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PALMS Gonzalez et al.: Chilean Palm Vol. 53(2) 2009

68

Ecology andManagementof the ChileanPalm (Jubaeachilensis):

History,CurrentSituation andPerspectives

LUIS ALBERTO GONZALEZ1,RAMIRO O. BUSTAMANTE2RAFAEL M. NAVARRO C.3MIGUEL ANGEL HERRERA M.3AND

MANUEL TORAL IBAEZ1

1Departamento de Manejo deRecursos Forestales, Universidadde Chile, Santa Rosa 11.315,Comuna de la Pintana, Santiagode Chile, [email protected]@uchile.cl

2Departamento de Ciencias

Ecolgicas, Institute of Ecologyand Biodiversity, Universidad deChile, Las Palmeras 3425,Comuna de unoa, Santiago deChile, Chile [email protected]

3Departamento de IngenieraForestal, Universidad deCrdoba, Edf. Leonardo de Vincis/n Campus de Rabanales14071 Crdoba, Spain

[email protected],[email protected]

The Chilean palm,Jubaea chilensis (Front Cover), one of the most emblematic

tree species of the Chilean flora, has suffered a gradual reduction of its population

numbers in the last 150 years, with the estimated 120,000 palms that exist today

being no more than 2.5% of the existing population found at the beginning of

the 19th Century. From an economic point of view, this plant has been one of

the most prized species in the central zone of Chile due to its two valuable

products its sap, the basis of the traditional palm honey industry, and its seeds

(mini-coconuts), which are also an important product for the food industry.

Along with a history of extensive use, there has been a drastic reduction of the

accompanying native vegetation due to anthropogenic activities, thus reducing

the appropriate habitats for the natural regeneration of this species. Given its

current ecological condition and the need to implement strategies that ensure

its conservation, it is necessary to evaluate current knowledge of the palm. This

article gives a general background of the species, i.e. biogeography, ecology andhistory of use, and general recommendations are provided to ensure its persistence

in the central zone of Chile.

PALMS 53(2): 6874

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In Chile, the palm family is represented bytwo monotypic genera: Jubaea and Juania;

Jubaea chilensis (Molina) Baill. (Chilean palm)is distributed in the central area of the country,and Juania australis (chonta) is foundexclusively in the Juan Fernndez archipelago

(Muoz 1962, Gay 1853).The history ofJubaea chilensis is linked to thegeological history of South America. Successiveglobal climate changes along with the Andeanorogenesis resulted in the confinement oftropical elements to the western slope of thismountainous range (Villagrn & Hinojosa2005). As a consequence of these geologicalchanges, a particular floral composition of theMediterranean zone has emerged withcoexisting elements such as those with austral-antarctic and tropical origins.

The current geographic distribution of theChilean palm is very restricted, confined toan area from the south of the Limari river (IVRegion) to the surrounding areas of Curic (VIIRegion), always along the Coastal Range ofChile. Serra et al. (1986) point out that it isdifficult to specify geographic limits since thepopulations of this species have been stronglyfragmented by the action of man (Bordeau1992).

The northernmost limit is in the Hacienda LasPalmas, IV Region (3115S, 7135W), whilstits southernmost limit is the locality ofTapihue, VII Region (3522S, 7147W) (Fig. 1).Nowadays, there are around 15 localities wherewe may find the Chilean palm (Tab.1);however, in only three localities are thepopulation numbers important: Ocoa (aprox.60,000 individuals), Cocaln (35,000individuals) and Las 7 Hermanas (7,000individuals), thus representing more than 90%of the total (Serra et al. 1986, Rundel & Weisser

1975, Michea 1988).In spite of the interest generated byJ. chilensisin our country, scientific knowledge of thisspecies in key aspects of its biology, such asreproduction, population regeneration or thebiological interactions in which it is involved(pollination, frugivory and herbivory), aresurprisingly scarce. Nothing is known aboutthe population genetics of this species or of itsreproduction systems. This lack of informationis serious since this knowledge is essential toelucidate how to assure the persistence of this

species under natural conditions.The indiscriminate harvest of seeds (mini-coconuts), which in many populations results


in the extraction of the total nut production,has been identified as the main cause of thereduction of the population numbers (Serra etal. 1986). In fact, the large majority ofremaining populations are dominated bysenescent individuals with a low or nullproportion of juveniles (Michea 1988),suggesting that the major limitations of therecruitment of new individuals occurs in the

early stages of the life cycle (Marcelo 2007).The conditions for successful seed germinationare well known under nursery settings (Infante

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1. Geographical distribution of Chilean Palm.

