic thinkers

turned forward towards basic human needs strategy for promoting human well being,

especially that of the poor. Have the potential, to reduce rural poverty and to contribute to

increase in agricultural output and to income. Ali and Pernia (2003) maintained that local

roads and capital infrastructures have the potential to substantially improve the learning’s

potential to rural residents, particularly since low farm productivity and lack of access to

market constitute one of the main factors underlying rural poverty, in its first mission to a less

developed countries, Columbia 1950, the world Bank stated its objectives in terms of meeting

basic human needs. However, it was at the world employment conference of 2006 that the

International Labour Organization (ILO) expose the concept of a basic needs strategy which

India has already adopted in 2004 two years ahead of the ILO declaration.

Although, redistribution with Group approach emerged against the trickle down of the

marginal productivity and Gross National Product per capita approached, it could not solve

the problem of poverty. It emphasized on, provision of infrastructure and targeting specific

groups and providing for them failed due its marginalization effect, thus basic needs approach

becomes necessary for the following targets.

i. It aimed at raising productivity and incomes of the rural and urban poor.

ii. It emphasized on the removal of poverty by providing public service such as

education, pure drinking water.

iii. It advocates for the provision of infrastructures required generating a surplus

to finance basic communal services, providing investment sufficient to sustain

the increase in productivity.

iv. These public services are to be financed by governments.

According to Ola Yemi (1995) basic needs programmed for poverty reduction should

have the following components; economic components to promote broad based, economic

growth, create employment and income generating opportunity for both poor and non-poor,

social service component and safety net components.


Page 66 of 98

Fishlow (2005) view poverty reduction as something different from income inequality

which leads to fundamental shifts direction concern for those who are worse-off such as core-

poor. Direction attention to the rural areas where incidence of poverty is high, grassroots

consideration of policy focus and reduction in the tension between the stimulus objectives c

improving the well-being of the people.

ITQ

List the various approaches to poverty reduction

ITA

1. Economic growth approach

2. Rural development approach

3. Basic need approach

4. Target approach

6.5 Development programmes /Poverty Reduction Strategies in

NigeriaPoverty reduction through the models laid down in the Federal government poverty

reduction strategies with particular emphasis to its socio-economic situation. The

states and local government has the following objectives.

a. Building on the poor’s won coping mechanism and taking into account the

institutional, cultural and social factors that influence these strategies.

b. Enhancing the ability of the poor to help the state on sustained basic through

strengthening and creating appropriate partnership with local government and

non government and non government institution.

c. Empowering the living conditions of the poor through target cost effective,

demand driving and promptly delivered programmes.

Concern with decimal performance of the previous attempt of poverty reduction in

Nigeria, State governments in collaboration with the federal government, the World Bank and

Africa development bank, negotiated a credit to finance the community based on the six


Page 67 of 98

geopolitical zones namely Borno, Abia, Cross River, Kebbi, Ekiti and Kogi as pilot project, it

is a departure from the previous top-down approach to the problem of poverty reduction. The

new strategy focuses on dealing with specific community determined needs. Designed as a

social action formed, its primary objectives it to find a mechanism to improve the availability

and management of development resources of the community level, previous attempts has

failed to encourage the desired level of dialogue participation and local ownership of

development resources.

The Borno State poverty reduction agency (BSPRA) adopted a well planned and

practical strategy of achieving its objectives.

Skills development

Provision of adequate vocational training centre to quip for their particular self-

employment and facilitate maintenance of community level projects. The activities of

national directorate of employment (NDE) need to be constantly appraised and effort should

be made to think of more with both the informal sector where apprenticeship activities are

carried out without proper basic structure of sustaining the apprentice when finish learning

the work and the formal school system where individual could acquire these skills as a part of

their educational programme.

