University of NizwaDepartment of Foreign LanguagesEnglish SectionInstructor: Dr. Abdulsalam Ali Hamad

TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION

1- INTRODUCTION

Translation is the transposition of a text written in a source language into a target language. The translated version must be absolutely accurate in meaning, contain all the nuances of the original , and must be written in clear, elegant language that can be easily understood by the reader. Needless to say, punctuation , spelling , and grammar must be flawless since translators have at their disposal dictionaries and reference material in both languages.

Interpretation is the oral transposition of an orally delivered message at a conference or a meeting from a source language into a target language, performed in the presence of the participants. This transposition can be performed at the same time the speech is given. This is called simultaneous interpretation. The transposition can also be performed after the speaker has finished a part or the totality of the speech. This is known as consecutive interpretation. At times, the interpreter has to go from the written medium ( text ) to the oral medium ( interpretation ). This is called sight translation. The important distinction is that the product of the translator is meant to be read, whereas that of the interpreter is meant to be listened to,

l l- A Glimpse at the History of Translating and Interpreting:

International communication has been going on since the dawn of human history. As early as the third millennium B.C. bilingual lists of words - evidently for the use of translators - were being made in Mesopotamia. The profession of interpreting is as old as man's ability to speak, and the first

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translators performed their art when the first diplomatic notes and trade papers were exchanged . However, it is only since the end of world war I and the international crises that followed that these two professions have developed in their present form. Consecutive interpretation was used exclusively until about 1945, when simultaneous interpretation was used for the first time at the war criminal trials at Nuremberg . Today, translating and interpreting are going on in more than a thousand languages - in fact wherever there are bilinguals. (See Interpretive Theory of Translation).

lll- Some Approaches to Translating:

The different ways in which people go about the task of interlingual communication can be described in different perspectives: ( 1 ) The source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation ( The philological perspective ), ( 2 ) the languages involved in restructuring the source - language message into the target language ( the Linguistic perspective ), ( 3 ) the communicative events which constitute the setting of the source message and the translated text (The communicative perspective ), and ( 4 ) the variety of codes involved in the respective communicative events ( The sociosemiotic Perspective ). Here is a brief discussion of each of these perspectives:

1 - The Philological perspective:

This perspective in the Western world goes back to some of the observations of such persons as Cicero, Horace, Augustine, and Jerome, whose principal concerns were the correct rendering of Greek texts into Latin. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe the philological orientation in translating focused on the issue of faithfulness, usually bound closely to the history of interpretation of the text. For the most part, arguments about the adequacy of translators dealt with the degree of freedom which could or should be allowed, and scholars discussed heatedly whether a translator should bring the reader to the text or bring the text to the reader. Some of themost important early contributions to the philological aspects of translation were made by Martin Luther ( Ein Sendbrief Von Dolmetschen, Werke, 1530 ), John Dryden ( Preface to Ovid’s Epistles, London: Jacob Johnson, 1690 ), and Alexander Pope ( Preface to his translation of Homer's Iliad, London: Donaldson. 1769; New York: D. Appleton, 1901 ).

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Those who have followed primarily a philological orientation toward translating have increasingly recognised that other factors must begiven greater attention. In the volume on Translation edited by Reuben A' Brower ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959 ) and in the volume, Translation: Literary, Linguistic, and Philological Perspectives, edited by William Frawley ( Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware Press , 1994 ). These broader factors of linguistic and cultural matters are introduced, and point the way to a more satisfactory approach to some of the crucial problems confronted by translators.

2- The Linguistic Perspective:

Since translating always involves at least two different languages, a number of persons studying the issues of translation focused upon the distinctive features of the source and target languages. Important studies of diverse linguistic structures by such persons as Edward Sapir, Leonard Bloomfield , and Roman Jacobson laid the foundation for a systematic study of the functions of language. Their work, in addition to that of Noam Chomsky’s and his colleagues led to the publication of a number of books on translating which have focused primary attention on the correspondences in language structures. Some of the most important of these books were by Eugene A. Nida (Toward a Science of Translating, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1964 ) , J.C. Catford ( A Linguistic Theory of Translation, London: oxford University Press, 1965 ), Mildred L. Larson ( Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1gg4 ) and Joseph L. Malone, The Science of Linguistics in the Art of Translation, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, l999 ).

