Using Environment-Based Education to �

Advance Learning Skills and Character Development

The North American Association

for Environmental Education

The National Environmental

Education & Training Foundation

OCTOBER 2001

A Report, Annotated Bibliography,

and Research Guide

UsingEnvironment-Based Educationto Advance Learning

Skills and Character

Development

to Advance

Learning Skills �

and Character

Development

Using ENVIRONMENT-BASED Education

INSIDE FRONT COVER

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Using ENVIRO N M E N T- BA S E D

E d u c ation to Adva n ce Learning Skills

and Character Development

A Report, Annotated Bibliogra p h y, and Resea rch Guide

The North American Association

for Environmental Education

The National Environmental

Education & Training Foundation

Washington, D.C.

O C TO B E R 2 0 0 1

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TABLE OF CO N T E N TS

Fo rewo rd : E nv i ronment-Based Education for Lifelong Learning 1

I . I n t ro d u c t i o n :What is Env i ronment-Based Education? 2

I I . E nv i ronment-Based Education for A d vanced 8

L e a rning Skills and Character Education

A . D eveloping Lifelong Learning Skills 8

B. S t ronger Skills for the Workplace of the Future 9

C. L e a d e rship and Character Deve l o p m e n t 1 1

I I I . C o n c l u s i o n : A Dynamic Env i ronment for Learn i n g 1 5

R e f e re n c e s 1 6

Annotated Bibl i ogr a p hy 1 9

A p p e n d i x : R e p o rt Methodolog y 2 5

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This re p o rt describes the efficacy of e nv i ronment-based education in helping young peoplebecome lifelong learn e rs and leaders . It is a joint effort of the National Env i ro n m e n t a lEducation and Training Foundation (NEETF) and the North A m e rican A ssociation forE nv i ronmental Education (NAAEE). An earlier joint re p o rt discussed how env i ro n m e n t -based education increases student achievement in science, m a t h e m a t i c s , and re a d i n g , as mea-s u red by standardized test score s .

A we l l - rounded education, h oweve r, means more than just higher test scores and gr a d el evel achieve m e n t .A c c o rd i n g l y, this re p o rt looks at less tangi bl e, but equally import a n t , e f f e c t so f e nv i ronment-based education on our young people.These include: i m p roved motiva t i o n ,skills for life-long learn i n g , c a reer pre p a r a t i o n , and attitudes of respect and re s p o n s i b i l i t y.

The most recent annual public opinion survey of adult Americans conducted byRoper Starch for NEETF found that 95% of parents support environmental education (EE)in our schools. This support probably stems from a common perception that exposing achild to the wonders of nature, animals, and cleaner communities helps overcome apathyand teaches respect.

E nv i ronment-based education — using the env i ronment as a tool for achieving bro a d e reducational goals — has the potential to dramatically increase the overall amount of t i m et e a c h e rs spend on the env i ronment each school ye a r. E nv i ronment-based education is consis-tent with the EE goals of deeper unders t a n d i n g ,i nve s t i g a t i o n , and decision-making skills.T h eu n q u e n c h a ble enthusiasm that students bring to env i ronmental subjects will only expand withf u rther education and lead them to become effective env i ronmental stewa rd s , re g a rd l e ss oftheir place on the political spectru m .

We believe that parents and educators searching for ways to enliven our yo u t h , e n g a g ethem in their own education, i nvo l ve them in the commu n i t y, and help them achieve theirfull potential will gain useful insights from the following pages.

We would like to expre ss our sincere appreciation to the many people — teachers , s t u-d e n t s , a d m i n i s t r a t o rs , and educational re s e a rc h e rs — who contri buted their ideas and experi-ences to this re p o rt , p a rticularly to Edwa rd McCre a , f o rmer Exe c u t ive Director of N A A E E ;and to the Office of E nv i ronmental Education at the United States Env i ronmental Pro t e c t i o nAgency for their generous support of p rinting and pro d u c t i o n , and Joanne Lozar Glenn, w h ore s e a rched the material presented here.

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F O R E WORD:

Environment-Based Education for Lifelong Learning

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The Environment and Educat i o n

A quiet revolution is taking place in many A m e rican schools. Fo rced by underp e r f o rm a n c e,or even fa i l u re, a number of schools have adopted a new approach based on unders t a n d i n gwhat interests children and what can transform them into active learn e rs . With studentsengaged in learn i n g , and with teachers who are motivated and fulfilled, these schools aree x p e riencing a re n a i ssance in more effective learn i n g .

It is natural for human beings to be interested in the world around them. No one is sur-p rised to see the curiosity of small children examining a wo rm or a flowe r, or asking why thesky is blue or the wind bl ow s .Yet we put these same children into steri l e, c o n s t ricted env i-ronments and make them sit still and be quiet when their bodies and minds want to beengaged and active.

M a ny people think of e nv i ronment-based education as “ n a t u re studies” — a supplementto the educational system, an activity that largely takes place outside of school hours andwhich relates only tangentially to the core curri c u l u m .T h ey need to look carefully at theb road range of benefits offered by env i ronment-based education.A m e rica should not wait forschools to fail before taking a serious look at why students perform below their potential, w hyt h ey misbehave in school, or why they get into tro u ble after school hours . L e a d e rs in educa-tion and bu s i n e ss must begin to inform A m e rica about the success of e nv i ronment-based edu-cation not only to improve test score s , but also to produce young citizens who are pre p a re dto take their place as adults in the complex and challenging society of the 21st century.

Defining Enviro n m e n t - B a sed Educat i o n

O ver the past 30 ye a rs , the core field of e nv i ronmental education has developed into one ofthe most effective paradigms of l e a rning ava i l a ble today. E nv i ronmental education goesb eyond providing students with simple information about env i ronmental iss u e s .As defined inthe National Project for Excellence in Env i ronmental Education (www. n a a e e. o r g / n p e e e ) :

“E nv i ronmental education is a pro c e ss that aims to develop an env i ro n m e n t a l l yliterate citizenry that can compete in our global economy ; has the skills, k n ow l -e d g e, and inclinations to make we l l - i n f o rmed choices; and exe rcises the rights and responsibilities of m e m b e rs of a commu n i t y.”

Professionally-executed environmental education (EE) is a comprehensive process forhelping people understand the environment, their place in it, and related issues (Archie andMcCrea, 1998).The main goal of EE is for people of all ages to know enough about envi-

I. I N T RO D U C T I O N

What is Environment-Based Education?

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ronmental science and related social issues to make sound and well-reasoned environmen-tal decisions.

The term “ e nv i ronment-based education” (EBE) is used in this re p o rt to focus attentionon the nu m e rous benefits that arise from using the env i ronment more broadly as a learn i n gtool in schools and after-school progr a m s . While env i ronmental education focuses on bu i l d-ing a base of e nv i ronmental knowledge and skill to be applied to env i ronmental stewa rd s h i p,e nv i ronment-based education uses a popular subject matter to improve students’ l e a rning skillsand create a wider learning context for students, t e a c h e rs , and the commu n i t y. E nv i ro n m e n t -based education emphasizes interd i s c i p l i n a ry integration of subject matter, p ro blem- andi ssue-based learning experi e n c e s , team teaching, l e a rn e r - c e n t e red instru c t i o n , c o n s t ru c t iv i s ta p p ro a c h e s , and self-directed learn i n g . A similar term , “ e nv i ronment as an integrating con-t e x t ” (EIC) is used by the State Education and Env i ronment Roundtable (SEER) to descri b ethis approach (www. s e e r. o r g ) .

For students on the re c e iving end, t h e re may be little difference in their experience ofEE and EBE. In recent ye a rs , e nv i ronmental education has become more compre h e n s ive ando riented to active learn i n g , p ro bl e m - s o l v i n g , d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , and understanding the com-plexities of interactions in the living and nonliving world (Stapp and Cox , 1 9 7 4 ;U N E S C O / U N E P, 1 9 7 8 ; H u n g e r f o rd , Pey t o n , and Wi l ke, 1 9 8 0 ; S i m m o n s , 1 9 9 5 ; S t a p p,Wa l s ,and Stanko r b, 1 9 9 6 ; H u n g e r f o rd et al., 1 9 9 6 ) .

