Performance Characteristics Of Twin Holes Hydrodynamic

Journal Bearing

1 Roopak Kumar

2 Krishan Kumar Gupta

1 Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering, KSVCEM, Bijnor, India

2 Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, BBDIT, Ghaziabad, India

1krish_gupta2009@rediffmail.com

2roopakkumar30@gmail.com

Abstract- An experimental investigation of the influence of

applied load and rotational speed on the performance of a

65mm diameter smooth hydrodynamic journal bearing with

twin holes located at ± 90° to load line. A series of

experimental results are presented the effect of load and speed

variation on performance characteristics in terms of pressure

distribution on center plane of smooth journal bearing at

different loads and speeds. The Experimental results show

that the pressure increases with the increase of loads (200N to

800N) at constant speed and constant oil supply pressure. The

Experimental results also show that the pressure decrease

with the increase of speeds (1000 rpm to 3000 rpm) at

constant load and constant oil supply pressure.

Keywords: hydrodynamic journal bearing, performance

characteristics of journal bearing, pressure distribution in

journal bearing, twin hole journal bearing.

I. INTRODUCTION

Journal bearings are widely used in rotating machinery,

especially when shafts are submitted to both high speeds

and heavy applied loads. A loaded, rotating shaft (journal)

is supported in circular sleeve (bearing or bushing) with

slightly large diameter than that of a journal. The lubricant

is supplied to the bearing through a hole or a groove. If the

bearing extends around the full 360°, it is called a full

journal bearing. If a wrap angle is less than 360°, it is

called a partial journal bearing. Lubricating oil supply

arrangements range from a simple inlet hole to axial,

circumferential, and helical groove for efficient lubrication

distribution. The journal bearings operate under

hydrodynamic lubricat ion regime. In this regime of

lubrication a th ick film of the lubricant separate the surface.

The separation of surface at load is as a result of pressure

generation in the fluid film. The combined effect of

hydrodynamic action (relative velocit ies between journal

and bush) and fluid film results in pressure generation. The

load carrying capacity of the fluid film depends on the

pressure generated within it. An estimation of pressure

distribution can be obtained by the solution of Reynolds

equation. Hydrodynamic journal bearings are extensively

used in high speed rotating machines because of their low

friction, high load carrying capacity and good damping

characteristics. Such bearing have many different designs

on the basis of different load requirements, machine

speeds, cost or dynamic properties. It is worth mentioning

the experimental works of Tonnesen (1984), Fitzgerald &

Neal (1992) and Ma & Taylor (1995) on twin axial groove

journal bearings. The available experimental data

concerning this bearing geometry is still rather limited. The

present work aims to address this lack of information,

presenting and discussing experimental results obtained for

a span of operating conditions that include the less studied

cases, like, for instance, the lightly loaded bearing.

Although of limited practical applicability, these results are

useful for a correct understanding the behavior of twin

holes journal bearing.

II. TEST BEARING

Material Selection

Material selected for research work is Phosphor-bronze,

because of their good mechanical p roperties it can be used

as bearing materials. Phosphor bronze is an alloy of copper

with 3.5% to 10% of tin, 9% to 10% lead, and a significant

phosphorus content of up to 1%. The phosphorus is added

as deoxidizing agent during melting. These alloys are

notable for their toughness, strength, low coefficient of

friction, and fine grain. It has hardness up to 75-100 BHN

at room temperature, load carry ing capacity is more than

27.6 MPa, tensile strength is 241.5 MPa and maximum

operating temperature is 260°C moreover it has excellent

fatigue strength rating 1.

Design and fabrication of test bearing

Design of test bearing has been completed in Computer

Aided Design softwares (Auto-CAD & Pro-E). The 3 and 2

Dimensional drawing of test bearing is schematically

presented in Fig. 1& 2. Here inner diameter (ID) of test

bearing is 65 mm, outer diameter (OD) is 85 mm and

Figure 1: 3-D model of test bearing

length of test bearing is 65 mm. On the middle

circumference of the test bearing 10 holes are provided at

30 deg to each other for measuring circumferential

temperature and pressure along with twin holes. The two

inlet holes are for supplying oil at high discharge rate on to

journal bearing. Details of design parameters for test

bearing are given in Table 1. Fabrication of test bearing

was got done competed with the help of an external vendor

(Chavla Machin ing Works, Ghaziabad), though some work

was completed in the Institute workshop. Experimentation

test bearing after machining given in Fig. 3.