Effective structure

In addition, effort of government to facilitate poverty reduction in urban and rural

areas should also focus on provision of basic inputs that can enhance people’s livelihood

productivity and income. Example, agriculture input, machines, credit facilities, training

programme to develop skills markets, road networks, adequate wages and salaries etc some

segment of the population may continue to receive government subsidy, it is not wrong for

government to grant subsidy to the poor. But the mode of implementation should be properly

coordinated and focused on the poor so as to discourage leakage. Government should on the

long run come up with social welfare programmes that will be directed at the poor, which can

be funded by all ties of government.

Programme / project idea

Poverty reduction proramme and project should he made to integrate the nucleus of

the poor into developmental efforts in order to address the actual needs of that state and local

council more autonomy to evolve and execute poverty reduction programme and projects that


Page 68 of 98

will take their particular circumstance into consideration. This call for the decentralization of

the institution involved in poverty reduction for instance, the proposed poverty reduction

fund can though this process serve as a variable conditional grants that can enable them all

alleviated poverty in their reduction in their respective areas of jurisdiction through effective

social expenditure programme, moreover, all are committed to not only obtained finance

from the poverty reduction funds, but also contributing towards that fund either from their

internal resources or through external sourcing.

The dire need to create a favourable atmosphere conducive to engendering sustainable

social, economic and political development has continually geared government leaders

around the world particularly in less developed countries (LDCs) in to initiating development

programmes. Yet, even as they put efforts to redress the challenges confronting development

in the continent, solutions relating to development remain elusive. This issue is essential in

the sense that Nigeria is presently a country embarking on a path of development and

modernization. This, she has tried to consolidate by initiating development programmes for

the country through the Public Service. Since the Nigerian Public Service is the body mainly

responsible for the actualization of government policies and programmes, this section of this

book would therefore identify some of the development programmes formulated by Nigeria

since independence but a more in depth analysis would be made on the Poverty Alleviation

Programme.

The Nigerian Public Service is a colonial creation. At its earliest stage, it was

concerned mainly with the maintenance of law and order and raising revenue to sustain the

British Colonial Administration. The Public Service was also geared towards the policy of

preventing trouble in the areas under the colonial administration. All these were necessary

because it was only in an atmosphere of peace that the colonial administration could

successfully carry out the exploitation of the country’s resources. Thus, the socio-economic

development of Nigeria was not in the agenda of the British. However, at independence in

1960 the philosophy of the Nigerian Public Service changed to that of Development

Administration because of the development challenges confronting Nigeria at that point in

time. Consequently, there was the urgent need to promote comprehensive programmes of

social, political, economic and industrial change.


Page 69 of 98

Development progammes in Nigeria: an Overview

Over the years, some development programmes have been undertaken with the aim of

reducing, if not totally eradicating poverty in Nigeria. These programmes were expected to at

least promote social, economic and political development in the country. Some of these

programmes include:

The establishment of Peoples’ Bank;

Creation of Community Banks and small scale industries in Nigeria;

Establishment of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE);

Creation of River Basin Development Authorities;

Operation Feed the Nation;

Green Revolution Programme;

Back to the Land Programme;

The Family Support Programme;

The National Agriculture Development Projects;

Community Development Programme;

Better Life for Rural Women;

The Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DIFRRI);

Entrepreneurship Development Programme;

Family Economic and Advancement Programme (FEAP);

The Seven Point Agenda and;

The Poverty Alleviation Programme; and

The Transformation Agenda.

A critical look at the Poverty Alleviation Programme would be considered here. This is as

a result of the fact that it is one of the development programmes embarked upon by the

country since returning to democratic rule on 29th May 1999.