E nv i ronment-based education has the potential to dramatically increase the amount oftime teachers spend on the env i ronment each school ye a r. A recent study indicates that theaverage teacher spends fewer than 50 hours per year on env i ronmental subjects (NAAEE andE L C, 2 0 0 1 ) . By making the env i ronment more educationally re l evant to teachers and stu-d e n t s , the amount of e x p o s u re can be increased exponentially. I m p o rt a n t l y, students have ane x t r a o rd i n a ry enthusiasm for env i ronmental subjects, which if nu rt u re d , will naturally leadthem to become effective env i ronmental stewa rds in addition to better learn e rs .

B eyond stewa rd s h i p, e nv i ronmental-based learning has the potential to revitalize ourn a t i o n ’s schools and to provide nu m e rous side benefits to students, t e a c h e rs , and commu n i t i e sthat continue far beyond a student’s tenu re in school.This position paper rev i ews how bro a d-er adoption of e nv i ronment-based education can help pro d u c e :

■ h i g h - p e r f o rmance lifelong learn e rs■ e f f e c t ive future wo r ke rs and pro blem solve rs■ thoughtful community leaders and part i c i p a n t s , a n d■ people who care about the people, c re a t u re s , and places around them.

A Response to “Standard s”

I n c re a s i n g l y, deficiencies in U. S. education are addre ssed by establishing student achieve m e n ts t a n d a rds that demand higher levels of accountability and mandatory testing. In 1999, t h eN o rth A m e rican A ssociation for Env i ronmental Education (NAAEE) released its own set ofs t a n d a rd s , Excellence in Environmental Education — Guidelines for Learning (K-12). NAAEE cor-related these standards with national standards for art s , s c i e n c e s , c ivics and gove rn m e n t , e c o-n o m i c s , language art s , g e ogr a p hy, h i s t o ry, m a t h e m a t i c s , science and social studies. S everal statesa re engaged in similar effort s .

E nv i ronment-based education is a broad-based strategy for improving teaching andl e a rn i n g , but it has not been widely accepted as such, nor is it fully re c ognized as being use-

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ful in bri n ging a student-centered approach to standards-based learn i n g . In one recent exam-ination of this question, Ke a rn ey (1999) finds that most teachers do not re c ognize all the edu-cational improvement opportunities that env i ronment-based studies routinely pre s e n t . T h i scould change as a growing body of evidence links env i ronment-based education to improve dtest scores and grade level achieve m e n t . Klein (1995) and Volk and McBeth (1998) re p o rt thatstudents who experience issues-based EE make significant cog n i t ive and skill gains, w i t hn o t a ble improvements in levels of m e a s u r a ble achieve m e n t . For example, students at Haw l eyE nv i ronmental Elementary School (Milwa u ke e, Wisconsin) exceeded the state average onboth state tests and nationally-normed ass e ss m e n t s , s c o ring higher than all other schools inWisconsin with similar socio-economic status (U. S. D e p a rtment of E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 9 9 ) .

Environment-based education helps teachers meet standards across multiple disciplineswithin a single curriculum. EBE’s emphasis on higher-order thinking has already beenshown to increase academic achievement in reading, math, science, and social studies. Itsfocus on the immediate environment and the local community makes learning relevant,interesting, and compelling. When learners are engaged, both achievement and disciplineimprove, thus helping to create safer schools.

Value Added by Enviro n m e n t - B a sed Education

The idea that some fields of study yield incre d i ble side benefits is not new in the field of e d u-c a t i o n . For ye a rs , p roponents of a rt and music education have been pointing to improved cog-n i t ive and pro blem solving skills as a reason to expand their program in the schools. Could itbe that study of the env i ronment may be similarly wo rt h w h i l e ?

M o t ivation plays a critical role in both learning and effective teaching. In a 1999 re p o rt ,P r o blem Solve d : How to Coach Cognition, K rynock and Robb find that students who perc e ivetheir studies as re l evant to their lives are more highly motivated to learn . This has import a n timplications for env i ronment-based education. E nv i ronmental topics and projects hold a gre a tdeal of i n t rinsic interest for students, p a rticularly when they are aimed close to home. T h eyp rovide abundant opportunities for student-focused learn i n g . It can make a real difference toa child to learn about a pro blem with a local creek or wetland or about neighborhood effectso f recycling and conservation progr a m s . For students engaged in env i ronment-based studies,the abstract quickly becomes real through such immediate examples.As part of an overall edu-cational development progr a m , e nv i ronment-based education plays an important role in help-ing students have a rounded education.

A number of recent studies have documented how young people benefit from env i ro n-ment-based education. A companion re p o rt to this one, Environment-Based Education: C r e a t i n gHigh Performance Schools and Students ( N E E T F, 2000) provided case studies with anecdotal ev i-dence as well as test score results for seven schools that have adopted EBE. The most com-p re h e n s ive work in this area has been done by the State Education and Env i ro n m e n tR o u n d t a ble (SEER), an organization formally advised by 12 state education depart m e n t s( w w w. s e e r. o r g ) . Its 1998 study describes how 40 schools have reaped re m a r k a ble academic,a t t i t u d i n a l , and behavioral results by using the env i ronment as an integrating strategy forapplying science, m a t h e m a t i c s , social studies and language arts concepts (Lieberman andH o o d y, 1 9 9 8 ) .

The SEER study provides a useful benchmark for understanding the role of e nv i ro n-ment-based education in academic performance and educational re f o rm . I m p o rt a n t l y, e n t h u-siasm and the desire to learn and teach increased in each of the schools studied. The SEER

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study also found that student performance in each of the schools improved re g a rd l e ss ofsocio-economic fa c t o rs .

M a ny of the schools in the SEER study turned to the env i ronment as an integr a t o rwhen other more conventional approaches had fa i l e d .A similar thing happened in 1995 at theKramer Middle School in Wa s h i n g t o n , D C. With low test scores and student discipline,Kramer became known as a “ p ro blem school.” Pa rents and teachers we re skeptical that itsp ro blems could be reve rsed by becoming an env i ronmental middle school. H oweve r, with ap ri n c i p a l ’s leadership and a commitment from the commu n i t y, student academic achieve m e n ti m p roved and discipline pro blems diminished. Other schools have had similar experi e n c e s .Schools in tro u ble can — on their own — turn to the env i ronment to achieve success .

It is the rare school that makes the level of commitment to environment-based inte-gration that Kramer Middle School or the SEER study schools were able to make. Still, itis clear that any school can have a successful EIC program if school leaders and students areup to the challenge. Support from parents for environmental education is at an all-timehigh, receiving a remarkable 95% approval rating in a recent survey conducted by NEETFand Roper Starch Worldwide (NEETF, 2001). Parental attitudes, combined with the wide-spread recognition of the need for change, make this an outstanding time to bring the envi-ronment into the mainstream of K-12 education.

M o re Stimulating and Challenging After-School Pro g ra m s

The hours of 2:00 pm to 8:00 p. m . a re considered by police forces as peak hours of j u ve n i l ec ri m e, v i o l e n c e, and mischief, a c c o rding to a re p o rt by the U. S. D e p a rtment of E d u c a t i o n( 1 9 9 8 ) .A poll taken at 1999 George Mason Unive rs i t y, A l e x a n d ri a ,V i r gi n i a , in 1999 disclosedthat a majority of police chiefs — 86 percent nationwide — agree that expanding after-schoolp rograms would greatly reduce youth crime and violence (Mastrofsky and Ke e t e r, 1 9 9 9 ) .

When youth are occupied with constru c t ive interests and skill deve l o p m e n t , youth cri m erates drop dramatically.Acting on these findings, the U. S. D e p a rtment of Education has spon-s o red a new progr a m , 21st Century Community Learning Centers , which supports thousandso f n ew after-school progr a m s . In federal fiscal year 1997, C o n gre ss supported this program at$1 million. In fiscal year 2001 that support had increased to over $800 million.