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1989, Arru 2000, Solari 2002), suggesting thatthe species has no serious physiologicalconstraints for germination. There is only onestudy (Serra et al. 1986) that suggests thatgermination and subsequent survival of theseedlings are strongly dependent on the plant

cover of the sclerophyllous forest, since theregeneration of new individuals in bare soil isnon-existent. Recent field experiments supportthe existence of this nurse effect (Marcelo2007). On the other hand, the seeds of theChilean palm are actively consumed by native(e.g., Octodon degus; Zunino et al. 1992, Yateset al. 1994) and introduced rodents, animportant mortality factor that requiresevaluation. Also, seedlings are activelyconsumed by exotic rabbits, which is thus anadditional limitation for regeneration (Marcelo

2007).Once individual palms surmount theecological barriers imposed on seeds andseedlings, no further mortality factors(excepting the death of individuals for human

use) are critical for the juveniles and adultplants. Once the trunk is formed (at 2530years of age), the Chilean palm presents anotable resistance to fire. In fact, the mortalityof adult specimens as a result of fire is almostzero even though the current occurrence of

fires in Central Chile is extremely high(Montenegro et al. 2004)

Conservation and Management

Given the disappearance of the Chilean palmin vast areas of Central Chile, the authoritiestried to protect the species inside ProtectedWildlife Areas 35 years ago. These effortsresulted in the protection of the largestpopulation in the area of Ocoa of the CampanaNational Park (Fig. 2). The population ofCocaln, the second in size, has remained in

private ownership, and although this area wasalso declared a National Park, this situationhas not been resolved legally.

The Chilean palm has occupied a verysignificant role in rural culture. The extraction


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Tab. 1. Natural Populations of Chilean Palm. Estimates were based on knowninventories, published data and the authors observations.

LOCALITIES Long. Lat. No. of palms(estimated)

1. Sector OCOA: including Parque La Campana, 3257 7104 70,308Hacienda Las Palmas de Ocoa, Oasis LaCampana y Palmas de Vichiculn-Llay Llay

2. Sector COCALN: including Hacienda Las 3412 7108 35,500Palmas de Cocaln, La Palmera, andsurrounding areas

3. Sector VIA DEL MAR-VALPARAISO: including 3304 7131 7,200Las Siete Hermanas, Subida Santos Ossa andsurrounding areas

4. Cuesta Los Guindos- Cuesta Alhu 3358 7114 2,5005. San Miguel de Las Palmas 3425 7147 2,000

6. La Candelaria 3451 7129 1,900

7. Tunel de Las Palmas, Pedegua 3209 7109 1,300

8. Tilama, Pichidangui 3205 7108 50

9. Tapihue, Pencahue 3515 71147 17

10. La Serena 2954 7115 3

11. Limahuida, Los Vilos 3144 7109 2

12. Paredones, El Asiento, Talam and 200dispersed individuals

TOTAL 120,980

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of palm sap, the basis for the production ofpalm honey, constitutes a traditional activitywhich has maintained the same characteristicsfor more than 200 years. Traditionally, sapharvest has resulted in the sacrifice of thespecimens. Once the individuals are uprooted,

their apex is cleared, and the exudation occursthrough the apical meristem. The sap harvesttakes a whole summer season, andapproximately 400 liters of sap are obtainedper specimen giving an average of 90 kg ofsugar concentrate. This concentrate is storedfor aging and to increase its yield in themanufacture of the industrial product, whichalso contains sucrose, sap and water. With aconcentrate aged for 20 years, the volume ofpalm honey obtained may be more than 20times the concentrate volume.