Except for Malone's volume, most books dealing with the linguistic aspects of translating have been essentially comparative in their approach to related structures, but have usually aimed at meaningful relations rather than purely formal ones. But Malone's volume employs a transformational orientation for a number of Formal and Semantic processes. This focus on processes is very productive, but greater attention needs to be paid to the pragmatic features of the original message and the circumstances regarding the use of a translation.

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3 - The Communicative Perspective :

This perspective reflects the importance of a number of basic elements in communication theory, namely, source , message , receptor, feedback, noise, setting, and medium. It also treats the processes of encoding and decoding of the original communication and compares these with the more complex series in the translation process ' The volume From one Language to Another by Jan de Waard and Eugene A. Nida ( Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1997 ) is a distinguished representation of this approach .

Linguists working in the field of sociolinguistics, e. g. William Labov ( sociolinguistic patterns, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972 ), Del Hymes ( Foundations of Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1974 ), and John Joseph Gumpez ( Language and Social ldentity, Cambridge , New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992 ), have made particularly important contributions to understanding principles of translating which focus upon various processes in communication. This relation between Sociolinguistics and translation is a very natural one, since sociolinguists deal primarily with 'language as it is used by a society in communicating. The different ways in which societies employ language in interpersonal relations are crucial for anyone concerned with translating.

Any approach to translating based on communication theory must give considerable attention to the paralinguistic and extralinguistic features of oral and written messages. such features as tone of voice , loudness, peculiarities of enunciation, gestures, stance, and eye contact are obviously important in oral communication. Analogous factors are also present in written communication, e. g. style of type, format, quality of paper, and type of binding. A minimal requirement for adequacy of a translation is that the readers would be able to comprehend and appreciate i"* *" original

readers of the text understood and possibly responded to it. A maximal requirement for translational adequacy is that the readers of the translation would respond to the text both emotively and cognitively in a manner essentially similar to the ways in which the original readers responded. Incidentally, Wilhelm K. Weber states that the highest compliment that can

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be paid to an interpreter, for instance, is when a delegate starts insulting him or her instead of the original speaker". ( p. 61 )

4- The Sociosemiotic Perspective:

The central focus in a Sociosemiotic perspective on translation is the multiplicity of codes involved in any act of verbal communication, when we listen to a speaker, we not only take in the verbal message, but we make judgments about the speaker's sincerity, commitment to truth, breadth of learning , specialised knowledge, ethnic background, concern for other people, and personal attractiveness.

The problem of multiple codes and their relation to the social setting of communication have been treated by a number of persons, e. g . Martin Krampen ( I’ Profusion of signs without confusion, Semiotica, Vol. 2 ( 1979 ),327 -359 ). A Sociosemiotic approach to translating has been undertaken by de Waard and Nida in From one Language to Another, but a good deal more must be done to understand the precise manner in which the language code relates to other behavioral codes

The advantages of a Sociosemiotic approach to translating are to be found in ( 1 ) employing a realistic epistemology which can speak about the real world of everyday experience, ( 2 ) being at the core of verbal creativity, rather than being bound by requirements which depend on ideal speaker- hearers , who never exist, ( 3 ) recognizing the ultimate indeterminacy of meaning, which makes language both a frustrating and an elegant vehicle for dialogue, and ( 4 ) being essentially interdisciplinary in view of the multiplicity of codes . The full implications of Sociosemiotic theories and their relation to translating are only now emerging, but they have the potential for developing highly significant insights and numerous practical procedures for more meaningful and acceptable results.

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Interpreting:

Interpreting can be defined as the translation of speech orally, as opposed to translation of written texts. (OED)

It requires special skills (note taking, summarizing, language skills), a good memory, sheer mental stamina and, often, arduous training. 

A number of national and international organizations govern the profession, while the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights entitles every defendant in a criminal trial to have the assistance of an interpreter, if necessary.

There are several types of interpreting: simultaneous, consecutive, liaison.

Liaison interpreting:

A generic name for business interpreting; also just interpreting for trade conventions and other general business situations. Usually refers to the activities of a single interpreter who accompanies an individual or delegation around.

Consecutive interpreting:

The interpreter starts to translate only after the speaker has finished his/her utterance. Often used at smaller conferences etc., generally used in courtroom settings, speeches. Just one interpreter is often enough.

Simultaneous Interpreting:

The interpreter starts to translate before the speaker finishes his/her utterance. Most often used at large events such as conferences and carried out by panels of at least two interpreters using special equipment. As this type of work is particularly tiring and stressful, the rule of thumb is that an interpreter should be able to take a break after 45 minutes of continuous work.

