vc brief evidencebasedmeasurement - fastercuresof!6!! conclusion*...

6
This issue brief, the third in a series prepared by Breakaway Policy Strategies for FasterCures, discusses how “quality” is defined in health care. It explains how performance is measured by various public and private entities that pay for health care, identifies the key organizations that develop and evaluate measures, and discusses the main uses of performance data and concerns with the validity and usefulness of the data in practice. Introduction As discussed in A Closer Look at Alternative Payment Models, the second brief in the FasterCures Value and Coverage Issue Brief Series, the United States is transitioning from a feefor service (FFS) payment system—one that pays doctors and hospitals for each individual service provided— into a system that rewards providers for quality while controlling costs. Studies have shown that at least 20 to 50 percent of all prescriptions, visits, procedures and hospitalizations in the U.S. are inappropriate either as the overuse, underuse or misuse of what has been shown to be effective and beneficial care. 1,2,3 This has fueled demand by consumers and health care policymakers for information regarding the performance of health care providers and institutions. Developing and Evaluating Performance Measures Performance measurement is a quantitative way to measure quality, and can be defined as “whether or how often a process and outcome of care occurs.” 4 In certain clinical areas, such as cardiac and intensive care, performance measurement has been associated with improvements in providers’ use of evidencebased strategies and patients’ health outcomes. 5,6 Aside from quality improvement, capturing performance data can also increase transparency in the quality of care provided and serve as the basis for accreditation or certification for provider groups or organizations. Agencies like CMS and the Agency for Health Care Research and Quality (AHRQ) 7 , as well as nonprofit private developers such as the Joint Commission 8 and the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) 9 are the organizations responsible for the development of many of the performance measures in use today. Professional societies such as the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the American College of Surgeons also develop measures. After measures are developed, they sometimes undergo evaluation by the National Quality Forum (NQF)—a public/private, multi stakeholder organization that endorses general standards for measurement and specific measures. 10 The most widely used performance measures are those endorsed by the NQF or those developed by the NCQA, known as the Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set (HEDIS)—which have been vetted by stakeholders and tested for reliability, feasibility and validity. Defining and Measuring Quality The Institute of Medicine (IOM) describes quality as multidimensional and inclusive of concepts that go well beyond safety. IOM defines “highquality care” as care that is safe, effective, patientcentered, timely, efficient, and equitable (with no disparities between racial or ethnic groups) 11 . In the late 1990’s, the American Medical Association (AMA) began a program to develop physicianlevel performance measures to be used for quality improvement. By bringing together physicians and experts from various medical specialties, clinical process measures for several areas of

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Page 1: VC Brief EvidenceBasedMeasurement - FasterCuresof!6!! Conclusion* Rewarding*performanceinourhealthcaresystemis* gainingmomentumasawaytoimprovethequality* andvalueofcare.Publicandprivatepayers

 

 

This  issue  brief,  the  third  in  a  series  prepared  by  Breakaway  Policy  Strategies  for  FasterCures,  discusses  how  “quality”  is  defined  in  health  care.  It  explains  how  performance  is  measured  by  various  public  and  private  entities  that  pay  for  health  care,  identifies  the  key  organizations  that  develop  and  evaluate  measures,  and  discusses  the  main  uses  of  performance  data  and  concerns  with  the  validity  

and  usefulness  of  the  data  in  practice.

Introduction  As  discussed  in  A  Closer  Look  at  Alternative  Payment  Models,  the  second  brief    in  the  FasterCures  Value  and  Coverage  Issue  Brief  Series,  the  United  States  is  transitioning  from  a  fee-­‐for-­‐service  (FFS)  payment  system—one  that  pays  doctors  and  hospitals  for  each  individual  service  provided—  into  a  system  that  rewards  providers  for  quality  while  controlling  costs.  Studies  have  shown  that  at  least  20  to  50  percent  of  all  prescriptions,  visits,  procedures  and  hospitalizations  in  the  U.S.  are  inappropriate  either  as  the  overuse,  underuse  or  misuse  of  what  has  been  shown  to  be  effective  and  beneficial  care.1,2,3  

This  has  fueled  demand  by  consumers  and  health  care  policymakers  for  information  regarding  the  performance  of  health  care  providers  and  institutions.  