In the exploitation of the palms for theproduction of honey, it is necessary todistinguish two different types, each one witha different spatial as well as temporal effect:home-made honey production, the moretraditional way of extraction, and theindustrial production, currently carried out bythe private enterprise Cocalan Palm HoneyLtda. at Cocaln. The production of home-made honey was without doubt very

important in the past. This form ofexploitation, which resulted in massiveextractions of plants (Vicua Mackenna 1877)has been traditionally ignored in terms of thenegative ecological impact on the species andon the entire ecosystem. However, it was an

important activity for a very long time andespecially during some periods in which therewas a shortage of other types of sugars requiredfor human consumption. It is quite possiblethat requirement for the palm sap may havebeen extremely strong in the past, particularlyin areas of Central Chile with a large numberof rural population concentrated due toseasonal agricultural activities.

The exploitation of the sap at an industriallevel has had a continuous development since1878 only in the localities of Ocoa and

Cocaln. This industrial exploitation seemednot to affect natural populations negatively,since it is precisely in these localities wherethe major populations are found at the presentday. Furthermore, both of these localitiesalways had controls on the access of illegalexploitation. In 1980, more rigorous controlswere established through Management Planssupervised by the National Forest Corporation(CONAF) and the Agriculture and Livestock


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2. Typical population structure of Chilean palm in areas oriented to the production of fruits.

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Service (SAG). In Cocaln, the averageextraction of individuals did not exceed 30specimens per year, a number by far sufficientto satisfy the demand for palm honey in thenational market. In fact, this population is theonly one that presents a population structure

with a greater proportion of young individualswith respect to older ones, a pattern thatstrongly suggests good regeneration and largelycontrasts with the population structureobserved in other localities where adultindividuals are largely dominant (Fig. 3).

Threats to the conservation of the ChileanPalm

We can identify two human activities that areconsistently pushing this species to anextinction vortex: the harvest of nuts and the

reduction of native vegetation.

Harvest of young nuts: There is no doubt thatthe Chilean palm has an abundant seedproduction and although its germination isdifficult, there should be no problem in termsof its self-propagation. However, the greatdemand for seeds for human consumptionallows us to assume that the uncontrolled fruitharvest has probably been the most importantcause of its disappearance in certain areas. Infact, this activity, of which specific details are

unknown, is carried out in almost all theexisting palm populations with the exceptionof Cocaln, where there has been a certaincontrol on behalf of the company. In Ocoa, thefruit harvest control ceased in 1970 when thelands came under the administration of theCampana National Park. The administrators

of the park have established a protocol toregulate the activity, which includes the park,seed collectors and the private company OasisLa Campana. This company sells to collectorsa proportion of nuts in order to produce largenumbers of seedlings for ornamental purposes.

The rest of the seeds are presumably returnedto the park for natural regeneration. In otherpalm populations there exists no control ofnut extraction, and the entire seed crop isharvested by people.

Although the harvest of nuts is regarded asthe main threat to the long-term persistenceof the palm, currently there is no informationon the total production of seeds per individual,population or species; there is no informationon the total number of seeds extracted forhuman use, and if the nut production of palms

in inaccessible places (not consumed bypeople) is enough to assure the necessities ofnative rodents, which use these resourcesduring winter. The knowledge of thesenumbers will be crucial to manage thisresource in a sustainable manner and also toelucidate if this extraction is affecting otherlevels of the food web.

Reduction of the vegetation cover: As of thesecond half of the 19th Century, following thediscovery of gold in California and Australia

(from 1848 to 1852), there was a massivechange of land use in Central Chile. Largeamounts of forested areas were eliminated withthe purpose of producing wheat. This land usechange resulted in a drastic reduction of thesclerophyllous forest, the dominant nativevegetation of Central Chile. The reduction of


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703

540

243

7800

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Infantile juveniles Young adults Adults Senescents

Frequency

ofindividuals

3. Typical population structure of Chilean palm in areas where they are devoted to sap production .

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the cover of native vegetation resulted inreduction of the microhabitats that favoredseed and seedling survival of the Chilean palm.Unfortunately, unlike other native trees, suchas boldo (Peumus boldus), peumo (Cryptocaryaalba), litre (Lithraea caustica) and quillay

(Quillaja saponaria), this palm does notregenerate vegetatively. In summary, theelimination of the sclerophyllous forest foragriculture and forestry has been a seriouscause of the disappearance and/or reduction ofthe numbers of the Chilean palms particularlyin Central Chile, because of constraints tonatural regeneration. The conservation of thesclerophyllous forest certainly will help theconservation of the Chilean palm.