Telephone Interpreting:

Interpreting carried out over the phone, using a three-way calling phone patch. Also with video-conferencing.

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Chuchotage:The interpreter is posted beside the client and in real time discretely 'whispers' his/her translation of the speech activity.

The Interpretive Theory of Translation

Interpreting and translation are two of the oldest activities in the annals of human history. Records of translation activities date back over 2000 years, and since ancient times, translation has been studied by numerous scholars. Interpreting, on the other hand, had no theory of its own, so to speak, until modern times. Although the activity of interpreting dates back to ancient times, it did not begin to take shape in its modern form until 1917 at the negotiation table of the Versailles Treaty.

Consecutive interpreting, in which the interpreter begins only after the speaker has finished, came about after the Versailles Treaty. In contrast, simultaneous interpreting, which has become the preferred mode, had its debut at the Nuremberg Trials after World War II.

The Interpretive Theory of Translation (aka, the Theory of Sense) was developed by Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer (researchers at the Ecole Superieure d’Interprètes et de Traducteurs (ESIT) at the University of Paris III ― the so-called Paris School). The following is a brief outline of this theory.

Interpretation Defined

Interpretation can be universally defined as understanding speech and rewording that understanding in a different language. Theoretically, interpreting requires a faultless command of both the source and target languages, a deep insight of the subject matter and mastery of the correct methodology needed to carry out the interpreting process.

In practice, of course, the situation is different. Many so-called theoretical problems of interpretation are merely practical issues borne of individual interpreters, e.g., inadequacies such as insufficient language or subject knowledge, poor interpreting skills, working into a foreign language or the inability of theoreticians to sort out the lexical items instead of text segments, language learning exercises, etc. The correct parameters such as

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confusion between a language and a text, translation of Interpretive Theory of Translation, in fact, does not deal with the many practical aspects of translating.

The Interpretive Theory is built upon four pillars: 1) command of the nativelanguage, 2) command of the source language, 3) command of relevant world and background knowledge, and 4) command of interpreting methodology.

The first pillar is the command of one’s native language. Everyone would agree that translators and interpreters must be able to use their mother tongue in all its nuances and subtleties. The second pillar, the command of the second language, is more difficult to assess precisely. The closed systems: phonological and grammatical, have to be mastered, while the limitless range of lexical items is subject to a lifelong and open-ended learning process. The same is true of both world and background knowledge, which are not static. Rather, they are the result of a continuous, dynamicprocess of acquisition. The fourth pillar is methodology. In this regard, the Interpretive Theory differs from most other theories as it posits that methodologically the process of translating requires an understanding of sense (language meaning + cognitive complements) and a formulation of the translation on the basis of the synecdoche principle.

TRANSLATION: DEFINITIONS

Translation:

The transfer of meaning from one language to another. Translation takes place in writing and interpreting is its oral counterpart. The two terms are often confused. At its best, a successful translation should read as if it were originally written in the new language.

We believe translating is an art, not a science. You might get the impression that it's a mechanical process involving a box with a handle. All you need to do is turn the handle on the side of the box, and out comes the translation.

This is wrong.

Recent academic research has shown that translating from one language to another is one of the most complex higher order activities of the human

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brain. In fact, your wrong impression may be evidence of a good translation: great skill will often make an exceptional achievement look easy.

The translation method is dictated by the purpose of the translation. While the best translations will always be performed primarily by a human being, in some (limited) situations, machine translation can be a useful technique, and this is likely to increase in importance over time as this technology evolves.

Translation Memory:

A translation memory is database where a translator may record (usually semi-automatically) old translations for future reuse and easy searches. Although these programs are best classified under computer-aided/assisted translation, one must not confuse them with machine translation programs - translation memory software does not translate anything by itself, whereas a machine translation system actively produces language and translations based on linguistic data, such as grammatical rules and glossaries.

Unit Of Translation:

The smallest entity in a text that carries a discrete meaning. It varies all the time, ranging from individual words through phrases and sentences right up to entire paragraphs.

Whistled Speech:A system of communication using set whistles and tones.

Word Order:

Arrangement of words in a sentence. There are some distinct, recognized patterns:

SVO - 'cows eat grass' - English, Finnish, Chinese, Swahili

SOV - ' cows grass eat' - Hindi/Urdu, Turkish, Japanese, Korean

VSO - 'eat cows grass' - Classical Arabic, Welsh, Samoan. (AoL)

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The similarity of word order patterns between source and target languages is a factor in the relative ease of translation - or otherwise - between them.