The Poverty Alleviation Programme was introduced in Nigeria in the year 2000 by the

Obasanjo led Administration because Nigeria which was seen as one of the richest countries

in the early 1970s retrogressed to become one of the 25th poorest countries at the threshold of

the 21st century. It is disheartening to mention here that Nigeria is the sixth largest exporter of

oil and at the same time hosts the third largest number of poor people after China and India


Page 70 of 98

(Octive, 2006). It is against this background that the National Poverty Eradication

Programme (NAPEP) was immediately set up in 2000 with the following objectives:

1. To reduce the social unrest occasioned by unemployed youths;

2. To reposition the private sector so as to make it more productive;

3. To create opportunity for employment and wealth creation;

4. To invest in education; and

5. Provision of social programmes for the vulnerable

The above objectives of the Poverty Alleviation Programme were strengthened by the

introduction of the National Economic Empowerment Strategy (NEEDS) which drew

heavily on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The Millennium Development

Goals (MDGs) are a series of eight time bound development goals that seek to address

issues of poverty, education, gender equality, Health, and the Environment (Ibrahim,

2008).

To demonstrate Nigerian commitment to the MDGs particularly the reduction of

poverty in the country, late president Umaru Musa Yar’adua also introduced the Seven Point

Agenda. An economic and social programme aimed at facilitating the achievement of the

goals in 2015. One of the specific goals of the MDGs is: Eradication of extreme poverty and

hunger. The targets for this goal are:

a). To reduce by 50% between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less

than one US Dollar; and

b). To reduce by 50% between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from

hunger.

Based on the forgoing, it is important to state here that when food is available and easily

affordable in the country, it ensures that the citizens would be able to engage in their socio-

economic and other ancillary activities, but this not the situation Nigerians find themselves

today. There is in fact a wide gap between the rich and the poor in Nigeria. In fact politics

and power tussle; corruption among the elite leaders and rulers in the country has seriously

increased poverty and dependence in the country.


Page 71 of 98

Poverty Alleviation Programme was introduced as earlier stated in response to the

high level of poverty in Nigeria. Poverty Alleviation Programmes were in fact initiated in

order to improve the socio-economic and political well being of the poor. According to Rick

(2003) in his attempt at providing a context of global poverty advanced that: Half the world’s

six billon people live on less than U.S dollars per day; two billion have no electricity; one

and a half billion have no safe water and a quarter billion children do not attend School.

In similar manner, Kabiru (2009) in an attempt to anal size the status of poverty

alleviation programme in Nigeria opined that: “with a population of 140 million and a youth

population of 80 million, with 64 million unemployed, also with an estimated Graduate

turnover of over 600,000 graduates yearly the Nigerian labour market is in crisis”

It must be mentioned here that since the creation of NAPEP, the Government Agency

responsible for the execution of the Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria nothing

meaningful has been achieved pertaining to the state of poverty in the country. This can be

attributed to the poor and inefficient performance of the Nigerian Public Service. A Public

Service characterized by mismanagement and an authoritarian political culture. Anofi (2004)

re-echoed this fact when he advanced that: The United Nations (UN) allocated one billion

naira to Nigeria for the implementation of the MDGs and according to the 2007 Mid Point

Assessment declared that Nigeria is unlikely to meet the achievement of the MDGs.

The reason for the above statement is not far- fetched. The huge amount of money

released by the Federal and some State Governments for the execution of the poverty

alleviation program me were most often than not diverted into personal use. The poor

implementation of poverty alleviation programmes is truly attributed to poor management

particularly weak control of resources earmarked for the programmes. From 2000 to date

cases of mismanagement of public funds abound in the Nigerian Public Service for instance

late President Musa Yar adua on assumption of office in 2007 lamented how the past

administration of General Olusegun Obasanjo mismanaged and spent over 1.2 trillion naira

on the power sector without any result to show for it (Timothy,2008).More so huge amount

of monies were released by the Federal Government to NAPEP so as to provide loans,

fertilizers, organize workshops and Seminars for the target population, provide farm

implements etc to farmers and the vulnerable sections of the population in the country but

these are yet to be achieved due to poor planning and corruption among government officials.