Developing  and  Evaluating  Performance  Measures  

Performance  measurement  is  a  quantitative  way  to  measure  quality,  and  can  be  defined  as  “whether  or  how  often  a  process  and  outcome  of  care  occurs.”4  In  certain  clinical  areas,  such  as  cardiac  and  intensive  care,  performance  measurement  has  been  associated  with  improvements  in  providers’  use  of  evidence-­‐based  strategies  and  patients’  health  outcomes.5,6  Aside  from  quality  improvement,  capturing  performance  data  can  also  increase  transparency  in  the  quality  of  care  provided  and  serve  as  the  basis  for  accreditation  or  certification  for  provider  groups  or  organizations.    

 

Agencies  like  CMS  and  the  Agency  for  Health  Care  Research  and  Quality  (AHRQ)7,  as  well  as  non-­‐profit  private  developers  such  as  the  Joint  Commission8  and  the  National  Committee  for  Quality  Assurance  (NCQA)9  are  the  organizations  responsible  for  the  development  of  many  of  the  performance  measures  in  use  today.  Professional  societies  such  as  the  American  Heart  Association,  the  American  College  of  Cardiology,  and  the  American  College  of  Surgeons  also  develop  measures.  After  measures  are  developed,  they  sometimes  undergo  evaluation  by  the  National  Quality  Forum  (NQF)—a  public/private,  multi-­‐stakeholder  organization  that  endorses  general  standards  for  measurement  and  specific  measures.10  The  most  widely  used  performance  measures  are  those  endorsed  by  the  NQF  or  those  developed  by  the  NCQA,  known  as  the  Healthcare  Effectiveness  Data  and  Information  Set  (HEDIS)—which  have  been  vetted  by  stakeholders  and  tested  for  reliability,  feasibility  and  validity.  

Defining  and  Measuring  Quality  

The  Institute  of  Medicine  (IOM)  describes  quality  as  multidimensional  and  inclusive  of  concepts  that  go  well  beyond  

safety.  IOM  defines  “high-­‐quality  care”  as  care  that  is  safe,  effective,  patient-­‐centered,  timely,  efficient,  and  equitable  (with  no  disparities  between  racial  or  ethnic  groups)11.  In  the  late  1990’s,  the  American  Medical  Association  (AMA)  began  a  program  to  develop  physician-­‐level  performance  measures  to  be  used  for  quality  improvement.  By  bringing  together  physicians  and  experts  from  various  medical  specialties,  clinical  process  measures  for  several  areas  of  

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medical  practice  were  developed.  The  AMA’s  program,  now  known  as  the  Physician  Consortium  for  Performance  Improvement  (PCPI),  continues  to  lead  efforts  in  developing,  testing  and  implementing  performance  measures  for  use  at  the  point  of  care.12      

Organizations  that  define  and  measure  Quality  Organization   Involvement  with  Quality  Measurement  

NCQA   A  private,  nonprofit  that  reviews  and  accredits  health  insurance  plans.  Created  the  Healthcare  Effectiveness  Data  and  Information  Set  (HEDIS),  a  set  of  health  plan  performance  measures  used  for  both  public  reporting  and  accreditation.    

AHRQ   Federal  agency  within  HHS  which  aims  to  improve  quality,  safety,  efficiency,  and  effectiveness.  AHRQ  initiatives  include:  the  National  Quality  Measures  Clearinghouse  (NQMC),  which  provides  information  on  specific  evidence-­‐based  health  care  quality  measures,  and  the  Consumer  Assessment  of  Health  Providers  &  Systems  (CAHPS),  a  comprehensive  series  of  patient  satisfaction  surveys  regarding  health  care  services.  

The  Joint  Commission  

An  independent  not-­‐for-­‐profit  that  accredits  more  than  20,000  health  care  organizations  and  programs  in  the  United  States.  States  and  CMS  require  hospitals  and  other  health  care  organizations  to  be  accredited  by  the  Joint  commission  in  order  to  participate  in  Medicare  and  Medicaid.    

NQF   A  private,  nonprofit  that  builds  consensus  around  quality  improvement  priorities  and  evaluates  and  endorses  quality  standards  and  measures.  