Word-For-Word Translation:

Transferring the meaning of each individual word in a text to another, equivalent word in the target language. Sometimes called 'Literal Translation'. While this is clearly appropriate for dictionaries, it can produce very for complex passages of text. See 'Unit of translation'.

World Knowledge:

Whatever extra-linguistic or real-world factors are brought into the translation process in the mind of the translator. We are starting to see this introduced into the newest machine translation technology research projects. Also called 'shared assumptions' or 'real-world knowledge'.

 Communication:

Communication is the transfer of an intended message, and this is the purpose of language itself. Obviously, this process can be divided into two broad stages: transmission (speaking, writing) and reception (listening, reading).

But there are another two stages: before transmission, formulating the message accurately (coherence) and after reception, understanding the message accurately (assimilation). These sound like simple processes, yet in fact they are not: for example, how often do we really have the patience to listen closely to what someone else is telling us?

Dialect:1. A form of speech peculiar to a particular region.

2. A subordinate variety of a language with non-standard vocabulary, pronunciation, or grammar. (OED)

Discourse:Modes of speaking and writing which involve participants in adopting a particular attitude towards areas of socio-cultural activity (e.g. racist discourse, officialese, etc.). (DaL)

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Discourse Analysis:

In this context, the study of meaning using a large unit of translation, e.g. paragraph or page level, and taking into account the widest possible context.

Discourse Markers:

Words such as 'good', 'but', uh-huh', 'well' that divide up (and also link) sections of speech.

Effectiveness:Optimum achievement of a communicative goal. (DaL)

Efficiency:Achievement of a communicative goal in the most economic manner possible. Language users normally counterbalance effectiveness and efficiency in order to achieve maximum effect from minimum use of resources. (DaL)

Free Translation:

Translating loosely from the original. Contrasted with word for word or literal translation, this may be the best method depending on the most appropriate unit of translation involved.

Globalization:Globalization addresses the business issues associated with taking a product global. In the globalization of high-tech products this involves integrating localization throughout a company, after proper internationalization and product design, as well as marketing, sales, and support in the world market. (PGL)

Honorifics:All languages have particular ways of showing politeness (e.g. French tu/vous, Spanish tu/usted, Japanese yomu/yomi-masu). (Aol)

Idiolect:Features of language variation characteristic of an individual speaker: basically, everyone has a unique way of talking.

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Inflection:A change in the form of (a word) to express tense, gender, number, mood, etc. (OED)

Internationalization:Internationalization is the process of generalizing a product so that it can handle multiple languages and cultural conventions without the need for re-design. Internationalization takes place at the level of program design and document development. (PGL)

Language:1. The method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in an agreed way. (OED)

2. The distinctive form of speech of a particular community, most or all of which is unintelligible to outsiders.

Language Family:

A set of languages that can be shown to derive from a common root. (AoL) (e.g. Indo-European, Austronesian)

Language Type:

According to their word structure (morphology), languages can be divided into four basic types:

1. Isolating: each element is an independent word without inflections (Chinese and Vietnamese)

2. Agglutinating: elements combine without changing their form to express compound ideas (Japanese, German)

3. Inflectional: the boundaries between morphemes are fuzzy, and morphemes can express more than one grammatical meaning at a time (Latin, Russian) (AoL)

4. Polysynthetic: several morphemes are put together to form complex words which can function as a whole sentence (Chukchi) (AoL)

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Lexis:

1. Words, vocabulary.

2. The total stock of words in a language. (OED)

Localization:

Localization involves taking a product and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target locale (country/region and language) where it will be used and sold.

Translation is only one of the activities in localization; in addition to translation, a localization project includes many other tasks such as project management, software engineering, testing, and desktop publishing. (PGL)

Mediation:

The extent to which text producers and receivers feed their own beliefs into their processing of a given text. (DaT)

Morpheme:

A meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g. in, come, -ing, forming incoming). (OED)

Morphology:The system of forms in a language.