The Chilean Palm: proposals for sustainablemanagement

Although the importance of this species as avaluable natural resource has been largelyrecognized, isolated initiatives began onlyduring the 1970s. The first study thatexamined the potential of the Chilean palm asa resource was an undergraduate thesis at theUniversity of Chile entitled Inventory andproduction study of the Chilean palm,Jubaeachilensis (Mol.) Baillon., Hacienda Ocoa,Valparaiso (Rubinstein 1969). This pioneerinvestigation received limited attention. This

is unfortunate as from this study emergedimportant recommendations. Specifically, theauthor concluded that because of (i) the highproductive potential ofJubaea chilensis, basednot only on the production of honey but onthe products derived from the fruit and leavesand (ii) the real potential of this species forreforestation and recovery in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, it provides a good opportunityfor an economically sustainable activity, whichat the same time provides social benefits as itmay constitute a source of employment in aregion where the cost of owning land is highand the large labor force is poor.

More sustainable initiatives other than nutharvest and sap extraction are still in initialstages in Chile. In the cities, it is used as anornamental plant thus replacing the exoticpalm Phoenix canariensis currently found inparks and avenues. Until a few years ago therewere no nurseries dedicated to the productionof seedlings and saplings ofJubaea chilensis.Only in recent years has this enterprise begun,

but the availability of plants is still low, andthe prices are high. Additionally, there is nostudy that assures an acceptable level ofsurvival in a massive plantation. Currently,

the Hacienda Las Palmas de Cocaln is theonly place in the world where there is anintegrated sustainable productive managementof a natural forest of Chilean palm under thesupervision of public agencies (CONAF, SAG).This activity that begun in 1982 has been

concentrated on the extraction of the sap toproduce honey, extracting about 3034individuals per year. More recently, otherinitiatives have been conducted in otherlocalities to commercialize young and adultpalms for ornamental purposes as well; this isthe case of the Oasis La Campana S.A., situatedclose to La Campana National Park, and thenursery of the Agrcola Santuario Las PalmasCompany adjacent to the Las Palmas deCocaln.

Although a lot of experience has been

accumulated in recent years using the Chileanpalm as a sustainable resource, it is stillunavailable to owners of small farms with dryand poor-nutrient soils inadequate for mostagriculture but very suitable for the culture ofthe Chilean palm. We suggest that the cultureand economic use of the Chilean palm is viablefor these people. First, palm culture does notrequire great extensions of land, and youngplants do not require special care for survivaland growth. In fact, some experience showsthat specimens growing without fertilizers,pesticides or irrigation have shown adevelopment that allows 4045 year rotationsfor sap production and nut production.Secondly, there exists the basic knowledge toimprove germination and survival of seedlingsand saplings under controlled conditions.Thirdly, small farmers do not have so manyother economic options, so these initiativesmay become a unique opportunity improvetheir quality of life.

A plantation for the purposes of producing sap

for the manufacture of palm honey is perfectlycompatible with the culture of young andjuvenile plants (515-year olds) for ornamentalpurposes. The demand for this type of productis increasing very fast, and prices are attractivefor export. Moreover, preliminary resultssuggest that the palm honey may be extractedwithout killing individuals, such as occurs inthe Canary Islands withPhoenix canariensis. Inthis case, the production takes place during aperiod of 4 to 9 months with an average of 8to 15 liters per day, depending on individual

variation (Mesa Noda 2001). From ourexperience, individuals may be milked everyfive years with no further problems of survivaland growth.


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Conclusion

The Chilean forestry activities have beensustained almost exclusively by exotic plantsof rapid growth, such as Pinus radiata andspecies of the genus Eucalyptus. Currently,there is a need for a focused promotion

towards the sustainable management of nativeforest and at the same time towards thediversification of species used in forestry. Aproject based on the Chilean palm is evidentlyoutlined within the policy of a native specieswhich occupies a territory that has noalternative use. Furthermore, it constitutes agenuine intent to recover an emblematicnative species such as our Chilean palms forconservation and management.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support of theInternational Palm Society, and grant ICM P05-002, Institute of Ecosystem and Biodiversity,University of Chile.

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