 

There  are  several  quality  metrics  that  allow  a  user  to  quantify  the  quality  of  health  care  services  by  comparison  to  specific  criteria.  These  metrics  include:  process  measures,  outcome  measures,  patient  experience  measures,  and  structure  measures.13    Detailed  descriptions  of  these  measures  is  included  in  A  Closer  Look  at  Alternative  Payment  Models,  the  second  brief  in  the  FasterCures  Value  and  Coverage  Issue  Brief  Series.  

Process  measures,  which  look  at  improvement  and  assess  the  performance  of  activities  shown  to  contribute  to  positive  patient  outcomes,  are  the  most  commonly  used  of  the  quality  measures.  The  measures  can  be  used  for  any  number  of  things,  including  quality  improvement,  accountability  or  research—or  some  combination  of  the  three.  The  entity  performing  the  measurement  must  determine  the  purpose  and  intended  use  of  the  measure  and  can  then  use  the  measurement  to  help  identify  problems,  establish  baseline  results,  and/or  drive  quality  and  performance  improvement.  Measurement  results  can  be  expressed  as  a  rate,  ratio,  frequency  distribution  or  score  for  average  performance  and  is  often  interpreted  in  comparison  to  a  set  standard.  

Primary  Uses  of  Performance  Data    

Performance  measurement  data  is  used  primarily  for  quality  improvement  initiatives  and  accountability.  Both  the  public  and  private  sectors  have  developed  quality  improvement  initiatives,  such  as  pay-­‐for-­‐performance  programs  (P4P).  P4P  is  a  term  that  describes  payment  models  that  offer  financial  incentives  to  providers  who  achieve  or  exceed  specified  quality  benchmark.  (P4P  initiatives  are  discussed  in  greater  detail  in  A  Closer  Look  at  Alternative  Payment  Models.)    Under  most  payment  models,  payments  to  physicians  and  hospitals  are  adjusted  on  the  basis  of  whether  the  providers  achieve  a  pre-­‐determined  set  of  quality  measures.  

In  theory,  providing  the  public  with  access  to  performance  data  should  allow  patients  to  make  informed  choices  about  their  care  and  be  more  involved  in  their  medical  decision-­‐making.  It  should  also  allow  providers  to  identify  areas  for  improvement  and  motivate  them  to  make  those  improvements.  Indeed,  some  studies  have  shown  that  publicly  reporting  provider  performance  data  can  result  in  quality  improvements.14  Such  data,  however,  is  not  always  readily  accessible  by  patients—either  patient  are  not  aware  that  the  data  is  available,  it  is  not  the  exact  information  they  need,  or  it  is  not  presented  in  an  understandable  way.15    

Commercial  health  plans  also  make  performance  data  publicly  available  by  classifying  providers  into  different  value  tiers  and  encouraging  consumers  to  choose  certain  providers  by  offering  lower  cost-­‐sharing.    

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Performance  Measurement  in  Practice  

There  are  many  examples  of  performance  measurement  in  practice.  A  few  examples  include:  

• The  Physician  Quality  Reporting  System  (PQRS),  a  voluntary  reporting  program  implemented  in  2007  by  the  Centers  for  Medicare  and  Medicaid  Services  (CMS),16  offers  a  financial  incentive  to  eligible  professionals  for  voluntarily  reporting  data  on  specific  quality  measures  applied  to  the  Medicare  population.  The  program  uses  measures  developed  by  several  sources—the  majority  coming  from  the  AMA  PCPI.  For  2014,  there  are  285  measures  in  total,  110  of  which  are  individual  quality  measures.17    

Though  there  is  a  financial  incentive  to  encourage  participation  in  the  PQRS,  less  than  30  percent  of  eligible  providers  actually  report  data  to  CMS.  This  low  participation  rate  may  be  due  to  the  concerns  that  many  physicians  have  regarding  the  validity  of  this  data  and  the  credibility  and  accuracy  of  public  reporting,  especially  in  regards  to  outcome  measures.18    Despite  these  concerns,  participation  in  PQRS  has  been  growing.    