Environment-based education programs are particularly well suited to after-schoolprograms.The projects are of particular interest to young people. When asked which sub-jects interest them most for community service or service learning, students overwhelm-ingly choose the environment (82 percent) as one of their top three choices (WirthlinGroup, 1995).

Environment-based programs also interest and involve a wider circle of adults in youngpeople’s after-school care. In an article titled, “Gaining Control of Violence in Schools: AView from the Field,”Ascher (1994) points to teacher isolation and cynicism as major fac-tors contributing to school violence. The SEER study, Closing the Achievement Gap(Lieberman and Hoody, 1998), and other research indicate that environment-based pro-grams can help reduce teacher isolation by involving parents, making connections with thecommunity, and team teaching.

A majority of adults support after-school programs and early childhood education toreduce school violence. A c c o rding to a Prudential Survey conducted in 1995 by the Wi rt h l i nG ro u p, 61 percent of adult A m e ricans think that such programs would reduce youth violencein and out of s c h o o l s .

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After-school programming invo l ves more than just keeping young people off the stre e t s .It provides opportunities for parent invo l ve m e n t , m e n t o ri n g , c o m munity serv i c e, s e rv i c el e a rn i n g , and independent, s t u d e n t - c e n t e red learn i n g . The env i ronment offers opport u n i t i e sto strengthen after-school programming by involving a wide range of n o n - s c h o o l , c o m mu-nity-based re s o u rces that have enormous expertise and educational re s o u rces but that may beunder-engaged in public education. These include parks and other public lands, n a t u re cen-t e rs , mu s e u m s , z o o s , a q u a riums and botanical gard e n s , among many others . Education may lieat the heart of their miss i o n s , but they — and the schools — often lack the re s o u rces to ove r-come obstacles such as transportation costs.With a re q u i rement for community invo l ve m e n tand flexible use of f u n d i n g , the 21st Century Community Learning Centers are fa c i l i t a t i n gthese connections.

Guidelines for Excellence

NAAEE’s publication, Environmental Education Materials: Guidelines for Excellence (1996) o u t l i n e s

key chara cteristics of quality environmental education (EE) materials. These guidelines can help the

educator, administrator, curriculum designer, or materials developer evaluate the quality of EE

materials. They provide direction while allowing flexibility to shape content, technique, and other

aspects of instruction. For each of the six basic principles outlined below, the NAAEE guidelines

specify what to look for in EE materials and offer examples.

■ Fa i r n e ss and acc u ra cy: EE materials should be fair and acc u rate in describing enviro n m e n t a l

p roblems, issues and conditions, and in re fl e cting the diversity of perspect i ves on them.

■ K n ow l e d ge pre se n ted in depth: EE materials should fos ter awa re n e ss of the nat u ral and built

e n v i ronments, an understanding of environmental co n cepts, conditions, and issues, and an

awa re n e ss of the fe e l i n gs, values, attitudes, and perceptions at the hea rt of enviro n m e n t a l

i ssues, as appro p r i ate for diffe rent developmental leve l s .

■ Emphasis on skills-building: EE materials should build lifelong skills that enable learners to

a d d re ss environmental issues and to prevent problems from arising.

■ O r i e n t ation to action: EE materials should pro m o te civic re s p o n s i b i l i t y, enco u raging learners to

u se their know l e d ge, personal skills, and asse ssments of environmental issues as a basis fo r

e n v i ronmental pro b l e m - solving and act i o n .

■ I n s t r u ctional so u n d n e ss: EE materials should rely on instructional techniques that create an

e f fe ct i ve learning enviro n m e n t .

■ U sability: EE materials should be well designed and ea sy to use .

The NAAEE guidelines have been acknow l e d ged and adopted by some 3,000 educators and org a n i-

z ations. They can co m p r i se inte rd i sc i p l i n a r y, support i ve benchmarks for all academic fields. These EE

guidelines are support i ve of most aspects of enviro n m e n t - b a sed education. The guidelines also meet

Goals 3, 4, and 5 (Student Achievement and Citizenship, Science and Math Primacy, and Adult Lite ra cy

and Life-Long Learning) of the National Education Goals Act through their attention to pro b l e m -

so l ving abilities, application of know l e d ge, and written and oral co m m u n i c ation (Simmons, 1995).

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Examples of Environment-Based After-School Programs

E a rt h Fo rce, Alexandria, Virginia — A pro g ram that invo l ves middle school students in co m m u n i t y

p ro j e cts to enco u ra ge vo l u n teerism, community se r v i ce and se r v i ce learning.

E n v i ro n M e n tors, Wa s h i n g ton, DC — A pro g ram for inner city high school students that helps stu-

dents work one-on-one with environmental pro fe ssionals to improve skills used in enviro n m e n t a l

p ro j e cts. The pro g ram fo c u ses on populations where fewer than 25% of students gra d u ate high

school and go on to co l l e ge. In last yea r ’s New Jersey Enviro n M e n tors pro g ram, 12 of 14 gra d u at i n g

seniors planned to go to co l l e ge.

P ro j e ct Learning Tree, Pro j e ct Wild, and Pro j e ct WET, Wa s h i n g ton DC, and Maryland — T h e se three pro-

g rams supplement teacher training pro g rams that reach some 100,000 teachers and millions of

students per yea r. They can easily be adapted to afte r - school pro g ramming for all ages.

Bringing the Watershed, Wa s h i n g ton, DC— This public/p r i vate partnership gives high school students

o p p o rtunities to study rea l - world sc i e n ce in the Wa s h i n g ton, D.C. metropolitan area nat i o n a l

parks. The Po tomac and its watershed are the themes around which a multi-disciplinary high

school sc i e n ce curriculum was created to enhance awa re n e ss and understanding in an afte r - sc h o o l

or out-of-class room se tting. The national parks are used as laboratories where students can apply

sc i e n ce and math skills to rea l - world issues and cultivate a se n se of stewa rdship for the nat i o n’s

n at u ral and cultural re so u rces.

Bringing Education into the Afte r school Hours, Wa s h i n g ton, DC — This pro g ram of the U.S. Depart m e n t

of Education is aimed at helping local afte r - school providers understand how to inte g rate co n te n t

such as sc i e n ce, reading, math, te c h n o l o gy, and the arts into their pro g rams to enhance childre n’s

l earning and build on regular school pro g ra m s .

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A. Developing Lifelong Learning Skills

With the national current focus on test scores and accountability, it is easy to overlook thei m p o rtance of students learning how to learn .We will need an entire generation of e f f e c t ivel e a rn e rs if we are to successfully addre ss the complex issues of the 21st century.

L e a rning skills are not a simple luxury. Wo r l d w i d e, t h e re are public and private institu-tions that strive to incorporate learning into eve ry aspect of their activity in order to meet thechallenges of fa s t - m oving developments in culture, t e c h n o l og y, and the env i ro n m e n t .Becoming such a “ l e a rning organization” is now considered central to the successful future ofall types of o r g a n i z a t i o n s . In their 1993 book, The Learning Edge, Wi c ke and Leon point outthat learning and adapting are keys to individual success and program surv iva l . The world isc h a n ging quite rapidly and we can expect this rate of change only to accelerate. U n l e ss wep re p a re children to become their own teachers , t h ey will not have the necess a ry skills to bes u c c e ssful adults. In Fifth Discipline: the A rt and Practice of the Learning Organization, Senge notesthat “ real learning gets to the heart of what it means to be human. T h rough learn i n g , webecome able to do things we never could and to extend our capacity to be part of the gen-e r a t ive pro c e ss of l i f e.”

A re we creating a future generation of skilled learn e rs? Many educators , political leadersand bu s i n e ss exe c u t ives are concerned that young people are learning too pass ively and are notbecoming skilled learn e rs in their own ri g h t . H e re, e nv i ronment-based education can offerreal remedies and the enthusiastic participation of s t u d e n t s .

EBE Offers the Basic Ingredients of Effective LearningE f f e c t i ve Learning is Often Student-Directed

It is well established that young people learn best when they develop their own paths of d i s-c ove ry. Most good env i ronment-based programs use inve s t i g a t ive approaches and student-d i rected learn i n g . S everal studies indicate that focusing on student needs empowe rs learn e rsand leads to greater overall achievement levels and higher self-esteem. Rainer and Guyton(1999) confirm the premise that teachers who encourage students to make choices about theirl e a rning see a positive attitudinal influence.