TABLE 1: DETAILS OF DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR TEST BEARING

Experimental Setup

A schematic diagram of the journal bearing test rig used for

experimental studies is shown in Figure 4. It is a sturdy

versatile apparatus, easy to operate with provision to

measure temperature and pressure on at every 30 degree

angular position on the middle circumferential of bearing

(bush). The journal is made of C-45 steel material and is

mounted horizontally on two pedestal bearings. The journal

is rotated by a motor through belt and pulley arrangement,

1:2 rat io pulleys is provided, to attain speed up to 5000

rpm. A sleeve fits over journal and radial load is applied on

bearing by 1:1 lever mechanis m, through pneumatic

loading arrangement. Here lever are connected with

pneumatic loading device in which cylinder and piston

arrangement given, which is governed by compressed air.

The motor speed is varied by a frequency drive; the driver

frequency changed by a potentiometer knob provided on

controlled front panel. A proximity sensors fixed on the

journal senses its speed. The test rig is designed to apply a

maximum radial load up to 2000 N. Lubrication unit is

made of a metallic tank with a motor and pump, by pass

valve, control valve, pressure gauges, flow meter, and inlet

and delivery pipe. An oil sump is provided beneath the

bearing for collecting the used oil and it flows into metallic

tank for recircu lation. For pressure measurement on the

middle circumference of bearing 10 pressure gauges are

provided which are mounted on wooden box and connected

with journal bearing test rig through tubes. Radial load and

journal speed can be varied to suit the test conditions.

Viscosity of the lubricating oil is determined by using

FUNGILAB dig ital Readout Viscometer Model

―VISCOBASIC L‖.

Descriptions Values

Length of test Bearing 65mm

Bearing Outer Diameter 85mm

Bearing Inner Diameter 65mm

Number of Sensor holes 10 Nos.

Number of o il inlet holes 2 Nos.

Angular distance between holes 30° to each other

Figure 2: 2-D drawing of Experimentation test bearing

Figure3: Phosphorous bronze bearing

Figure 1: 3-D model of test bearing

Figure 4: Schematic view of journal bearing test rig

Experimental Programme

A smooth bearing shown in Fig. 3 was tested for pressure

distribution on a center plane of journal bearing using

commercial grade of o il namely Hydrol 68 at load varying

from 200 N to 800 N and speeds of 1000, 2000 and 3000

rpm respectively at constant oil supply pressure of 0.05

MPa. For each speed, the load on the bearing has been

increased in steps of 200 N i.e. readings have been taken

for loads 200, 400, 600 and 800 N. The oil was supplied

through two oil holes at 90° to the vertical loading line. For

each set of reading during experimentation, the

stabilization time comes out to be nearly 1.5 hrs. Figure

5(a, b) shows the location of pressure gauges connection

(1-10) for pressure measurement.

Results And Discussion

Experiments have been carried out on smooth journal

bearing using commercial grade oil namely Hydrol 68 at

varying loads from 200 N to 800 N and varying speeds

from 1000 to 3000 rpm and constant supply pressure 0.05

MPa for pressure distribution in journal bearing. Input

parameters, various operating conditions and properties of

oil under study are given in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.