• CMS  uses  performance  data  to  offer  bonuses  to  Medicare  Advantage  (MA)  plans  using  a  star  ratings  system.  The  program,  implemented  under  the  Affordable  Care  Act  (ACA),  pays  MA  plans  bonuses  based  on  the  “Medicare  5  

star  program,”  which  rates  plans  online  on  a  scale  of  1  to  5  stars.  Stars  are  awarded  based  on  performance  measures  taken  from  CMS  administrative  data,  HEDIS  measurement  data,  and  CHAPS  survey  data.  CMS  also  uses  performance  measurement  data  in  many  of  its  P4P  programs,  including  the  End-­‐Stage  Renal  Disease  (ESRD)  Bundled-­‐Payment  and  Quality  Incentive  Program.19    

• The  use  of  performance  measurement  in  improving  specific  types  of  care  has  also  produced  some  promising  results.  For  example,  there  have  been  significant  changes  in  cardiovascular  care  in  last  10  years.  Key  changes  in  this  treatment  area  came  from  a  decision  by  CMS  to  support  the  measurement  of  care  provided  to  patients  with  an  acute  myocardial  infarction.  Using  reported  performance  data,  CMS  was  able  to  identify  gaps  in  the  quality  of  care  and  facilitated  and  supported  efforts  to  improve  cardiovascular  care.  Hospitalizations  for  acute  myocardial  infarction  dropped  by  more  than  25  percent  and  hospitalizations  for  heart  failure  fell  by  more  than  30  percent.20,21  Post-­‐hospitalization  mortality  due  to  acute  myocardial  infarction  also  decreased  by  over  20  percent.22  

• CMS  has  also  created  online  tools  to  aid  in  consumer  decision-­‐making,  including  Hospital  Compare,  Nursing  Home  Compare  and  Physician  Compare.  These  sites  aid  patients  in  making  informed  decisions  about  their  health  care  based  on  publicly  available  provider  quality  data.23  The  program  was  designed  to  encourage  providers  to  improve  the  quality  of  their  care  through  accountability.  Information  made  available  includes,  for  example,  that  regarding  readmission,  complications  and  death,  timely  and  effective  care,  use  of  medical  imaging,  and  surveys  of  patients’  experiences.    

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Assessing  the  Validity  and  Usefulness  of  Performance  Measures    

While  the  purpose  of  performance  measures  is  to  improve  quality  and  promote  transparency,  even  proponents  believe  it  is  important  to:    

• ensure  that  measures  are  appropriate;  understand  the  scientific  basis  underlying  and  the  strengths  and  limitations  of  each  measure;  and    

• reduce  inaccurate  inferences  about  provider  performance.  

Many  agree  that  scientifically  rigorous  and  valid  measures  of  performance  can  truly  improve  value  in  health  care.24  However,  despite  the  widespread  acceptance  and  use  of  performance  measures  in  recent  years,  some  argue  that  there  has  not  been  a  sufficient  corresponding  increase  in  the  quality  of  care.25  There  are  a  few  possible  explanations  for  this:  

• concerns  about  the  strength  of  the  evidence  underlying  the  performance  measures,26    

• the  ways  in  which  measures  are  used  to  encourage  providers  to  improve  care,27    

• limitations  of  the  amount  and  type  of  existing  data.28    

The  measures  also  may  not  be  suitable  for  clinically  important  subpopulations—meaning  it  is  easier  to  achieve  in  practice,  but  will  have  little  or  no  impact  on  the  group  of  patients  who  need  improvement  most,29  or  they  may  not  account  for  a  patient’s  or  clinician’s  personal  preferences  for  certain  services.30  

Another  concern  is  that  the  majority  of  the  current  quality  improvement  initiatives  focus  too  heavily  on  process  measures—instead  of  outcome  measures—which  do  not  always  result  in  improved  care  or  value  of  care  for  the  patient.  Process  measures  look  at  improvement  and  assess  the  performance  of  activities  shown  to  contribute  to  positive  health  outcomes  for  patients  while  outcome  measures  look  at  the  effects  that  care  had  on  patients.  

One  example  of  a  program  that  did  not  improve  care  was  the  Medicare  Premier  Hospital  Quality  Incentive  Demonstration,  the  largest  test  of  both  public  reporting  and  P4P,  which  failed  to  have  any  significant  impact  on  the  value  of  care  in  three  key  clinical  conditions  and  neither  reduced  patient  mortality  nor  cost  growth.31,32  While  the  hospitals  

demonstrated  improved  scores  on  mostly  process  measures,  the  program  did  little  to  improve  patient  outcomes.  