It is pertinent to state at this juncture that the Poverty Alleviation Programme and other

development programmes have failed in Nigeria due to the factors enumerated and discussed


Page 72 of 98

above. This is why Okeke (2009) stated that: The core causes of the recent Boka Haram

crisis in some parts of Northern Nigeria was largely attributed to mass unemployment and

poverty across the country. Aliyu (2009) was also in a similar frame of mind when he said

that many social commentators and analysts implicated poverty and the underdeveloped state

of Nigeria due to the failure of the Public service to deliver. They also spotlighted the

distorted electoral processes, the inability to entrench good leadership and corruption in high

places as some of the factors that led to the failure of development programmes in Nigeria.

It is pertinent to note here that no country can experience good governance and

sustainable national development without a sound Public Administration system that is

responsible for government development plans and programmes. In fact it is rather

disheartening to know that the Nigerian Public Service pay little or no attention to some of

these development programmes in the country which is a serious threat to peace and

stability in the country.

Nigeria cannot succeed in her various government reforms programmes such as the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the National Economic Empowerment

Development Strategy (NEEDS) and the Vision 20:2020 Objectives if it continued to neglect

its development programmes in the country. The essence of setting development programmes

in the country cannot be over emphasized. Development Programmes accelerates good

governance and sustainable national development. Nothing meaningful can be achieved if

development programmes are not strengthened in the country. Nigeria is a country endowed

with human and natural resources which if judiciously used could have made it to be one of

the richest and industrialized countries in the world. But, today, Nigeria is adjudged as one of

the poorest countries in the world due to the large number of poor people in the country and

the failure of some of its relevant Departments and Agencies in the public service to perform

their day to day activities. Nigeria cannot leapfrog over its development challenges if it

continues to be plaque by poor leadership and decayed government institutions like the

Public service. In fact Nigeria may be unable to engage the international economy

sufficiently if the Public Service is not completely reformed.

The administration of development programmes from the analysis above can be said

to be poor due to the inefficient nature of the Nigerian Public Service. Almost all the policies

and development programmes initiated by both past and present governments in Nigeria have

been bedeviled by: Corruption, unqualified staff, poor salaries of public servants, lack of

political commitment, inadequate funds, over centralization of policies, weak institutional


Page 73 of 98

and administrative frame work etc. Nigeria cannot overcome the challenges of development

if its Public service is not properly re-positioned. The public service is a very important arm

of government because it is the body responsible for the execution of government policies

and programmes. As such, it need to be reformed so as enable Nigeria achieve the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 and also realize the vision 20:2020

objectives. If nothing is done to checkmate the high level of corruption and administrative

malpractices in the Nigerian Public Service, development would indeed be a mile wide and

an inch thick for Nigeria. As a matter of urgency, the Nigerian Government should involve

the poor or the masses when formulating policies/programmes for development in Nigeria.

For instance in the case of the Poverty Alleviation programme, good analysis and diagnosis

of the state of poverty in Nigeria should be properly done.

If the poor were involved in the policy process, they assure that best priorities are

chosen for the vulnerable in the country. More so, one key to enhancing efficiency is

education and training which makes people better and be able to care for them. Government

should therefore design relevant curriculum that would encourage manpower development in

the public service since unqualified staff was identified as one of the weaknesses of the

public service.

Again Government through its relevant agencies should improve access to credit and

the promotion of small scale enterprises in Nigeria so as enable some of these development

programmes succeed. It is also worthy to recommend here that Public Servants should ensure

that the execution of projects and programmes for development should be in line with the

Budget planning and Execution procedures (Due Process). Salaries and working conditions of

Public Servants on the other hand should be improved so as to stop them from engaging in

corrupt practices and other administrative excesses.

Finally, in other to combat corruption and the mismanagement of public funds, more

Ombudsman like oversight agencies and Accountability Institutions like the Economic and

Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Crimes and other Related matters

Commission should be strengthened legally and financially so as to monitor the activities of

Public Servants in the country.