Natural Language Processing:

NLP systems interpret written rather than spoken language. In fact, NLP modules can be found in speech processing systems that start by converting spoken input into text. Using lexicons and grammar rules. NLP parses sentences, determines underlying meanings, and retrieves or constructs responses. This technology's main use is to enable databases to answer queries entered in the form of a question. And newer application is handling high-volume e-mail. NLP performance can be improved by incorporating a commonsense knowledge base -- that is, the encyclopedia of real-world rules. (Wired Magazine)

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Pidgin:

A simplified language containing vocabulary from two or more languages, used for communication between people not having a common language.(OED)

Register:

The tendency to pattern language behavior in relatinon to a particular type of activity, level of formality, etc. (e.g. colloquial, legal, scientific, religious) (DaT)

Semantics:

The branch of linguistics concerned with meaning. (OED)

Source Text:The language into which translation or interpreting is carried out.

Speech Act:

The action which is intended in the utterance of a sentence. Speech acts may be direct (e.g. Get out!) or indirect (e.g. it's hot in here = Open a window).(DaL) How often do we say exactly what we really mean? This is one of the things that most often fools computers performing machine translation.

Speech Community:The group of people sharing a language or dialect.

Syllabary:A list of characters representing syllables and (in some languages or stages of writing) serving the purpose of an alphabet. (OED) (e.g. in Japanese - hiragana and katakana)

Target Text:The language into which translation or interpreting is carried out.

Tenor:

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The relationship between addresser and addressee, as reflected in use of language (e.g. level of formality, relative distance). (DaL)

Text Act:The dominant speech act in a text. (DaL)

Tone Languages:

Languages that use pitch to distinguish words, either by meaning or grammatical function (e.g. Chinese, Thai) (AoL)

Legal Translation:

Legal translation is a distinct specialty.

What skills does it need? 

Done well, it requires a variety of advanced skills to be present in the translator: first, complete mastery of both source and target languages; second, a good knowledge of the two legal systems involved; third, knowledge of the relevant sub-areas of law; fourth, an awareness of any other relevant disciplines and subject matter, ( e.g. steel making, if the documents of a case concern a steelworks); fifth, training in the art of translation itself.  It's clear that it's not easy to find such a combination of skills, especially as they are not acquired quickly -- either on their own or collectively.

All this reflects the unique nature of legal language. 

As the noted language authority, David Crystal puts it:

"Legal language shares with science a concern for coherence and precision; and it shares with religion a respect for ritual and historical tradition"

"Legal language has always been pulled in different directions. Its statements have to be so phrased that we can see the general applicability, yet be specific enough to apply to individual circumstances. They have to be stable enough to stand the test of time, so that cases will be treated consistently and fairly, yet flexible enough to adapt to new social situations. Above all, they have to be expressed in such a way that people can be

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certain about the intention of the law respecting their rights and duties. No other variety of language has to carry such a responsibility.'

When referring to legal English, he states:

"Legal English has several subvarieties, reflecting its different roles. For example, there is the language of legal documents, such as contracts, deeds, insurance policies, wills and many kinds of regulation. There is the language of works of legal reference, with the complex apparatus of footnotes and indexing. There is the language of case law, made out of the spoken or written decisions which judges make about individual cases. There is the spoken language of the courtroom, with the ritual courtesies of judges, counsel and court officials and constraints governing what counts as evidence and what may or may not be said. Legal language is unique in the way utterances are subject to sanctions, such as a fine or imprisonment for linguistic contempt of court.

A fundamental distinction separates the language of the Legislatureχwhich institutes a legal text and the language of the judiciary which interprets and applies that text. A pivotal role is played by set of constitutional statements statutes (Acts), and other documents which come from the Legislature. In these cases, the words, literally are law." (CoL)

We do legal translation well!

Machine Translation:

Machine translation (MT) is automatic translation, in which a computer takes over all the work of translating. Obviously, a computer will work much faster (and is cheaper) than a human being. It can be a useful method if the purpose of the translation is a limited one; for example, to gain a rough idea of what a text contains ('gisting') and/or to process large numbers of documents very rapidly.

MT works best on highly repetitive texts, involving a restricted range of vocabulary. Typically, these are highly intricate scientific or technical texts. It does less well on more general or varied texts, and those involving a high degree of abstraction, and with these often yields useless results. The problem here is that it fails to cope with speech acts.

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Even on repetitive texts, the finished output often needs to be checked to by a human translator, and varying degrees of post-editing might be necessary.

Another factor is the source language - target language pair. MT works best also where languages are of a similar type (isolating: English - Spanish) or related (German - English) or closely related (Norwegian - Danish). At the time of writing, the obvious advantage of using MT to translate from one dialect to another in the same language (e.g. US English - British English) seems to have been overlooked but, using the same logic, it should work well on this.