However,  shifting  to  using  more  outcome  measures  to  improve  quality  is  not  as  easy  as  it  sounds.  Patients’  health  outcomes  are  not  solely  based  on  the  quality  of  care  they  receive,  but  also  their  previous  risk  factors,  chance  events,  or  social  determinants  of  health.33,34  As  with  process  measures,  there  are  also  concerns  regarding  the  validity  of  outcome  measures  based  on  the  source  of  data—mainly  claims  data  which  may  fail  to  identify  preexisting  conditions  and  complications  that  occur  after  hospital  admission.35  

   

Modifications  to  Measures  over  Time  

Though  concerns  exist  regarding  the  validity  and  usefulness  of  performance  measurement,  programs  and  measures  can  be  modified  over  time.  As  those  developing  and  evaluating  these  measures  continue  to  assess  how  these  work  in  practice,  modifications  can  be  made  directly  to  the  measures,  by  finding  new  or  multiple  ways  for  providers  to  satisfy  the  measures,  or  by  creating  exclusions  for  specific  circumstances—as  in  the  example  above.  The  future  of  evidence-­‐based  performance  measurement  rests  on  the  ability  of  stakeholders  to  make  such  modifications.  

One  example  of  how  performance  measures  can  be  modified  involves  the  Medicare  National  Pneumonia  Project.  The  Project  used  performance  measures  related  to  timing  of  antibiotic  treatment  for  patients  coming  to  hospitals  with  community-­‐acquired  pneumonia.36  The  Project  adopted  a  measure  to  administer  antibiotics  within  four  hours  of  a  patient  first  arriving  to  the  hospital.  Use  of  this  measure,  however,  failed  to  take  into  account  that  often,  pneumonia  cannot  be  diagnosed  during  an  initial  evaluation  and  that  the  appropriate  standard  of  care  for  a  stable  patient  is  to  withhold  treatment  until  a  more  certain  diagnosis  can  be  made.  After  studies  failed  to  show  that  the  four  hour  time  window  for  antibiotic  administration  decreased  mortality  in  stable  patients,37  the  Joint  Commission  relaxed  the  time  window  to  6  hours  and  created  a  new  carve-­‐out  for  “diagnostic  uncertainty”  that  can  be  used  to  exclude  certain  patients  from  this  measure.    

 

 

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Conclusion  

Rewarding  performance  in  our  health  care  system  is  gaining  momentum  as  a  way  to  improve  the  quality  and  value  of  care.  Public  and  private  payers  continue  to  measure  not  only  the  under  and  over  use  of  services,  but  also  to  assess  the  quality  of  certain  services  and  interventions,  using  the  results  for  public  reporting  and  P4P  programs.  It  is  important  for  performance  measures  to  take  into  account  the  perspectives  of  various  health  care  stakeholders—including  the  patient,  the  purchaser,  and  the  provider.  Though  there  are  hurdles  to  overcome  in  perfecting  the  use  of  performance  measurement  in  practice,  current  efforts  have  demonstrated  the  potential  of  these  measures  if  used  and  modified  appropriately  along  the  way.    

                                                                                                               1  “The  Urgent  Need  to  Improve  Health  Care  Quality.”  Consensus  Statement-­‐  September  16,  1998.  Institute  of  Medicine  National  Roundtable  on  Health  Care  Quality.  JAMA.  280  (1998):  1000-­‐1005.  2McGlynn  EA,  Asch  SM,  Adams  J,  et  al.  “The  quality  of  health  care  delivered  to  adults  in  the  United  States.”  N  Engl  J  Med.  348  (2003);  2634-­‐45.  3  Kerr  EA,  McGlynn  EA,  Adams  J.  “Profiling  The  Quality  Of  Care  In  Twelve  Communities:  Results  From  The  CQI  Study.”  Health  Affairs.  23.3  (2004):  247-­‐256.  4  Statement  preceding  each  physician  measurement  set  authored  by  AMA,  JCAHO,  and  NCQA.  Web.  June  2005.  Available  at  http://www.ama-­‐assn.org/ama/pub/category/2946.html.  Accessed  March,  2014.    5  Krumholz  HM,  Wang  Y,  Chen  J,  et  al.  “Reduction  in  Acute  Myocardial  Infarction  Mortality  in  the  United  States:  Risk-­‐Standardized  Mortality  Rates  from  1995-­‐2006.”  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  302.7  (2009):  767-­‐73.  6  Chassin  MR,  Loeb  JM,  Schmaltz  SP,  et  al.  “Accountability  Measures—Using  Measurement  to  Promote  Quality  Improvement.”  New  England  Journal  of  Medicine,  363  (2010):  683-­‐688.    