TABLE 2: INPUT PARAMETERS

TABLE 3: TEST OPERATING CONDITIONS

TABLE 4: PROPERTIES OF OIL UNDER STUDY

(a)

(b)

Figure 5 (a) & (b): Diagram showing the location of pressure gauges

connection (1-10) for pressure measurement

Lubricant Hydrol 68

Viscosity,µ(at oil temperature,33°C) 0.075 Pas

Oil density, ρ 880 Kg/m3

Thermal Conductivity, Koil 0.126 W/mK

Barus viscosity-pressure index, α 2.3x10-8 Pa-1

Temperature viscosity coefficient, γ 0.034 K-1

Outer diameter of the bearing, OD 85 mm

Inner diameter of bearing, ID 65 mm

Length of bearing, L 65 mm

Radial Clearance, C 100µm

Average roughness in bearing, Ra 2µm

Lubricants Hydrol 68

Rotation speeds, N 1000,2000 & 3000 rpm

Load, W 200, 400, 600 &800 N

Oil inlet p ressure 0.05 MPa

Figure 6 (a): Pressure distribution in the center plane for smooth journal

bearing at different loads, speed = 1000 rpm and supply pressure = 0.05

MPa.

Figure 6 (b): Pressure distribution in the center plane for smooth journal

bearing at different loads, speed = 2000 rpm and supply pressure = 0.05 MPa

Figure 6 (c): Pressure distribution in the center plane for smooth journal

bearing at different loads, speed = 3000 rpm and supply pressure = 0.05

MPa.

Figure 6 (d): Pressure distribution in the center plane for smooth journal

bearing at Load = 600 N, Varying speeds =1000, 2000 and 3000 rpm and supply pressure = 0.05 MPa.

Figures 6 (a, b and c ) presents the pressure distribution on

a center plane of smooth journal bearing for speeds = 1000,

2000, 3000 rpm, constant oil supply pressure 0.05 MPa and

at varying loads from 200 N to 800 N. Figures show that

effect of load and speed variation on the pressure

distribution of hydrodynamic journal bearing.

It is observed that:

1. Figure6 (a) shows that pressure distribution in journal

bearing at different loads and constant speed 1000 rpm.

From this figure it is observed that pressure increases

with the increase of loads (200N to 800N) at constant

speed (1000 rpm) and constant oil supply pressure.

Maximum pressure obtained in journal bearing for

N=1000 rpm and W=200N is 0.130 MPa. The maximum

pressure for N=1000 rpm and W= 400N is 0.210 MPa.

Again maximum pressure in journal bearing for N=1000

rpm and W=600N is 0.300 MPa. Moreover the max

pressure for journal bearing for N=1000 rpm and

W=800N is 0.390 MPa.

2. Figure 6 (b) shows that pressure distribution in journal

bearing at different loads and speed 2000 rpm. From Fig.

8 (b) it is observed that maximum pressure in journal

bearing for N=2000 rpm and W=200 N is 0.130 MPa.

The maximum pressure found in journal bearing for

N=2000 rpm and W= 400 N by 0.200 MPa. It can be

seen that the maximum pressure in journal bearing for

N=2000 rpm and W=600 N is 0.290 MPa Moreover the

max pressure found 0.370 MPa in journal bearing for N

= 2000 rpm and W = 800 N.

3. Figure 6 (c) shows that pressure distribution in journal

bearing at different loads and speed 3000 rpm. From Fig.

8 (c) it is observed that maximum pressure in journal

bearing for N=3000 rpm and W=200 N is 0.130 MPa.

The maximum pressure found in journal bearing for

N=3000 rpm and W= 400 N by 0.190 MPa. It can be

seen that the maximum pressure in journal bearing for

N=3000 rpm and W=600N is 0.285MPa Moreover the

max. pressure found 0.360 MPa in journal bearing for

N=3000 rpm and W=800 N.

4. From Fig. 6 (d) it is observed that the pressure

significantly decreases with increases in rotational speed

of journal at constant load. The maximum pressure (Pmax)

at speed 1000 rpm and load 600 N is 0.30 MPa but

maximum pressure decreases at 2000 rpm (Pmax=0.290)

and 3000 rpm (Pmax=0.285) at same load because of

decreasing the eccentricity ratio. Figure 6 (d) shows the

variation of pressure at constant load (W = 600 N) and

varying speeds form 1000 rpm to 3000 rpm at constant

oil supply pressure 0.05 MPa. Besides this at low load

condition (W=200N) this effect is too low so we have

obtained same values of pressure at varying speeds of

journal.