It has been suggested that, sooner or later, computers will make all human translators redundant. We believe that this will never happen. The complexity of language mirrors the infinite subtlety of the human mind. To put it differently, human translators will be replaced only once computers are developed that can write good poetry.

However, MT technology is improving all the time. Many well-funded R&D programs are going on around the world right now and it constitutes an exciting area of translation research, especially when combined with other technologies, such as speech recognition and natural language processing. It is likely that, over time, this research will gradually extend the boundaries within which MT can operate.

To use MT software to process large batches of documents, several problems need to be overcome. First, you need to get the original text into a form the computer can read. Unless you are lucky enough to have it all in the form of word processor files already, it will have to be scanned and then put through an optical character recognition (OCR) process. This will convert the documents into word processor files, typically in Microsoft Word format. It would be a big mistake, though, to underestimate the amount of time, effort and expense this process involves; so much so, that it is often cheaper and quicker to just to get the work done manually.

Machine-Aided Translation:

If you can't replace the human mind when translating, the next best thing is to speed it up. In recent years, general technological advances have revolutionized the translation industry. Starting with the humble fax machine, and moving through the introduction of email and word processing

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right through to reliable dictation software, the computer is now the translator's the main working tool.

In recognition of this, a range of specialized software tools have been developed to enhance the skills of human linguists. The most obvious one is computerized dictionaries, encyclopedias and term banks, which can be consulted either off a CD ROM or over the Internet. The fruits of many years work by panels of outstanding academic minds are now available in a split second. This innovation has both accelerated and improved the translator's achievement of semantic accuracy.

Not to be forgotten are translation memory programs. These use complex algorithms to perform the apparently simple task of remembering words and phrases that may have been translated from a particular language before. By giving the translator the option to accept or reject suggested translations, the tedium and potential inaccuracy involved in translating repetitive texts can often be largely eliminated. Speed is of course also enhanced. However, these programs have the disadvantages that they require some significant amount of routine maintenance, and also, the source text must first be available in the form of a word processor file.

Formal and Dynamic Equivalence:

One of the ongoing debates about translations revolves around the question of whether, and in what degree, the translation should reflect the syntax, or form, of the original language. All translators agree that the translation should reflect faithfully the message of the original, but all are not agreed on whether the translation should adhere closely to the grammatical forms of the original language.

Translations can be located on a spectrum, which would have, at one extreme, rigid adherence to the form of the original language (formal equivalence), and at the other extreme, complete disregard for the form (not the message) of the original language (dynamic equivalence).

It is probably fair to say that most contemporary linguists favor the dynamic equivalence approach in theory, though they might be disappointed in the various attempts at producing one. The reason for preferring to reproduce the thought of the original without attempting to conform to its form is that

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all languages have their own syntax. While the syntax of one language may be similar to the syntax of other languages, it is also dissimilar as well. Thus, if we attempt to adhere to the formal syntax of another language, we reproduce forms which are abnormal or confusing, if not downright distracting in the target language.

There are problems, however, with dynamic equivalence translations. Since the translator is "freer" from the grammatical forms of the original language he is more likely to exceed the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language. That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong.

Semantic Theory

It is appropriate now to move to some consideration of dealing with the meaning of individual words (commonly called lexical semantics). Since the technical study of linguistics began in the early nineteenth century, a number of very valuable insights have been discovered by the linguists.

1. Semantic Field and Context

Most words can mean a number of things. Take the English word, "run." It can appear in the following (and many more) contexts:

The athlete is running.

Her nose is running.

We scored a run in the sixth inning.

I have a run in my stocking.

Does your car run?

My computer runs on Windows.

For how long is the movie running?

You want to run that by me again?

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His sermons seem to run on forever.

She's running the flag up the pole.

Jackson is running for President.

Who left the water running?

Enough, already. It is obvious that most words can mean a number of different things. How do we know what a word means in a given circumstance? Well, we don't just choose the one we prefer. In fact there are two components to meaning: semantic field and semantic context.

By semantic field, we mean the full range of ways the word has and can be used (an example is the above, partial semantic field for "run"). By examining the "field" of possible meanings, we begin to narrow the options. Normally, there are still too many options, so we have to take another step. The second step is to determine the semantic context. If "run," for instance, can refer to rapid, bipedal locomotion in some contexts, we can eliminate that option in contexts where there are no legs or feet. If "run" can mean "flow," or "drip," it is a possible way of understanding it where noses and faucets appear, but not where liquids do not appear. In everyday speech, we do this kind of comparison to semantic context so rapidly and unreflectively that we are not normally aware of doing it. But we do it nevertheless, and normally with great accuracy.