7  “AHRQ  at  a  Glance.”  Rockville,  MD:  Agency  for  Healthcare  Research  and  Quality,  www.ahrq.gov/about/mission/glance/index.html  (Accessed  March  2014).    

8  “Facts  About  The  Joint  Commission.”  Oakbrook  Terrace,  IL:  The  Joint  Commission.  N.d.  Web.  April  2013.    

9  Desirable  Attributes  of  HEDIS.”  Washington,  DC:  National  Committee  for  Quality  Assurance.  n.d.  Web.  April  2013.  Available  at:  www.ncqa.org/tabid/415/Default.aspx  (accessed  March  2014).    

10  National  Quality  Forum.  n.p.,  2014.  Available  at:  http://www.qualityforum.org/who_we_are.aspx  (accessed  March  2014).  

11  “Crossing  the  Quality  Chasm:  A  New  Health  System  for  the  21st  Century.”  Institute  of  Medicine.  Washington,  DC:  National  Academies  Press,  2001.  

                                                                                                                                                                                                       12  “About  the  PCPI.”  American  Medical  Association.  n.p.,  n.d..  Available  at:  http://www.ama-­‐assn.org/ama/pub/physician-­‐resources/physician-­‐consortium-­‐performance-­‐improvement/about-­‐pcpi.page?.  Accessed  March,  2014.  

13  “Selecting  Quality  Measures.”  Agency  for  Healthcare  Research  and  Quality.  n.p.,  n.d.  Available  at:  http://www.qualitymeasures.ahrq.gov/tutorial/selecting.aspx.  Accessed  March  2014.  

14  Ferris  RG  and  Torchiana  DF.  “Public  Release  of  Clinical  Outcomes  Data—Online  CABG  Report  Cards.”  New  England  Journal  of  Medicine  363  (2010):  1593-­‐1595.    

15  Totten  AM,  Wagner  J,  Tiwari  A,  et  al.  “Closing  the  Quality  Gap:  Revisiting  the  State  of  the  Science  (Vol.  5:  Public  Reporting  as  a  Quality  Improvement  Strategy,  Evidence  Reports/Technology  Assessments.”  Agency  for  Health  Care  Research  and  Quality.  208.5  (2012).    

16  Berenson  R,  Kaye  D.  “Grading  a  physician’s  value-­‐  the  misapplication  of  performance  measurement.”  N  Engl  J  Med.  369  (2013):  2079-­‐2081.  

17  Measures  Codes.”  Centers  for  Medicare  and  Medicaid  Servvices.  N.p.,  2013.  Available  at:  http://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Quality-­‐Initiatives-­‐Patient-­‐Assessment-­‐Instruments/PQRS/MeasuresCodes.html.  Accessed  March  2014).  

18  “Physician  performance  measurement  &  reporting  introduction.”  Value-­‐based  Purchasing  Guide.  n.p.,  2011.  

19  Van  Lare  JM  and  Conway  PH.  “Value-­‐Based  Purchasing—National  Programs  to  Move  from  Volume  to  Value.”  New  England  Journal  of  Medicine.  367  (2012):  292-­‐295.  

20  Chen  J,  Normand  SL,  Wang  Y,  et  al.  “National  and  Regional  Trends  in  Heart  Failure  Hospitalization  and  Mortality  Rates  for  Medicare  Beneficiaries,  1998-­‐2008.”  JAMA.  306.15  (2011):  1669-­‐1678.  

21  Wang  OJ,  Wang  Y,  Chen  J,  et  al.  “Recent  Trends  in  Hospitalization  for  Acute  Myocardial  Infarction.”  American  Journal  of  Cardiology,  109.11  (2012):  1589-­‐1593.    

22  Krumholz  HM,  Wang  Y,  Chen  J,  et  al.  “Reduction  in  Acute  Myocardial  Infarction  Mortality  in  the  United  States:  Risk-­‐standardized  Mortality  Rates  from  1995-­‐2006.”  JAMA.302.7  (2009):  767-­‐73.    