EBE Adapts to Different Learning Styles

Not all students learn in the same way. Some are re a d e rs , some listeners , and others can onlyabsorb information and skills through active trial and erro r. E nv i ronment-based educationp rograms can be adapted to different learning styles so that the student who learns by doing

II. H ow Env i ronment-Based Education A d va n c e sL e a rning Skills and Character Education

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can be as successful as the student who learns through lectures and books. In a 1994 art i c l e,“ L e a rning Style Program Boosts A c h i evement and Test Score s ,” K l avas documents that teach-e rs who changed instruction modes to match students’ d ive rse learning styles often found thatthe students learned more and learned more easily.

E nv i ronmental educators often observe that students who fail in traditional school set-tings can succeed when the natural outdoor env i ronment becomes the students’ l e a rning lab-o r a t o ry. E nv i ronmental educ ators believe that studying the env i ronment furt h e rs schoolre f o rm objectives by making academic success an achieva ble goal for all students. In the 1999inaugural issue of E E d u c a t o r, NAAEE highlighted programs acro ss the country that ares t rengthening their educational impact through env i ronment-based education.

The Academic Process is Rigorous

R e s e a rch on env i ronment-based education confirms thatit is academically ri g o rous and pays off in higher tests c o re s . It ensures that students do not simply learn a b o u ts c i e n c e, t h ey p e r f o rm science (Ke n n e d y, 1 9 9 9 ) .T h ey iden-tify practical and feasible solutions to env i ronmental pro b-lems through re s e a rch and experi m e n t a t i o n . F i n a l l y, t h eyimplement their solutions working independently or instudent teams.

Traditional instru c t i o n , such as lecturi n g , a l l ows forb road content cove r a g e, and there are times when it maybe the most practical appro a c h . But pro blem-based learn-i n g , a key aspect of e nv i ronment-based education, i n c re a s-es conceptual unders t a n d i n g , re t e n t i o n , and self-dire c t e dl e a rning (Leinhard t , S t a i n t o n , and Bausmith, 1 9 9 8 ; D o d s ,1 9 9 7 ; G a l l a g h e r, 1 9 9 7 ; Goodwin and A d k i n s , 1 9 9 7 ) .

B. Stro n ger Skills for the Wo r k p l a ce of the Fu t u re

In 1998, the Council on Competitiveness released a report, Winning the Skills Race, whichfound that the top concern of 60 percent of business leaders in America was finding skilledworkers.This was twice the number who expressed concern just four years earlier in 1995.Although the shortage in skilled workers has diminished as the economy has slowed down,the availability of skilled workers remains an important concern. Fast-moving technologiescontinue to demand updated technical skills. Global competition has greatly intensified in recent years, increasing the premium for highly skilled employees.And as many employ-ers will note, too many young people entering the workforce fall short of even minimalskills criteria.

A 1998 survey of adults in the State of Washington found widespread support for K-12education that would do more to prepare young people for careers. Seventy-four percentof respondents agreed career skills necessary for the work place should be introduced to students before high school. Eighty-seven percent said that high schools should providecareer preparation to every student before he or she graduates.Youths surveyed separatelyin Seattle in 1996 expressed similar widespread support for job-related experience con-nected to their educations.

“ I take students to places

where they can see evi-

dence of [environmental]

problems… I am inspired

by their creativity and

persistence in finding

solutions.”

— Kathleen McLean, Teacher,

Great Falls Public School, Great

Falls, Montana

10

H ow the Environment Pre p a res Students for Wo r k

■ I n ve s t i g ation and issue orientat i o n

■ R eal world and complex pro b l e m s

■ Community pro j e cts and se r v i ce lea r n i n g

■ Tea m work skills

School-to-Work and Community Service Skills

With the support of c o m munity leaders who seek to addre ss society’s need for school gr a d-uates ready to work and learn on the job, s c h o o l - t o - work programs have become much morepopular in the past several ye a rs . The overall concept of s c h o o l - t o - work preparation hasexpanded beyond the notion of traditional vocational education.

Two aspects of e nv i ronment-based education make it an appro p riate and useful compo-nent of s c h o o l - t o - work progr a m s . F i rs t , it is pro j e c t - o riented and gives students the oppor-tunity to see projects through from planning to implementation.

Second, environment-based learning can be highly oriented to community service.Many school-to work programs rely heavily on community service programs to help pre-pare students for careers. In a 1997 article, Bunderson and Cooper document that field-based EE helps students see the usefulness of what they are learning and often gives theminsight into environmental careers.

Service learning also encourages teamwork.The complex work and technological pro-jects of the future will require more effective team skills than may have been needed in thepast. Learning to work as part of a team produces higher overall skills in students. In a 1998article, “Constructing Maps Collaboratively,” Leinhardt et al. note that students whoworked together on map constructionn evidenced better understanding and competencethan students who worked alone.

Environment-Based “Renaissance Workers”?

Society and bu s i n e ss are calling for “ re n a i ssance wo r ke rs”— employees who are leaders ,v i s i o n a ri e s , c ritical thinke rs , skilled commu n i c a t o rs , and collaborators . These people embodyqualities of e m p owe rm e n t , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e, f l e x i b i l i t y, and ethical behavior (Gorm a n , 1 9 9 9 ) .T h ey work independently as well as on teams; t h ey must be able to create analytical re p o rt s ,i n t e rp ret data, and make decisions (Murp hy, 1 9 9 9 ) .

Meeting 21st century env i ronmental and economic challenges re q u i res an unders t a n d-ing of the interdependence of the env i ro n m e n t , the economy, c o m mu n i c a t i o n s , and tech-n o l og y. G ove rnment agencies and others re s p o n s i ble for natural re s o u rce management mu s toperate with cutting-edge know l e d g e, s h a ring information and expert i s e, and managi n gk n owledge in a way that integrates information from a broad range of f i e l d s .Those who oper-ate in the new paradigm, using new technology to meet env i ronmental and economic chal-l e n g e s , must have the requisite cog n i t ive and scientific skills to manage the nation’s naturalre s o u rces effectively (PCA S T, 1 9 9 8 ; C o n way, 1 9 9 1 ) .

11

C. Leadership and Chara cter Development Stro n ger Leadership Skills

K n owledge alone does not create leaders . A c c o rding to Hungerford and Volk (1990), t h re econditions must exist in order for leadership skills to deve l o p :

■ s en si t ivity to an iss u e

■ a sense of ow n e rs h i p

■ a sense of e m p owe rm e n t

Students can change their behavior from pass ive to active by practicing leadership skillsin their own communities and schools. A l l owing students to confront public policy issues inthe class room empowe rs students and helps to promote effective and re s p o n s i ble citizenship

To m o rrow ’s wo r ke rs must also understand basic economic concepts and have finelytuned decision-making skills (Va n Fo ss e n , 1 9 9 9 ) .T h ey must be multi-skilled individuals whou n d e rstand the value of “connected know i n g ,” ( e. g . ,u n d e rstanding the complex interre l a t i o n samong things). In a 1996 art i c l e, Installe explains that European engi n e e ring students are notwell pre p a red to integrate socio-economic and env i ronmental issues into their future pro f e s-sional activ i t i e s . He argues in favor of a more interd i s c i p l i n a ry and systems-oriented appro a c hto pro blems and better training in communication skills. Because env i ronment-based educa-tion emphasizes multi- and interd i s c i p l i n a ry learn i n g , h i g h e r - o rder thinking skills, and re a lworld pro blem solving, it can help create the new generation of wo r ke rs that tomorrow ’se c o n o my needs.

E nv i ronment-based education gives students a chance to “ t ry on” c a re e rs as they studyreal world issues and encounter community experts in va rious fields.These activities give stu-dents a realistic look at different kinds of work and the training and personal abilities re q u i re dfor each (Bunderson and Cooper, 1 9 9 7 ) . This learning connects to a workplace applicationand contri butes to a student’s sense of s e l f - e f f i c a c y, a key factor in successful career deve l o p-ment (Brow n , 1 9 9 9 ) .