ITQ

List any five development programmes you have studied

ITA


Page 74 of 98

1. Creation of Community Banks and small scale industries in Nigeria;

2. Establishment of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE);

3. Operation Feed the Nation;

4. Green Revolution Programme; and

5. The Family Support Programme.

Summary1. Poverty as a concept has attracted a lot of attention from different scholars.It is a

multidimensional phenomenon. It is also a social problem. According to Townsend

(1997) poverty is a situation where individuals or families are in command of

resources which overtime; fall seriously short of the resources commanded by the

average family.Johnsons (2006) explained that poverty may be defined “as existing

when resources of families or individual are inadequate to provide socially acceptable

standard of living”.

2. The nature of poverty shows that in Nigeria the number of those in poverty level has

increased over time. An estimate has that more than 70% of Nigeria lives in poverty

(Fashola 2005). The Nigeria economic policy (1999 2003) also reveals that only 40%

have access to primary health care, 40% have access to portable water supply, 34%

have access to electricity in rural areas, illiteracy level still at 57% and while almost

all Nigerians consume less than one thirds of the minimum required protein and

vitamin intake due to low purchasing power.

3. In Nigeria poverty can be caused through many factors. Some of these factors among

other include the following: administration and institutional factors,

unfair income distribution, mismanagement and corruption, dependence on one export

commodity and over dependence on imports.

4. Some development programmes have been undertaken with the aim of reducing, if

not totally eradicating poverty in Nigeria. These programmes were expected to at least

promote social, economic and political development in the country. Some of these

programmes include: the establishment of Peoples’ Bank; creation of Community

Banks and small scale industries in Nigeria; establishment of the National Directorate

of Employment (NDE); creation of River Basin Development Authorities;


Page 75 of 98





Module.

SAQ 6.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 6.4)

Discuss any poverty approach as a poverty reduction strategy in Nigeria

ACTIVITYWhat strategies should the government of Nigeria employ to reduce the level of poverty in

Nigeria?

Strategies 1:____________________________________________________

Strategies 2:___________________________________________________

Strategies 3:____________________________________________________

Strategies 4:___________________________________________________

Strategies 5:___________________________________________________

3. How should government assist you in your effort to alleviate poverty in your

community?







Page 76 of 98


Destiny Ventures



University press.


Page 77 of 98

Study session 7: Rural development

Introduction

In study session 6, we discussed poverty alleviation and poverty alleviation strategies in

Nigeria. You may recall that we observed that poverty is prevalent in the rural areas as about

seventy percent of the population resides in the rural area. In this session we shall discuss the

meaning of rural development, its features and the importance of developing the rural areas.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

7.1. Define rural development

7.2. List the characteristics of rural area

7.3. List the aims and objectives of rural development

7.4. Problems confronting rural development in Nigeria

Bold term

7.1. Meaning of rural development

The concept of rural development is been perceived by different scholars in different ways.

According to Ormalele, Rural development means improving the living standard of the

masses or low income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their

development self sustaining. Muahke on his part, viewed rural development as improving the

living standard of the people and sustaining it. It therefore implies setting priorities and

programmes of development and mobilizing the people i.e. involving the people to know

their needs and aspiration rather than imposing development of different kind on them.

Maboganjo on his part see rural development as the reorganization and mobilization of rural

masses to enhance its capacity to cope efficiently with the daily task of their lives.

The involvement of the people in the formulation and implementation of rural

development programmes has fundamental impact on the development of rural areas in the

sense of management, usage, repairs and maintenance of rural development projects such as

markets, boreholes, drainage e.t.c. Rural development is therefore a strategy which is

designed to improve the social, political, economic and cultural life at the rural communities.


Page 78 of 98

The main goal of this strategy is the active participation of the people in the conception

formulation, and implementation of development policies, programmes and projects. It is

only via active involvement of the people that self- sustenance can be achieved; otherwise all

the efforts made to improve the lot of the rural folk will fail.