23  “Hospital  Compare.”  “Nursing  Home  Compare.”  “Physician  Compare.”  Medicare.gov.  n.p.,  n.d.  Available  at:  http://www.medicare.gov/nursinghomecompare/search.html;http://www.medicare.gov/hospitalcompare/search.html;  http://www.medicare.gov/physiciancompare/search.html.  

24  “Guidance  for  Measure  Testing  and  Evaluating  Scientific  Acceptability  of  Measure  Properties.”  Washington  DC:  National  Quality  Forum.  January  2011.  

25  Pronovost  PJ  and  LIlford  R.  “A  Road  Map  for  Improving  the  Performance  of  Performance  Measures.”  Health  Affairs  (Millwood).  30.4  (2011):  569-­‐73.  

26  Tricoci,  P.,  JM.  Allen,  J.M.  Kramer,  R.M.  Califf,  and  S.C.  Smith,  Jr.  “Scientific  Evidence  Underlying  the  ACC/AHA  Clinical  Practice  

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                                                                                                                                                                                                       Guidelines.”  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association.  301.8  (2009):  831-­‐841.  

27  Werner,  Rachel  and  Dudley,  R.  “Medicare’s  New  Hospital  Value-­‐Based  Purchasing  Program  is  Likely  to  Have  Only  a  Small  Impact  on  Hospital  Payments,”  Health  Affairs.  31.9  (2012):  1932-­‐40  

28  Roski  J  and  McClellan  M.  “Measuring  Health  Care  Performance  Now,  Not  Tomorrow:  Essential  Steps  to  Support  Effective  Health  Reform.”  Health  Affairs.  30  (2011):  4682-­‐689.  

29Hayward,  R.  “All  or  Nothing  Treatment  Targets  Make  Bad  Performance  Measures.”  The  American  Journal  of  Managed  Care.13.3  (2007):  126-­‐128.    

30  Tinetti,  M.E.,  et  al.  “Health  outcome  Priorities  Among  Competing  Cardiovascular,  Fall  Injury,  and  Medication-­‐Related  Symptom  Outcomes.”  Journal  of  the  American  Geriatrics  Society.  56.8  (2008):  1409-­‐1416.  

31  Ryan  AM,  Nallamouth  BK  and  Dimik  JB.  “Medicare’s  Public  Reporting  Initiative  On  Hospital  Quality  Had  Modest  or  No  Impact  on  Mortality  From  Three  Key  Conditions.”  Health  Affairs.  31.5  (2012):  585-­‐592.  

32  Ryan  AM.  “Effects  of  the  Premier  Hospital  Quality  Incentive  Demonstration  on  Medicare  Patient  Mortality  and  Cost.”  Health  Services  Research.  44.3  (2009):  821-­‐842.    

33  Bradley  et  al.,  Schwarz  M  Cohen  AB,  Restucciai  JD,  et  al.  “How  Well  Can  We  identify  the  High  Performing  Hospital?”  Medical  Care  Research  and  Review.  68.3  (2011):  290-­‐310.  

34  Werner  RM,  Bradlow  ET,  and  Asch  DA.  “Does  Hospital  Performance  on  Process  Measures  Directly  Measure  High  Quality  Care  or  Is  it  a  Marker  of  Unmeasured  Care?”  Health  Services  Research.  43.5.1  (2008):  1464-­‐1484.  

35  Glance  LG,  Newman  M,  Martinez,  EA,  et  al.  “Performance  Measurement  at  a  “Tipping  Point.””  Anesthesia  and  Analgesia.  112.4  (2011):  958-­‐966.    

36  Wachter  RM,  Flanders  SA,  Fee  C,  Pronovost  PJ.  “Public  reporting  of  antibiotic  timing  in  patients  with  pneumonia:  lessons  from  a  flawed  performance  measure.”  Ann  Intern  Med.149  (2008):  29-­‐32.  

37  Wachter  R,  Flanders  S,  Fee  C,  Pronovost  P.  “Public  reporting  of  antibiotic  timing  in  patients  with  pneumonia:  lessons  from  a  flawed  per  formance  measure.”  Annals  of  Internal  Medicine.  149  (2008):  29-­‐32.