The env i ronment as a discipline will play an important part in career deve l o p m e n t .E nv i ronmental technologies will become a routine bu s i n e ss component in the future and willneed to be integrated into ongoing bu s i n e ss and engi n e e ring activ i t i e s .

Wa s h i n g ton State School-to -Work Education Require m e n t s

E n v i ro n m e n t - b a sed education pro g rams provide students with opportunities to develop the skills that

b u s i n e ss leaders need. Wa s h i n g ton State’s School-to -Work academic re q u i rements are an exa m p l e :

■ R ead with co m p rehension, write with skill, and co m m u n i c ate effe ct i ve l y.

■ K n ow and apply co re co n cepts in math, social, physical and life sc i e n ces, civics and histo r y,

ge o g ra p h y, arts, health, and fitness .

■ Think analytically, logically and creat i vely and be able to so l ve pro b l e m s .

■ Understand the import a n ce of work and how perfo r m a n ce, effo rt, and decisions affe ct care e r

o p p o rt u n i t i e s .

12

( M a ss i a l a s , 1 9 8 9 ) . I ss u e - o riented approaches give students a better idea of the possibilities andconstraints on citizen action, and about the roles and responsibilities of c i t i z e n s h i p.

Leadership ability is built on many of the skills that environment-based education fos-ters: cooperation and the ability to act in appropriate, socially acceptable ways; letting allwho want to be part of the action participate, either individually or as part of a team orgroup; showing concern for others; demonstrating active leadership and participation in thedemocratic process; and connecting to the community. In issues-oriented instruction, stu-dents are invited to actively solve problems, often connecting with the community in envi-ronmental service learning projects. Because it is inquiry-based (that is, learning andknowledge evolve from student questions and curiosity within a framework of agreed-uponacademic standards), environment-based education is an excellent vehicle for helping stu-dents develop and practice the critical thinking and decision-making skills needed in thedemocratic process.

Examples of e nv i ronment-based education programs that develop leadership skillsinclude the follow i n g :

■ Adopt a Wa t e r s h e d , H ay f o r k , C a l i f o rnia — This school program uses the subjecto f wa t e rshed conservation to develop a range of education skills. It includes a leader-ship skills training institute that emphasizes investigation and pro blem solving.

■ Penn State Conservation Leadership School, U n iversity Pa r k , Pe n n s y l vania —Students come to Penn State Unive rsity to study how resolving conservation iss u e sp roduces leadership skills.

EE and Education for Lea d e r s h i p

EE Instructional Strate gy

Co o p e rat i ve learning

(working in teams or with part n e r s )

Critical thinking and disc u ss i o n

Hands-on act i v i t i e s

Emphasis on action strate g i e s

I n vo l vement in “real wo r l d ”, iss u e - b a sed pro j e ct s

H ow it Co n t ri b u tes to Leadership Skill

P ro m o tes inclusive n e ss, tea m work and

a cce p t a n ce of diversity of opinions

Fa c i l i t ates the change from pass i ve to

a ct i ve learning (Chilco at and Ligon, 1998);

gets students invo l ve d

E n co u ra ges engagement and

a ct i ve part i c i p at i o n

O f fers alte r n at i ves to problems and a se n se

of knowing how to make a diffe re n ce in

the wo r l d

P rovides pra ct i ce in taking the long-term

v i ew and opportunities to take action for

the larger good; co n n e cts students

with co m m u n i t y

13

■ Catalina Leadership Progr a m , C a t a l i n a , C a l i f o rnia — Fo u rth to 12th gr a d e rsattend Catalina’s program to gain leadership skills in a natural setting, e x p l o ring thecomplexity of the natural wo r l d .

■ National Outdoor Leadership School, L a n d e r, Wyoming — O f f e rs wildern e ss -based leadership training programs in Wyoming for 16- and 18- year-old students.

M o re information on these and other programs is ava i l a ble on NAAEE’s EE-Link:E nv i ronmental Education on the Internet (www. e e l i n k . n e t ) .

A Context for Character Building

In its 2001 policy paper, No Child Left Behind, the BushAdministration discusses the importance of K-12 char-acter education. M a ny people in this country are con-c e rned that our young people are becoming morei s o l a t e d , l e ss respectful of o t h e rs , and less willing toshoulder responsibility for themselve s , their fa m i l i e s , a n dtheir commu n i t i e s . E x p re ssions of c o n c e rn fre q u e n t l ycome from pro f e ssionals who daily deal with a bre a k-d own in family social serv i c e s , after-school cri m e,teenage pre g n a n c i e s , d rug use, and other pro bl e m s . Ac o u n t e rvailing social pre ss u re is emphasizing the need forc o o p e r a t i o n , d i l i g e n c e, a strong work ethic, and othersimilar character traits in order to maintain a vital and compassionate nation.At the same time,recent programs such as A m e ri C o rps have sparked an interest among young adults in vo l u n-teer contri butions to society on an impre ss ive scale.

While the complex pro c e ss of building character in young people surely begins and endsin family relationships and pare n t i n g , recent findings indicate that schools also play an impor-tant ro l e. I n c re a s i n g l y, schools are finding ways to share the important task of p ro d u c i n gre s p e c t f u l , re s p o n s i ble adults.

In C h a racter Education in A m e ri c a ’s Sch o o l s (Akin et al., 1999) the authors call upon schoolsto become more deliberate in character education by setting up instructional units that focuson activities involving cooperation and re s p e c t . Character education in schools grows out ofa continuing series of useful interactions, not through pass ive, insular activities such as listen-ing to a lecture.

Good schools serve as caring communities for children (Berm a n , 1 9 9 6 ) . T h ey enjoys t rong parent and community invo l vement in their programming and they stre ss re s p e c t ,re s p o n s i b i l i t y, and cooperation. E nv i ronment-based education programs provide ideal oppor-tunities for creating such caring communities because they foster respect for the natural wo r l d .

E nv i ronment-based education can help teachers become character educators withoutbeing overly “ p re a c hy.”The messages of e nv i ronmental conservation — don’t wa s t e, t a ke care,re s t o re, respect the rights of o t h e rs — are foundation blocks for building character education.Using the env i ronment as an integrator offers a politically neutral but compelling ave nue forimplementing character education in the schools.

“ Environmental science

informs students how to

protect natural resources,

gives them the tools they

need to teach others, and

serves to develop the next

generation of land stewards.”

— Michael J. Ferry, Teachers,

Woonsocket High School,

Woonsocket, Rhode Island

14

Develops Confidence and Higher Self Esteem

Youth who re c e ive instruction in both env i ro n m e n t a li ssues and action strategies assume personal re s p o n s i b i l i t yfor realizing their va l u e s . Such a sense of re s p o n s i b i l i t yi n c reases confidence and self-esteem. It also helps themfeel part of “something larger than them” ( I o z z i , L ave a u l t ,and Marc i n kow s k i , 1 9 9 0 ; L i e b e rman and Hoody, 1 9 9 8 ) .

Students in some schools have been able to ass i s ttheir communities with projects that would otherwise be too costly (National A ssociation of C o n s e rva t i o nD i s t ri c t s , 1 9 9 8 ) . For example, students enrolled at theSchool for Env i ronmental Studies at the Minnesota Zooin Apple Va l l ey, M i n n e s o t a , completed a water qualitystudy of the City of E a g a n ’s 20 ponds. C o m munity agencies used the students’ data toi m p rove city water quality.

C o n t r a ry to skeptical opinions that EE infuses students with a “gloom and doom” o u t-l o o k , students who have increased knowledge about the causes of e nv i ronmental pro bl e m sa re generally more positive about being able to correct and prevent future pro bl e m s . T h eya re also more confident about their own effective n e ss in pro blem solving (Hoody, 1 9 9 5 ;C h a m p e a u , 1 9 9 7 ) .Teens in the late 1990s exhibited rising optimism about their generation’sability to mobilize and lead society to ove rcome large-scale challenges affecting the future,including env i ronmental iss u e s . T h ey believe that individual actions can make a differe n c e( C a rri e r, 2 0 0 0 ) .