ITQ

Define rural development

ITA

According to Ormalele, rural development means improving the living standard of the masses

or low income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development

self sustaining.

7.2. Characteristics of a rural area

The following are the main features of rural area

a. The main occupation of more than 70% of the population is farming at the subsistence

level.

b. Relatively small size and low density of population spread over a large or small

geographical area.

c. Non availability of modern infrastructures like motorable roads, pipe borne water,

electricity, health and educational institutions.

d. Little or no influence on the formulation of government policies and programmers. The

populations of the rural areas are often times apathetic. Low level of income and general

poverty of the populations.

7.3. Aims and objectives of rural developmentIf we are to accept the definition of rural development as given by Ormalele, then the main

objectives of rural development is improving the living standard of the masses of low income

population residing in the rural areas and making the process of their development self

sustaining. The following could thus be said to be the main aims and objectives of rural

development.

1. Reducing rural poverty.

2. Meeting the basic needs of the rural people.

3. Providing basic rural infrastructure.

4. Increasing rural productivity and income.


Page 79 of 98

5. Inducing socio change for balance human and materials betterment.

6. Reducing inequality income and wealth.

7. Increasing employment and stemming rural migration.

ITQ

List any three objectives of rural development

ITA

1. Reducing rural poverty.

2. Meeting the basic needs of the rural people.

3. Providing basic rural infrastructure

Problems confronting rural development in NigeriaThe following are the challenges confronting rural development in Nigeria.

a. Lack of political commitment

b. Inconsistent rural development policies and projects.

c. Corruption.

d. Over centralization of policies and programmes (no mass participation)

e. Lack of basic infrastructures policies and programmes at the rural level.

f. Poor technological base.

g. Lack of human and material resources.

h. Ignorance of government policies and programmes at the rural level.

i. Poor leadership at local and state government levels e.t.c

Summary1. Rural development means improving the living standard of the masses or low income

population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development self

sustaining.

2. The main occupation of more than 70% of the population is farming at the subsistence

level.

3. The main objectives of rural development is improving the living standard of the

masses of low income population residing in the rural areas and making the process of

their development self sustaining. The following could thus be said to be the main

aims and objectives of rural development: Reducing rural poverty and meeting the

basic needs of the rural people.


Page 80 of 98

4. The following are the challenges confronting rural development in Nigeria: lack of

political commitment, inconsistent rural development policies and projects and

corruption.





Module.

SAQ 7.1 (Testing Learning outcomes 7.4)

List any five problems confronting rural development in Nigeria

See also rural development programmes in Nigeria

http://www.arabianjbmr.com/pdfs/KD.../2.PDF

ACTIVITYList any five advantages of residing in a rural area

Advantage 1:____________________________________________

Advantage 2:_____________________________________________

Advantage 3:____________________________________________

Advantage 4:___________________________________________

Advantage 5:___________________________________________


Page 81 of 98

ReferencesAdole, R.A (2016). Studies in Comparative Public Administration. Kaduna Mike B Publications Limited

Ake, C. (1996). Democracy and development in Africa.Ibadan:Spectrum Books Ltd.



press.

Barbara, I. (1993). The meaning of development interaction between “new’S’ and old ideas

U.SA, University of Salford.

Fannon,F. (2005). The Wreched of the earth,New York Grove Press


Review Press





University press.

Riggs F.W. (1963). Administration in developing societies. A theory of Prismatic Society,

Boston Massachusetts: HountongMiffin Ltd.

Ujo, A.A. (1994). Understanding Development Administration in Nigeria Joyce Kaduna

Graphic Publishing ltd.


Page 82 of 98

Appendix

SELF ASSESSMENT ANSWERS

SAQ Answer 1.1Administration as a concept has attracted a lot of writings from so many scholars due to its

broad nature. Literally, the term ‘administration’ means management of affairs in an

organization. The organization could be public or private. The term management should not

be confused in any way with administration though they are most at times used

interchangeably. Management can be said to be the manipulation of both human and material

resources in order to achieve organizational goals or objectives while administration means to

care for or look after people, to manage affairs.