"Root" Meanings

Many people speak of "root meanings." Many people speak of ghosts. Neither exists. Apparently, when people speak of "root" meanings of words, they are attempting to find the distilled essence, or the common semantic range of the word in each of its contexts. This may, by dumb luck, work in some circumstances, but it won't work in most. What common "root" meaning is there in the word "run" which can account for the variety of uses listed above? Is it motion? Perhaps, for the athlete, the flag, even the nose (which doesn't move itself, but its contents do). But is there any "motion" involved in the statement that a person is running for an office? Is any motion taking place when a movie "runs" for six weeks? Is a "run" in a

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stocking a movement of some sort? I fail to see how there is, without redefining the word "motion" to include virtually everything. And if we do this, then we aren't learning anything specific about the term in question (This is the practical deficiency of the Componential Analysis approach to Semantics; if one finds an element common enough to be related to all the various uses, it isn't specific enough to be any real help in any given context). In actual fact, we don't really know why people use terms in such a broad range of ways as they do. But the answer certainly doesn't lie in the fact of some alleged "root" meaning, common to all uses. Thus, for interpretation's sake, it is better not to speak of "root" meanings at all. Just look at the entire semantic field, and then limit that field by the contextual considerations.

Etymologies and Semantic Change

Etymology is a perfectly valid field of study. Etymology is the study of the history of a word's usage. It has the historical benefit of demonstrating to us what a word might have meant in a given period. One thing etymologists have discovered, of course, is that words change over time. That is, people apparently use terms in an increasing variety of ways, extending known usages, and coining new usages. Thus, the history of a word's usage is not necessarily any help in determining its meaning in a particular context. And certainly it is not the case that the "earliest" known meaning is the "true," "real," or, need I say it, "root" meaning.

Etymology is not particularly helpful as a guide to the meaning of a term in any given context. Semantic context is the more reliable guide.

Polyvalency

"Polyvalency" refers to the ability of a given term to have a number of meanings in any given historical period. "Run" is polyvalent. It is important for the interpreter to be aware of the full range of possible meanings of a given word, before determining what it means in its given context.

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Words and Concepts

For the sake of clarity, it is helpful to distinguish between a word and a concept. Most words can be employed to denote a number of concepts, and most concepts can be addressed by using a range of terms. Thus, charis is a word; grace is a concept which can be labeled in a variety of ways.

Semantic "Minimalism"

One of the best axioms to apply when attempting to discover the meaning of any given word was first coined by Ferdinand de Saussure and his followers. The best meaning of a given term is the meaning which contributes the least to the overall meaning of the sentence. In most communication acts, we do not "load up" a given word with a lot of meaning. Rather, we speak in paragraphs and sentences -- the individual words have little meaning in and of themselves, but much meaning when tied to one another. Many seminarians seem to be unaware of this, for they frequently interpret the Bible as though its individual words were almost magical, possessing great truths and mysteries in six or seven letters. There are very few technical terms in any language, which are more heavily "loaded" than most words.

Some Necessary Aptitudes for Students:

A good training in advanced composition and essay-writing is a particularly useful aptitude for student translators. Writing and stylistic exercises are exercises in self-discipline and flexibility- two extremely important aptitudes in a translator. Translators must also be able to convey complicated ideas accurately. Good training in their own language is an absolute prerequisite . Technical writing courses as well as classes in editing and proofreading will be of great help to the future translator. Sight translation, précis writing. conference terminology and parliamentary procedure are also helpful courses to a student translator. Sight translation is the process through which every translator must go before putting anything on paper. Moreover, it is what translators really do if they dictate their translations. And, finally, translators are normally called upon to do sight translations in meetings and negotiations because interpreters are not available to do this job. Likewise, all précis writing is done by translators. This fulfills a very important function in larger international organizations, where minutes are not

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published in extension, but rather in the form of a 'Summary Recorder. Writing these records requires a special technique that translators must master.