III. CONCLUSION

On the basis of the investigation following conclusions

have been drawn:

1. Experiment shows that the pressure distribution of

journal bearing is affected by load variat ion. It is

observed that pressure increases with the increase of

loads (200N to 800N) at constant speed and constant oil

supply pressure (0.05 MPa).

2. With the increase of speeds (1000 rpm to 3000 rpm) at

constant load (600 N) and constant oil supply pressure

(0.05 MPa) the pressure significantly decreases with

increases in rotational speed of journal at constant load.

Because at constant load, the minimum film thickness

(hmin) increases (eccentricity ratio decreases) when

rotational speed of journal increases. Under these

conditions, increasing rotational speed yields smaller

pressure peak.

Acknowledges

We would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and

indebtedness to Prof. Rajesh Kumar Sharma, Professor, &

Head, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National

Institute of Technology, Hamirpur (H.P.) for the valuable

help provided in the Experimental work. The authors also

acknowledge the technical supports provides by M/S

DUCOM, Bangalore in Fabricat ion of test rig.

References [1] Kasolang, S., Ahmada, M.A., 2012, ―Preliminary study of Pressure

Profile in Hydrodynamic Lubrication Journal Bearing‖, Procedia

Engineering 41,1743 – 1749.

[2] Nuruzzaman, D. M., Khalil, M. K., 2012, ―Study on Pressure

Distribution and Load Capacity of a Journal Bearing Using Finite

Element Method and Analytical Method‖, IJMME-IJENS Vol: 10.

[3] Someya, T., 2003, ―Negative Pressure in the Oil-Film of Journal

Bearing‖, National Tribology Conference, ISSN 1221-4590.

[4] Khonsari, M.M., 2008, ―Applied Tribology (Bearing Design and

Lubrication)‖, Wiley, 2nd

edition.

[5] Hamrock, B.J., 1994, ―Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication‖.

McGraw-Hill.

[6] Muhammet, Y., 2003, ―A Study of Pressure Distribution of A Slider

Bearing Lubricated with Powell Eyring Fluid‖, Turkish J. Eng. Env.

Sci. 27, 299 - 304.

[7] Cameron. A, 2005, ―Introduction of Tribology‖, New York, John

Wiley.

[8] Stachowaik, G.W., Batchelor, A.W., 2005, ―Engineering Tribology‖

Elsevier Bitterworth Heinemann, 3rd edition.

The Rural Marketing In India 1 Mohit Tyagi

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Management Studies, KSVCEM, Bijnor, India

1mohit.seohara@gmail.com

Abstract - The rural markets in India have grown in size, range and

sophistication in recent times. Under the changing socio-.economic

scenario, the rural markets have great potentialities in India and offer

bright prospects and attractions to the companies. In fact, the rural

markets are green pastures for companies today. as they are growing

faster as compared to he urban markets. With their huge size and

demand base, they offer gnat opportunities to the marketers.

I. INTRODUCTION

More than three-fourths of country's consumers reside in

rural areas and more than half of the national income is

generated by them. Due to the global economic downturn,

the companies are facing slower urban sales, prompting

them to make a rush towards rural India. The downturn has

not impacted rural markets in the same way as urban

markets. Stagnant. Urban demand and relative rural

prosperity are attracting companies to the rural markets for

selling their products and services. Apart from the

traditional agricultural income, government spending and

infrastructure projects have meant cash flow in these

markets. Thus, the relative rural prosperity is fueling

demand and, therefore, drawing companies wards them.

The villages, which were once inconsequential, are now

getting the attention of companies across different sectors.

All the major industries in India are tilting towards rural

India as the Indian rural market is full of opportunities and

has seen impressive growth in recent years. Today, rural

consumers have almost broken all the prevailing barriers.

Momentous growth in purchasing power, improvement in

literacy level, change in lifestyle, increasing brand

consciousness , changing consumption pattern,

improvement in infrastructural facilities and rapid spread of

communicat ion network in rural areas have presented a

growing potential of rural India for the companies. The

corporate sector is, therefore, increasingly looking towards

the rural consumers and fine-tuning their marketing

strategies in order to promote their products and services in

the rural areas.