It is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. Administration is also

seen as the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. It could also

refer to the organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired

ends.

SAQ Answer 1.22. Permanency

3. Impartiality

4. Anonymity

5. Expertise action

SAQ Answer 2.1According to Irving Swerdlow development administration is administration in “poor

countries” he defined two inter-related tasks in development administration that is,

institutional building and planning. Han been Lee advanced that development administration

is concerned with the problems involved in managing a government or an agency thereof so

that it acquires an increasing capacity to adopt to and act upon new and continuing social

changes with a view to achieving a sustained growth in political, economic and social fields.

Merle Fainsod on his part stated that development Administration is a carrier of innovating

values. It embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking

on the path of modernization and industrialization.


Page 83 of 98

SAQ Answer 2.21. Change-oriented. That is it brings about socio-economic change rather than the

maintenance of the status quo.

2. It is goal oriented; it is aimed at achieving progress in social1 economic1 political and

cultural goals (result oriented)

3. Development Administration has commitment. High morals and motivation in work

situation to achieve developmental goals.

4. Client oriented that is meeting the needs of the specific target groups which could be

farmers, children, the vulnerable group, civic society, Bureaucrats etc.

SAQ Answer 3.1Latency: Social order does not only reside in being able to perform the roles expected of

people occupying certain statuses in the system. These roles could be performed just to

satisfy the expected demands but with no moral basis to respect the rights of others in the

system who also have roles to perform. Latency is a double faceted phenomenon involving

tension management and pattern maintenance in every society. It is true that in every system

or organization conflicts abound since it is the nature of man. Human nature is unpredictable

so it is the ability of the society to handle or manage these conflicts that would lead to socio –

economic and political development.

SAQ 4.1 AnswerThe theory of dualism can be applied in Nigeria in the following ways:

Education: Educational elites, intelligentsias living side by side with millions of illiterates

Economic sector: Few very successful business men i.e. the likes of Michael Adenugas,Aliko

Dangotes,Dantatas living side by side with poor or peasant entrepreneurs.

Industrial locations: Most industries are located in urban centres against rural areas

Urban/rural divide: Urban areas are well developed with good roads, housing, and

infrastructures. The rural areas lack basic amenities

Rich/ poor: A few wealthy people in Nigeria living side by side with the poor masses


Page 84 of 98

SAQ Answer 5.1Main objectives of the 1970 -1974 plans

a. The reconstruction of facilities damaged by the war.

b. The rehabilitation and settlement of persons displaced by the war

c. Establishment of an efficient administrative system.

d. Creation of job opportunities.

e. The production of high level and intermediate man power

f. Promotion of balanced development between the urban and rural areas.

SAQ 5.2Factors that led to the collapse of the 1962 -1968 plan are:

1. Political interferences

2. Lack of adequate manpower to carry out the plan

3. Poor feasibility study

4. Weak Planning institutions or Machinery

5. Political instability

6. Civil war

7. Lack of fund

8. Weak private sector

SAQ Answer 6.1Skills development: provision of adequate vocational training centre to quip for their

particular self-employment and facilitate maintenance of community level projects. The

activities of national directorate of employment (NDE) need to be constantly appraised and

effort should be made to think of more with both the informal sector where apprenticeship

activities are carried out without proper basic structure of sustaining the apprentice when

finish learning the work and the formal school system where individual could acquire these

skills as a part of their educational programme.

SAQ Answer 7.1The problems confronting rural development in Nigeria include:

Lack of political commitment

b. Inconsistent rural development policies and projects.

c. Corruption.


Page 85 of 98

d. Over centralization of policies and programmes (no mass participation)

e. Lack of basic infrastructures policies and programmes at the rural level.

university of maiduguri centre for distance …€¦ · · 2017-10-31before writing the main...

Documents