S e l f - e m p owe rment can also lead to improved career outlooks. In a 1999 re p o rt , S e l f -Efficacy Beliefs and Career Deve l o p m e n t , B rown found such a correlation between student self-esteem and self-empowe rm e n t , and future career success .

“ Few students realize that

the choices they will make

in their adult lives depend

very heavily on basic pre-

cepts of science. My class-

es address real-life issues

that they soon may face.”

— Jenelle Hopkins, Teacher,

Centennial High School,

Las Vegas, Nevada

15

P ro f e ss i o n a l l y - e xecuted env i ronmental education (EE) is a compre h e n s ive pro c e ss for help-ing people understand the env i ro n m e n t , their place in it, and related iss u e s . E nv i ro n m e n t -based education (EBE) uses the env i ronment more broadly as a learning tool in schools andafter-school progr a m s . EBE employs a popular subject matter to improve student learn i n gskills and to create a wider learning context for students, t e a c h e rs , and the commu n i t y. E B Eemphasizes interd i s c i p l i n a ry integration of subject matter, p ro blem- and issue-based learn i n ge x p e ri e n c e s , team teaching, l e a rn e r - c e n t e red instru c t i o n , c o n s t ru c t ivist appro a c h e s , and self-d i rected learn i n g .

EBE helps teachers meet standards acro ss multiple disciplines. Its emphasis on higher-o rder thinking increases academic achievement in language art s , m a t h , s c i e n c e, social studies,and the art s . Its focus on the immediate env i ronment and the local community makes learn-ing re l eva n t , i n t e re s t i n g , and compelling. Students invo l ved in EBE develop advanced lifelongl e a rning skills, s t ronger workplace and community service and leadership skills, and deve l o pconfidence and higher self-esteem. E nv i ronment-based education enables teachers to pro d u c ee nv i ronmentally literate young adults who are pre p a red to take their place in the complex andc h a l l e n ging society of the 21st century, and who can compete in a global economy with thes k i l l s , k n ow l e d g e, and inclinations to make we l l - i n f o rmed choices and exe rcise the rights andresponsibilities of m e m b e rs of a commu n i t y.

B roader adoption of e nv i ronment-based education can help produce high-perform a n c elifelong learn e rs , e f f e c t ive future wo r ke rs and pro blem solve rs , thoughtful community leadersand part i c i p a n t s , and people who care about the people, c re a t u re s , and places around them.

III. CO N C L U S I O N

A Dynamic Environment for Learning

16

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A N N OTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY A list of supplemental sources.

A Nation Still at Risk. (1999).Washington, DC:Thomas B. Fordham Foundation;College Park, MD: ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation.http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed429988.html.In spite of progress in the elementary schools, students in high schools still lag behind thebenchmarks set by Goals 2000. Student achievement remains flat and college remediationrates have risen to unprecedented levels.

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Berman, S. (1996,Winter).A Guiding Framework for Character Education. Update onLaw-Related Education, 20, 36-9.Schools should become caring communities wherein children and adults model the kind ofrespect and responsibility that are the cornerstones of good character.

Brown, B. L. (1999). Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Career Development.http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed429187.html.A review of the relationship between students? self-esteem and self-empowerment beliefs andhow those attitudes influence future career success.

Brown, D. (1999). Proven Strategies for Improving Learning and Achievement. Greensboro,NC: ERIC Counseling and Student Services Clearinghouse.http://www.uncg.edu/edu/ericcass.A compendium of practices that enhance learning and achievement.

Bunderson, E. D. and J. G. Cooper. (1997, June). An Environmental EducationPartnership for Utah Secondary Schools. The American Biology Teacher, 59, 332-6.A case study of field-based EE. Students who participated in the activities improved theirability to see the usefulness and connectedness of what they were learning.They also gainedinsight into EE careers.

Carrier, D. (2000, January 7). Earthview: No Generation Gap on Environmental Issues.Four-H Council. http://www.fourhcouncil.edu/ycc/earth/pr.htm.A survey reveals that baby boomers, gen-Xers, and Net-gens agree on the importance of aclean environment, even though their areas of emphasis or priority might differ.

Champeau, R. (1997). Environmental Education in Wisconsin:Are We Walking the Talk?Stevens Point,WI:Wisconsin Center for Environmental Education.A profile of EE in Wisconsin K?12 schools based on statewide surveys and assessments ofstudents, teachers, curriculum coordinators, and principals.

Cooper, G. (1997). How Environmental Education Contributes to Sustainability.Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Leadership, 14(1), 23-7.Addresses the role of outdoor education in educating for a sustainable society. Describes related benefits of outdoor education, such as increasing student motivation, promoting cooperation, and developing problem-solving skills.

Cordeiro, P. A. (1998). Problem-Based Learning in Educational Administration:Enhancing Learning Transfer. Journal of School Leadership, 8(3), 280-302.Describes four types of problem-based learning that helps students acquire declarative,procedural, and contextual knowledge.

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deBettencourt, K. (1999, July 14). Learning the Facts of Life about Planet Earth.Education Week on the Web. http://www.edweek.org/ew/1999/42debett.h18.A critique of what passes for EE in some schools; a cry for standardization, scope, andsequence; and praise for Project Globe.

Dennis, L. J. and D. Knapp. (1997,Winter). John Dewey as Environmental Educator.Journal of Environmental Education, 28, 5-9.Explores Dewey’s philosophy about the relationship between citizenship, schooling, and arespect for nature, and his belief that rampant individualism is what leads to reckless waste of resources.

Deusing, S. (1997). Interdisciplinary Learning Using Farming and Gardening Is SoundPedagogy (Dissertation). ProQuest Digital Dissertations.Study assesses the effectiveness of a pedagogy that uses farming and gardening as interdiscipli-nary contexts for learning. Pedagogy motivated students, encouraged healthy lifestyles, andimproved verbal communication and relationships.

Dods, R. F. (1997).An Action Research Study of the Effectiveness of Problem-BasedLearning in Promoting the Acquisition and Retention of Knowledge. Journal for theEducation of the Gifted , 20(4), 423-37.Problem-based learning promotes understanding and knowledge retention, in contrast to lecture, which tends to offer wide content coverage.

Filho,W. L. (ed.) (1997). Lifelong Learning and Environmental Education. New York: PeterLang Publishing. [Online:Abstract]. ERIC database document ED419129.A look at the relationship between the skills re q u i red for lifelong learning and the pro c e ss of E E .

Gallagher, S. A. (1997). Problem-Based Learning:Where Did It Come From,WhatDoes It Do, and W h e re Is It Going? Jo u rnal for the Education of the Gifted, 2 0 ( 4 ) , 3 3 2 - 6 2 .I n n ovation is composed of four elements: an ill-stru c t u red pro bl e m , s u b s t a n t ive content, s t u d e n tapprenticeship, and self-directed learning. Research supports the idea that problem-basedlearning is better for long-term retention than traditional classroom instruction.

Goodwin, D. and J. C. Adkins. (1997). Problem-Solving Environmental Science on theChesapeake Bay. School Science Review, 78(284), 49-55.Describes a real-world EE project and argues that the approach gives students responsibilityfor their own learning.

I n s t a l l e, M . ( 1 9 9 6 ) . H ow to Educate Future Engineers towa rds a Better Understanding ofthe Relationships between Technology, Society, and the Environment. European Journalof Engineering Education, 21(4), 341-5.Engineering students were found to lack a connectedness of knowing, particularly ofrelationships between technology, society, and the environment, and this writer recommendsmore interdisciplinary education and problem-solving activities to increase the engineers?effectiveness.

Kearney, A. R. (1999, November). Teacher Perspectives on Environmental Education andSchool Improvement (Final Report). Seattle,WA: Research on People on TheirEnvironments. Report prepared for the Evergreen Center for EducationalImprovement, Olympia,Washington and the North Mason School District Model LinksEE Program. http://www.evergreen.edu/user/K-12/eeFinRep.pdf.A qualitative study based on a survey designed to find out how teachers conceptualized theenvironment and whether they perceive a link between EE and school improvement.Teachersappear to have a relatively broad understanding of the environment and of EE, but many do

not perceive the relationship between EE and school improvement, nor of how EE and curriculum integration are related.