II. THE RURAL CONSUMER:

In numerical terms, India‘s rural market is indeed a large

one ; it consists of more than 740 million consumers. 63%

of India‘s total population is rural. The rural market

consists of more than 12 crore households, forming over

70%of the total households in the country.

Characteristics of Rural Consumer Group

Location Pattern

Rural Market of India is a geographically scattered market.

The rural population is scattered across 5, 70,000 villages.

And, of them, only 6300 villages , have a population of

more than 5,000 each . More than 3 lakh villages are in the

category of 500 people or less.

Socio-Economic Position

Rural Consumers continue to be marked by low per capita

income/ low purchasing power. Similarly, they continue to

be a traditional -bound community, with relig ion, culture

and tradition strongly influencing their consumption habits.

Nearly 60% of rural income comes from agriculture. Rural

Prosperity and discretionary income with rural consumers

are thus linked to a sizeable extent with agricultural

prosperity.

Literacy level

Rural India has a literacy rate of 28% compared with 55%

for the whole country. The adult literacy programmes

launched in the rural areas are bound to enhance the rural

literacy rates in the years to come. The rate is certainly on

the low side.

Lifestyle

The rural consumers are marked by conservative and

tradition-bound lifestyles. But this lifestyle of a sizeable

segment of rural consumers has already changed

significantly in recent years .The changes can be attributed

to several factors such as:

Growth in income and change in income d istribution.

Growth in education.

Enlarged media reach (part icularly telev ision).

Growing interaction with urban communit ies.

Marketers‘ effort to reach out the rural market.

III. SOME MYTHS ABOUT RURAL MARKET

Myth-1: Rural Market Is a Homogeneous Mass

Reality: It‘s a heterogeneous population. Various Tiers are

present depending on the incomes like Big Landlords;

Traders, small farmers; Marginal farmers: Labors, art isans.

State wise variations in rural demographics are present viz.

Literacy (Kerala 90%, Bihar 44%) and Population below

poverty line (Orissa 48%, Punjab 6%)

Myth-2: Disposable Income Is Low

Reality: Number o f middle class HHs (annual income Rs

45,000- 2, 15,000) for rural sector is 27.4 million as

compared to the figure of 29.5 million for urban sector.

Rural incomes CAGR was 10.95%compared to 10.74% in

urban between 1970-71 and 1993-94.

Myth-3: Individuals Decide About Purchases

Reality: Decision making process is collective. Purchase

process- influencer, decider, buyer, one who pays can all be

different. So marketers must address brand message at

several levels. Rural youth brings brand knowledge to

Households (HH).

IV. INCREASING FMCG CONSUMPTION: FOCUS ON URBAN

CATOGORIES

Organizations like Hindustan Lever Ltd., Nirma Chemical

Works, Colgate Palmo live, Parle foods and Malhotra

Marketing have carved inroads into the heart of rural

markets. Various categories of products have been able to

spread their tentacles deep into the rural market and

achieved significant recognition in the country households.

And, in the process, the regional brands, local brands and

the other unbranded offerings got displaced by the leading

brands.

Though the commodity products have greater penetration,

traditionally urban categories such as skin creams and

talcum powder have also made a mark. While the urban

talcum powder market suffered a de-growth, the rural

talcum powder market darted ahead. Similarly, growth of

rural skin cream market was at par with that of urban skin

cream market. Th is clearly indicated that after being

considered urban for a long time, some categories are now

wearing a rural face. And, in many a case, it is the rural m

Pond‘s is the leader in the talcum powder category with a

penetration of 65% and volume contribution of 56%. Its

rivals viz. Nycil and Liril are trailing far behind. Moreover,

60% of the Pond‘s users have purchased no other brand i.e.

they are 100% brand loyal. This reflects the strength of the

brand in rural bazaar.

