UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

Maximize goodMaximize good

Jeremy BenthamJeremy Bentham Principle of utility: Principle of utility:

Maximize goodMaximize good ““... the greatest happiness of ... the greatest happiness of

the whole community, ought to the whole community, ought to be the end or object of pursuit. be the end or object of pursuit. . . . The right and proper end . . . The right and proper end of government in every political of government in every political community, is the greatest community, is the greatest happiness of all the individuals happiness of all the individuals of which it is composed, say, of which it is composed, say, in other words, the greatest in other words, the greatest happiness of the greatest happiness of the greatest number.”number.”

Bentham’s PrincipleBentham’s Principle ““By the principle of utility is By the principle of utility is

meant that principle which meant that principle which approves or disapproves of approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, every action whatsoever, according to the tendency it according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same question: or, what is the same thing in other words to promote thing in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness.”or to oppose that happiness.”

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

““The creed which accepts The creed which accepts as the foundation of as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that Principle, holds that actions are right in actions are right in proportion as they tend to proportion as they tend to promote happiness, promote happiness, wrong as they tend to wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of produce the reverse of happiness.”happiness.”

ConsequencesConsequences

Consequentialism: an Consequentialism: an act’s value depends act’s value depends on its consequences on its consequences (effects on the (effects on the amount of good)amount of good)

Universalism: Universalism: everyone’s good everyone’s good counts equallycounts equally

Motives, intentions, etc.Motives, intentions, etc.

Utilitarians treat what comes before the act as Utilitarians treat what comes before the act as relevant, but only because of consequences:relevant, but only because of consequences: 1. 1. An intention is good if it tends to lead to good actions.An intention is good if it tends to lead to good actions. 2. 2. A motive is good if it tends to lead to good intentions. A motive is good if it tends to lead to good intentions. 3. 3. A character trait is good if it tends to lead to good A character trait is good if it tends to lead to good

motives. motives. 4. 4. A person is good if he/she tends to have good character A person is good if he/she tends to have good character

traits. traits. 5. A society is good if it tends to have good people.5. A society is good if it tends to have good people.

Intrinsic goodIntrinsic good

Maximize Maximize whatwhat?? Utilitarians need a Utilitarians need a

theory of basic or theory of basic or intrinsic goodintrinsic good

Moral good = Moral good = maximizing basic maximizing basic goodgood

Basic good = ?Basic good = ?

HedonismHedonism

Intrinsic good: Intrinsic good: HappinessHappiness

What is What is happiness?happiness?

HappinessHappiness

Bentham & Mill: Bentham & Mill: pleasure and the pleasure and the absence of painabsence of pain

HedonismHedonism: : pleasure and pain pleasure and pain are the only are the only sources of valuesources of value

Bentham’s UtilitarianismBentham’s Utilitarianism

A good act increases A good act increases the balance of the balance of pleasure over pain in pleasure over pain in the communitythe community

A bad act decreases A bad act decreases itit

The best acts The best acts maximize the balance maximize the balance of pleasure over painof pleasure over pain

Bentham’s UtilitarianismBentham’s Utilitarianism

We must consider, We must consider, not just ourselves, but not just ourselves, but everyone affectedeveryone affected

Individualism: effect Individualism: effect on community is sum on community is sum of affects on of affects on membersmembers

Moral CalculusMoral Calculus

People affectedPeople affected AA BB .. .. .. ZZ

TotalTotal

Pleasure Pain DifferencePleasure Pain Difference P(A) L(A) B(A)P(A) L(A) B(A) P(B) L(B) B(B)P(B) L(B) B(B) . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . P(Z)P(Z) L(Z) L(Z) B(Z) B(Z)

PP L L BB

Bentham’s ArgumentsBentham’s Arguments

Common senseCommon sense: common sense moral : common sense moral judgments agree with PUjudgments agree with PU

Arguments for other principlesArguments for other principles assume assume PU: “if people don’t follow this rule, bad PU: “if people don’t follow this rule, bad things happen.”things happen.”

We can We can resolve conflictsresolve conflicts; we must have a ; we must have a measure of value that allows us to do thatmeasure of value that allows us to do that

Bentham against conscienceBentham against conscience

““Principle of sympathy Principle of sympathy and antipathy” tends and antipathy” tends to severity or leniencyto severity or leniency

Capricious: people’s Capricious: people’s reactions differreactions differ

Confuses motive with Confuses motive with justificationjustification

PU is justification, not PU is justification, not motivemotive

Carlyle’s ObjectionCarlyle’s Objection

Thomas Carlyle: “Pig Thomas Carlyle: “Pig philosophy!” philosophy!”

Utilitarianism: good = Utilitarianism: good = feeling goodfeeling good

Qualities of pleasuresQualities of pleasures

Mill: pleasures differ in Mill: pleasures differ in quality as well as quantityquality as well as quantity

““It is better to be a It is better to be a human being dissatisfied human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”than a pig satisfied.”

We are capable of better We are capable of better pleasures than pigs arepleasures than pigs are

Judging QualityJudging Quality

Which pleasures are Which pleasures are higher?higher?