Kennedy, C. (1999). In the Cascade Reservoir Restoration Project Students TackleReal-World Problems. ENC Focus 6(2), 18-25. Columbus, OH: U.S. Department ofEducation Eisenhower National Clearinghouse.A teacher in Idaho describes a highly sophisticated project, having to do with water testingand reservoir restoration, undertaken by his high school juniors and seniors.

Klavas, A. (1994). Learning Style Program Boosts Achievement and Test Scores. ClearingHouse, 67(3), 149-51. http://ericae.net/ericdb/EJ479200.htm.Teachers who changed instruction to meet students’ diverse learning styles found that students learned more and learned more easily.

Klein, P. (1995). Using Inquiry to Enhance the Learning and Appreciation ofGeography. Journal of Geography, 94(2), 358-67.Reported that students who experienced issues-based EE made significant cognitiveand skill gains.

Krynock, K. and L. Robb. (1999, November). Problem Solved: How to CoachCognition. Educational Leadership, 57(3), 29-32.Maintains that students who see their work as relevant and engaging are more motivated to learn.

Leinhardt, G., C. Stainton, and J. M. Bausmith. (1998). Constructing MapsCollaboratively. Journal of Geography, 97(1), 19-30.http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/research/pol99.htm.Students who worked collaboratively in constructing maps demonstrated better understandingand competence than those who worked alone.

Levy, S. (1999, November). To See the World in a Grain of Sand. EducationalLeadership, 57(3), 70-5. http://www.ascd.org/publs/el/nov99.html.Learning happens through connecting ideas, subjects, and experiences. If they expect studentsto learn, teachers must create learning situations that foster connections.

Lieberman, G.A. and L. L. Hoody. (1998). Closing the Achievement Gap: Using theEnvironment as an Integrating Context for Learning. San Diego, CA: State Education andEnvironmental Roundtable.When the environment is used as an integrating context for learning, student achievementimproves.This qualitative study of 40 schools provides the results of surveys, interviews,observations, and in some cases, achievement tests, that demonstrate how, why, and to whatdegree.

Mayer, R. E. (1998). Cognitive, Metacognitive, and Motivational Aspects of Problem-Solving. Instructional Science, 26(1-2), 45-63.Many processes (beyond the technical skills that are problem-specific) are involved in problem-solving.The author discusses the roles that thinking, thinking about thinking,and motivation play in the process.

Middlestadt, S.E., R. Ledsky, and J. Sanchack. (1999). Elementary School Teachers? Beliefsabout Teaching Environmental Education. Rock Spring, GA: North American Associationfor Environmental Education.A qualitative study of what teachers trained in EE think about teaching EE.The results showa number of perceived benefits to students.Those who cited potential barriers found ways to 21

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circumvent them. Social norms and expectations from other faculty were found to influencewhether teachers teach EE.

Monroe, M. C. (ed.) (1999). What Works:A Guide to Environmental Education andCommunication Projects for Practitioners and Donors.Washington, DC:Academy forEducational Development.Vignettes of successful EE projects around the globe.

NAAEE. (1999). Excellence in EE: Guidelines for Learning (K-12). Rock Spring, GA:North American Association for Environmental Education.A scope and sequence for EE concepts, organized by 4th, 8th, and 12th grades and correlatedto national learning standards for other disciplines.

NAAEE. (1999, Spring). EEducator. Rock Spring, GA: North American Association forEnvironmental Education.Premier issue of a popular magazine containing articles pertinent to issues in EE, includingpedagogy, assessment, and teacher training.

NAAEE. (1998). Environmental Education in the United States: Past, Present, and Future.Troy, OH: North American Association for Environmental Education.Proceedings of the 1996 summit on EE in Burlingame, CA.

NAAEE. (1998). Environmental Education Materials: Guidelines for Excellence. Troy, OH:North American Association for Environmental Education.Guidelines for evaluating EE materi a l s , and determining whether they reflect key characteri s t i c ssuch as fairness, accuracy, and depth.

National Association of Conservation Districts, in cooperation with the EnvironmentalEducation and Training Partnership. (1998). Environmental Education at a Glance. LeagueCity,TX: National Association of Conservation Districts.A snapshot of EE, including resources, success stories, and current initiatives.

National Environmental Education Advisory Council. (1996). Report AssessingEnvironmental Education in the United States and the Implementation of the NationalEnvironmental Education Act of 1990.Washington, DC: U. S. Environmental Protection AgencyA report, prepared for Congress, that provides an overview of the need for EE, the status ofEE in the United States, and recommendations for action.

NEETF. (1997). The 1997 NEETF/Roper National Report Card. Washington, DC:TheNational Environmental Education & Training Foundation. http://www.neetf.org/reportcard/index.htm.A survey of Americans attitudes and knowledge about the environment, its condition and problems.

O’Neil, J. and C.Tell. (1999, September).Why Students Lose When “TougherStandards”Win. Educational Leadership, 57(1), 18-23.Suggests that the tougher standards movement may be incompatible with personalized learn-ing and counterproductive to student achievement. Recommends that students be given moreacademic freedom to encourage their development as lifelong learners and engaged citizens.

Rainer, J. D. and E. M. Guyton. (1999). Democratic Practices in Teacher Education andthe Elementary Classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(1), 121-32.Teachers perceive that encouraging students to make choices about their learning exerts apositive influence on their attitudes about school and learning.

Rasmussen, K. (2000, January). Environmental Education Evolves: Developing Citizens,Furthering Education Reform. ASCD Education Update 42:1.Interviews with leaders in the EE field. Positions EE as a means of promoting citizenship andof meeting students’ academic needs.

Richetti, C. and J. Sheerin. (1999, November). Helping Students Ask the RightQuestions. Educational Leadership, 57(3), 58-62.http://www.ascd.org/publs/el/nov99.html.Underlying constru c t ivism is the re c ognition of the value of the learner as thinke r.The abilityto think, the authors say, is related to the ability to generate and consider important questions.

Ross, J. (1997). Will the Real Eco-Educator Please Stand Up?http://ericae.net/ericdb/ED417053.htm.Wild lands must be preserved for recreational use, the author says, and in order to ensurethat the supply of wild lands continues to meet increasing demand, the education of profes-sional outdoor leaders must include environmental activist skills, critical thinking skills, andenvironmental ethics.

Ryan, K. (1996). Character Education in the United States. Journal for a Just and CaringEducation, 2(1), 75-84.Contends that everyday classroom life is saturated with moral meaning that shapes students?character and moral development. Uses observational records to demonstrate how routineaspects of teaching convey moral messages that influence the formal curriculum.

Schatz, C. (1995). When Bambi Meets Godzilla: Bringing Environmental and Education andOutdoor Recreation Together. http://ericae.net/ericdb/ED404088.htm.Both EE and informal, outdoor education programs seem to produce the same results.Theauthor maintains that infusing recreation into EE programs can provide the additional benefitsof adjusting to the outdoors, providing outdoor skills, and making learning fun.

Schatz, C. and T. Parker. (1995). Common Ground: Education, Recreation, and theEnvironment. Taproot, 9(1), 2-5. http://ericae.net/ericdb/EJ502037.htm.Incorporating recreation into EE programs can provide lifelong skills for recreating in andappreciating the outdoors.

Simmons, D. (ed.) (1995). The NAAEE Standards Project: Papers on the Development ofEnvironmental Education Standards. Troy, OH: North American Association forEnvironmental Education.Working papers address the development and framework for national EE standards, teacherperformance standards, and EE materials guidelines.

Smith-Sebasto, N. J. (1993). Career Development and Opportunities for Students Who StudyEnvironmental Education. Journal of Environmental Education, 24(2), 35-8. Examples ofopportunities in environmentally related careers.