Some Useful Hints to Students:

1- Familiarise yourself whit available resources ( dictionaries and reference materials ) and with their use. Be careful about the incorrect use of dictionaries. lt is always a good idea to work with monolingual reference dictionaries than to adopt the easy solution of looking up words in bilingual or multilingual dictionaries. The process of looking for synonyms of the unknown word in the source language first and then trying to find the equivalent in the target language develops a great deal of sensitivity and accuracy in both languages. This is not to say, of course, that one can do without bilingual dictionaries, which are often more carefully prepared than multilingual dictionaries.

2 - Prepare for a translation one or two weeks ahead of time, making glossaries of your own. Attack a new text, i . e . read the entire text before starting the translation. Establish glossaries, keep terminology card files, and improve your vocabulary through the use of such resources as dictionaries of synonyms. Go through the various phases leading to a perfect end product.

3 - Bilingual editions of texts are always of excellent use. you can learn from bad as well as good transactions. you can, for example, criticise a translation. you will be surprised and reassured about the quality of your own work if you find errors in meaning even in published translations.

4 - An enjoyable exercise in advanced translation classes can be the translation of humor, anecdotes , prays , situation comedies , cartoons , or comic strips.

5- Break through the language barrier: the unnecessary linguistic and stylistic ballast that prevents you from getting to the essential message ' This barrier can consist of complicated structures, redundancies, repetitions, confusing conjoiners or modifiers, and so forth ' Try to "pull" the unnecessary skin and to gradually reach the core. Once this has been accomplished, the process is reversed, and the student has to learn to reshape the core and to dress it in a new skin : the target language.

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6 - You may like to exchange your translation with one or more students. Each of you should compare and defend his / her translation.

7 - Do not rush your training, take as much time as you can. Learn as much as you possibly can about human nature in general and the culture of those whose language you are studying and translating in particular, since you are dealing with written ideas, try and develop the degree of maturity that is obligatory for effective communication.

8 - lt helps to have a genuine rove for your own language as wet as for foreign languages and cultures.

Some Useful Information about Testing and Grading:

1 - After the first year of training, students should be able to translate correctly about three hundred words per hour, provided that the text does not require too much research or use of a dictionary. ( staff translators in the United Nations are expected to translate an average of eight pages per day).

2- For final exams, students should be expected to translate about one thousand words in three hours. A final exam is intended to accomplish the following:

♥ Test the student's knowledge of general and technical terminology,♥ Test the student's aptitude to work rapidly, yet correctly, under time constraints.♥ Test the student's skill in using dictionaries ( if students are allowed to use them )♥ Test the student's general resourcefulness in cases in which the dictionary is of no help.♥ Test the student's general readiness to become a professional translator.♥ Prepare the student for future tests with potential employers.

3 - Grading is based on precise criteria including meaning, accuracy, style, terminology, and grammar. Some respectable colleges of translation abroad never allow more than two meaning errors, regardless of the difficulty of the text ( provided, of course, that the text material is adapted to the student’s level ).

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4. In the written examination, student translators will be asked to produce a written translation in either Arabic/English language on a topical matter. They will also be expected to translate a text written either in Arabic/English language. The use of monodictionaries is allowed.5. In the oral examination, student interpreters will be expected to listen to 3-5 minute speeches on a topical subject given by the examiners and, without taking notes, to relay these in their active languages. (That is, they will relay from Arabic/English into Arabic /English language.) They will not be asked to perform simultaneous interpreting in the oral examination. They may be requested to give short speeches on topical subjects using their active languages.

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Bibliography:

Abbreviation Title Author(s) Publisher

DaL Discourse and the Translator

Basil Hatim and Ian Mason Longman

OED

Oxford English Dictionary (on CD-ROM)

E. S. Weiner (ed)Oxford University Press

CEoL The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language

David Crystal Cambridge University Press

AoL The Atlas of Languages

Comrie, Mathews and Polinsky Facts on File Inc.

PGL A Practical Guide to Localization

Bert Esselink John Benjamins

Translatum Greek & English Bibliography

on Translation & Interpretation

More books on Translation & Interpretation

by Amazon

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References:

Gordon, T. David, Translation Theory (1985), http://www.bible-researcher.com/gordon.html. Retrieved September, 2009.

Jungwha, Choi Jungwha, “The Interpretive Theory of Translation and Its Current Applications.” Interpretation Studies, No. 3, December 2003, pages 1-15.Nida, Eugene A. L., Theories of Translation, Mimeograph, 1999.Weber, Wilhelm K. Training Translators and Conference Interpreters, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: prentice Hall Regents, 1994.

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