See what the See what the competent judges competent judges preferprefer

Who is competent to Who is competent to judge? Those with judge? Those with experience of bothexperience of both

Qualities of PleasureQualities of Pleasure IntellectualIntellectual

SocialSocial

SensualSensual

VirtueVirtue

Even if higher pleasures were not more Even if higher pleasures were not more intrinsically valuable, utilitarianism would intrinsically valuable, utilitarianism would not be pig philosophynot be pig philosophy

Higher pleasures —> virtues —> benefits Higher pleasures —> virtues —> benefits for othersfor others

Bentham v. MillBentham v. Mill

Bentham agrees that pleasures differ in quality: Bentham agrees that pleasures differ in quality: “In regard to well-being, quality as well as “In regard to well-being, quality as well as quantity requires to be taken into account.”quantity requires to be taken into account.”

He has an entire chapter on kinds of pleasuresHe has an entire chapter on kinds of pleasures

Bentham v. MillBentham v. Mill

But Bentham thinks But Bentham thinks youyou are the most are the most competent judge of quality competent judge of quality for youfor you::

“ “Quantity depends upon Quantity depends upon generalgeneral sensibility, sensibility to pleasure and pain sensibility, sensibility to pleasure and pain in general; quality upon in general; quality upon particularparticular sensibility: upon a man's being more sensibility: upon a man's being more sensible to pleasure or pain from this or sensible to pleasure or pain from this or that source, than to ditto from this or that that source, than to ditto from this or that other.”other.”

Bentham on LibertyBentham on Liberty

I can know quality for me by reflectionI can know quality for me by reflection But I can judge qualities for others only by But I can judge qualities for others only by

what they say and dowhat they say and do So, each can judge best for him/herself: So, each can judge best for him/herself:

“every man is a better judge of what is “every man is a better judge of what is conducive to his own well-being than any conducive to his own well-being than any other man can be.”other man can be.”

Mill on LibertyMill on Liberty

Harm principle:Harm principle: The only justification for The only justification for

restricting liberty is harm restricting liberty is harm to othersto others

Self-regarding actions: Self-regarding actions: sphere of libertysphere of liberty

We ought to be free to do We ought to be free to do what we please so long what we please so long as we don’t violate as we don’t violate someone else’s rightssomeone else’s rights

Mill on RulesMill on Rules

Principle of utility justifies actsPrinciple of utility justifies acts It need not be a motivation or even a It need not be a motivation or even a

practical testpractical test We apply it by “secondary principles,” We apply it by “secondary principles,”

common sense moral rulescommon sense moral rules We justify these rules by utilityWe justify these rules by utility We appeal to the principle of utility only We appeal to the principle of utility only

when secondary principles conflictwhen secondary principles conflict

Maimonides (1135-1204)Maimonides (1135-1204)

Reconciling faith with Reconciling faith with reasonreason

God’s 613 God’s 613 commandments commandments consistent with reasonconsistent with reason

All those pertaining to All those pertaining to human relations required human relations required by reasonby reason

They maximize goodThey maximize good

Maimonides: Basic GoodMaimonides: Basic Good

Happiness is intrinsically Happiness is intrinsically goodgood

But so is virtueBut so is virtue People seek to be kind, People seek to be kind,

brave, generous, etc., for brave, generous, etc., for their own sakes, even at their own sakes, even at the expense of happinessthe expense of happiness

Intrinsic good = Intrinsic good = feelingfeeling good + good + beingbeing good good

Maimonides on RulesMaimonides on Rules

Rule utilitarianismRule utilitarianism: act : act according to the rules according to the rules that maximize goodthat maximize good

KindsKinds of acts are of acts are fundamentalfundamental

Judge individual acts Judge individual acts by rules— justify rules by rules— justify rules as maximizing goodas maximizing good

Act v. Rule UtilitarianismAct v. Rule Utilitarianism

Act utilitarianismAct utilitarianism (Bentham): an act is right (Bentham): an act is right if it maximizes goodif it maximizes good

Utility —> actUtility —> act Rule utilitarianismRule utilitarianism (Maimonides): an act is (Maimonides): an act is

right if it accords with the rules that right if it accords with the rules that maximize goodmaximize good

Utility —> Rules —> ActUtility —> Rules —> Act Disagree when a rule conflicts with utilityDisagree when a rule conflicts with utility

Maimonides: Breaking RulesMaimonides: Breaking Rules

What if we can do better What if we can do better by breaking a (good) by breaking a (good) rule?rule?

Don’t break it!Don’t break it! Rules essential to moral Rules essential to moral

thoughtthought We are tempted to break We are tempted to break

rules for our own rules for our own advantageadvantage

We’ll usually go wrongWe’ll usually go wrong Moral chaosMoral chaos

Interpreting MillInterpreting Mill

Is Mill an act or rule-Is Mill an act or rule-utilitarian?utilitarian?

His greatest His greatest happiness principle happiness principle speaks of actsspeaks of acts

But he stresses But he stresses secondary principlessecondary principles

Mill: Breaking RulesMill: Breaking Rules

Letter to John Venn:Letter to John Venn: Advocates act Advocates act

utilitarianismutilitarianism But agrees with But agrees with

MaimonidesMaimonides If we break a rule, we’ll If we break a rule, we’ll

usually go wrongusually go wrong So, better to obey the ruleSo, better to obey the rule

Mill: Acts and RulesMill: Acts and Rules

Act utilitarianism is Act utilitarianism is right, but act as a rule right, but act as a rule utilitarianutilitarian

Act utilitarianism tells Act utilitarianism tells us what makes right us what makes right acts rightacts right

But rule utilitarianism But rule utilitarianism is a better practical is a better practical testtest