U. S. Department of Education. (1999). Hawley Environmental Elementary School,Milwaukee Public Schools, Milwaukee,WI. In: Hope for Urban Education:A Study of NineHigh-Performing, High-Poverty, Urban Elementary Schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. ofEducation. http://www.ed.gov/pubs/urbanhope/title.html.Describes a transformation in attitudes and achievement that occurred at Hawley Elementary.Attributes some of the changes to the EE curriculum and the single-minded focus the facultytook toward raising student achievement.

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VanFossen, P. J. (1999). The National Voluntary Content Standards in Economics.Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education.http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed428031.html.Contends that students need an economics-specific course to fully comprehend how thee c o n o my wo r k s , and that infusing economics into the curriculum may not be as educationallyuseful as studying economics directly.

Volk,T. and B. McBeth. (1998). Environmental Literacy in the United States. Rock Spring,GA: North American Association for Environmental Education.Explores environmental literacy in the United States and summarizes the key thinking in thefield. Suggests that community investigations, citizenship participation, and environmentalstudies courses are the most effective methods for achieving the desired state of e nv i ro n m e n t a lliteracy in the U.S.

Vontz,T. S. and W. A. Nixon. (1999). Issue-Centered Civics Education in Middle Schools.Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education.http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed429929.html.Maintains that education for citizenship is a key task for public school classrooms and that stu-dents must address controversial issues in the classroom in order to learn how to thinkthrough, and respect divergent views on, issues they will have to face as adults.

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. (1994). A Program to Promote the Learningof Hunting, Fishing, and Trapping Skills in Wisconsin.http://ericae.net/ericdb/ED379125.htmContends that preserving wild lands for outdoor recreation requires support for instruction inscientifically sound resource management and use.

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APPENDIX

R e p o rt Methodology

In October 1999, NAAEE conducted a pre l i m i n a ry survey of re s e a rch abstracts to see if acase could be made that EE supports and sustains A m e rican values and benefits A m e ri c a nyo u t h .NAAEE believed that studying the env i ronment enhances values such as:

– cooperation and inclusive n e ss– optimism and a sense of the poss i bl e– p a rticipation and team play– c o n c e rn for others– academic success– a healthy economy – respect and appreciation for A m e ri c a ’s natural heri t a g e

To explore these themes in the research literature, these values were linked to the morecommon educational terms of democratic education, character education, service learning,and problem-based learning. NAAEE searched Education Abstracts and ERIC by keying onthose terms.

Results of the initial survey supported the hypothesis that EE benefits youth in profound andfa r - reaching way s . NAAEE deepened the ori ginal survey, re s e a rching Education A b s t ra c t s a n dE R I C using additional re l evant key wo rds such as: a c t ive learn i n g , A m e rican va l u e s , b e l i e f sabout re c re a t i o n , c i t i z e n s h i p, c o m mu n i t y, c o n s t ru c t iv i s m , c o o p e r a t ive learn i n g , c ritical think-i n g , d ive rs i t y, e nv i ronment and attitudes, EE and academic achieve m e n t , i n q u i ry learn i n g , l i f es k i l l s , o p t i m i s m , p ro blem solving, and teamwo r k . NAAEE also expanded the search to includethe following databases and we b s i t e s :

– D i ss e rtation A b s t r a c t s– E i s e n h ower Clearinghouse for Math and Science Education– Higher Education A b s t r a c t s– U. S. D e p a rtment of E d u c a t i o n , including the office of the National

A ss e ssment of Educational Progre ss (NAEP)– U. S. E nv i ronmental Protection Agency (EPA )– A m e rican Educational Research A ssociation (AERA)– State Env i ronmental and Education Roundtable (SEER)– 4-H Council– A m e rican Society for Curriculum and Development (ASCD).

Abstracts and documents we re obtained from websites and online databases, u n ive rsity librari e s ,and from the cooperating organizations themselve s . In addition, a p p roximately 400 indiv i d u a l sf rom the EE community we re contacted to ve ri f y, as much as poss i bl e, that all existing and per-tinent information was collected, p a rticularly in the area of academic benefits. Results we rerev i ewe d , a n a l y z e d , and grouped according to the values to which EE contri bu t e d .

THE NORTH AMERICAN ASSO C I ATION FOR ENVIRO N M E N TAL EDUCAT I O N

The North American Asso c i ation for Environmental Education (NAAEE) is a network of pro fe ssionals, students,

and vo l u n teers working in the field of environmental education throughout North America and in over 55 co u n-

tries around the world. Since 1971, the Asso c i ation has pro m o ted environmental education and supported the

work of environmental educators. There are many environmental inte rest gro u ps, and many org a n i z ations ded-

i c ated to improving education. NAAEE uniquely combines and inte g rates both of these perspect i ves, and take s

a co o p e rat i ve, nonco n f ro n t ational, sc i e n t i f i c a l l y - b a l a n ced approach to promoting education about enviro n-

mental issues. NAAEE members believe education must go beyond co n sc i o u s n e ss - raising about these issues. It

must pre p a re people to think to gether about the difficult decisions they have to make co n cerning enviro n-

mental stewa rdship, and to work to gether to improve, and try to so l ve, environmental problems. NAAEE re c-

ognizes the need for a co h e rent body of info r m ation about environmental issues. Its members also re co g n i z e

t h at info r m ation and analysis are only part of an effe ct i ve education pro g ram. To be truly effe ct i ve, this body

of know l e d ge must be inte g rated into all aspects of the curriculum and into all types of educating institutions

for the widest array of audiences. In order to tra n s l ate theory into pra ct i ce and to provide support for envi-

ronmental education and educators, NAAEE offers a variety of pro g rams and activities. These include NAAEE’s

Annual Co n fe re n ce, NAAEE publications and on-line se r v i ces, and EE-Link.

THE NATIONAL ENVIRO N M E N TAL EDUCATION & TRAINING FOUNDAT I O N

The National Environmental Education & Training Fo u n d ation is a private non-profit org a n i z ation authorized by

Co n g re ss in 1990. The Fo u n d ation strives to help America meet critical national challenges by co n n e cting envi-

ronmental learning to issues of national co n cern such as health care, educational exce l l e n ce, business pro f-

i t a b i l i t y, and effe ct i ve community part i c i p ation. NEETF awa rds leve ra ged challenge grants to outstanding

e n v i ronmental pro j e cts across the nation, and issues an annual NEETF/Roper Report Card on Enviro n m e n t a l

A ttitudes, Know l e d ge, and Behaviors. In addition, NEETF seeks funds to support seve ral innovat i ve enviro n m e n-

tal education pro g rams. Our work is organized into six pro g rams:

■ The “ E CO - E sse n t i a l s” Pro g ra m is an exciting new effo rt to more effe ct i vely educate the adult

population on environmental issues through the thoughtful use of television, radio, print media, and

the Internet.

■ The N ational Pa rtnership for Education and Enviro n m e n t t a kes environmental learning into the

m a i n s t ream of the K-12 education sys tem, demonstrating how it pro d u ces high perfo r m a n ce students

and schools.

■ The EnvironMentors Project matches adult mentors with students at under-resourced urban high

schools.

■ The H ealth and Environment Pa rt n e r s h i p aims to dra m atically improve health care by better educat-

ing doctors and nurses on environmental risk fa ctors.

■ The G reen Business Netwo r k is a “g re e n” business we bs i te and community co l l e ge - b a sed training

sys tem that will put affo rdable, profit-making environmental pra ct i ces into the hands of millions of

small business owners.

■ The E n v i ro n m e n t s - fo r - L earning Pro g ra m works to improve school environments, and to make

A m e r i c a’s public lands and nat u re ce n ters more acce ssible to schools and teachers as tools of envi-

ronmental educat i o n .

INSIDE BACK COVER

BLANK PAGE

The North American Association

for Environmental Education

410 Tarvin Road

Rock Spring, GA 30739

Tel: (706) 764-2926

Fax: (706) 764-2094

E-mail: email@naaee.org

Website: http://www.naaee.org

The National Environmental

Education & Training Foundation

1707 H Street NW, Suite 900

Washington, DC 20006

Tel: (202) 261-6461

Fax: (202) 261-6464

Email: neetf@neetf.org

Website: http://www.neetf.org