In the skin care category, Fair & Lovely fairness cream,

with a penetration of 75%, accounts for 60% of the skin

care market in rural India. It also enjoys the

undistinguished patronage of 58% of its user households.

Both Pond‘s and Fair & Lovely are en joying a monopoly in

the rural markets in their respective categories.

Rural India is not averse to trying out the premium brands

at high prices. A study indicated that a majority of the

premium brand users are using the brand for the first time.

Similarly 0.9% of the talcum powder-using families have

started using Denim talc and 0.7% of the shampoo using

households started using Pantene. Surveys also reveal that

trials are not restricted to the more affluent echelon of the

villages. The experimenting households are more-or-less

evenly spread across the various socio-economic clusters of

the rural market. This should further encourage the

marketers to focus their attention on rural buyers.

The rural youths are more open to fresh concepts as against

their elderly family members. Their d ifference in choice of

products/brands with the seniors of the households often

leads to a ―dual-usage‖ of product categories. As an

instance, 20% of the households using tooth powder also

use tooth paste. Similarly, many of the households using

premium brands also use mass market brands. For example,

while 15% of Surf and 12% of Ariel using families also use

Nirma detergent, 3% of Denim users use Pond‘s Dream

flower talc and 18% of Pantene using households use

Clin ic shampoo as well.

V. RURAL MARKETING MIX

Today, rural India is seen as the most lucrative segment

because companies across different sectors are wooing

them to support their momentum of business growth. Rural

markets offer opportunities, which are enormous and

relatively untapped. They present tremendous prospects for

companies to sell their products and services. Corporations

across varied industry verticals are bucking up to address

the rural potential demand. The attitudes, aspirations and

demands of rural consumers are very different from their

urban counterparts. Companies are connecting to this base

afresh and are getting their acts together to cater to this

market effectively and efficiently. Companies resort to a

number of strategies like repositioning of brands,

repackaging products and re-pricing them, all with an eye

on rural wallets. The overall marketing mix framework for

rural markets necessarily focuses around delivering the

right product, using value for money pricing, using

effective means of promotion, selecting the most

appropriate method of distribution and building long term

relationship with the customers in order to sell their

products.

Dr. Pallavi, BHU Banaras has given a very good

framework for rural market ing. According to her in case of

rural marketing, the marketing mix has changed from the

traditional '4 Ps' to the new '4 As', i.e., Affordability,

Awareness, Availability And Acceptability. The

explanation is given below:

Affordability: The rural areas continue to pose different

types of challenges, including understanding of the

dynamics of rural markets and strategies to supply the

products and satisfy these consumers. The consumers in

rural areas are value-conscious and a lot savvier. They are

willing to pay for a product if it is worth it. Affordability is

thus critical to success in rural markets. As 'nano’

paradigm is emerg ing in all segments; small stock keeping

units (SKU), low priced products are all making various

segments of products a lot more affordable to the rural

consumers. In fact, lower prices and small SKUs are the

most common strategies adopted by FMCG companies to

penetrate rural markets. The smaller SKUs is one of the

strategies to help increase product penetration, as trials

would increase due to a lower put-down price. Smaller

packs are more affordable, so they offer consumers a

chance to try out products before graduating to a larger

pack. Most FMCG companies have reduced SKU of soaps,

shampoos, beverages, biscuits and even butter to boost

consumption and increase affordability for consumers.

HUL's initiated 'Operation Bharat' to tap rural markets by

bringing out low priced sample packets of its toothpaste,

fairness cream, shampoo, cream and other products. For

Dabur, rural demand keeps on growing at a fast pace.

Initiat ives like low un it packs of Chyawanprash and Dabur

Amla, and new products such as Amla Flower Magic hair-

oil have accelerated this growth momentum. According to a

Chennai based consumer products company CavinKare,

which makes Nyle and Chik shampoos and Fairever

Fairness Cream, government's NREGA has put a lot of

money in the hands of rural consumers, which is good news

for them. CavinKare's Nyle and Chik shampoos in Rs. 1

packs are among the Company's strongest volume drivers.

In the same way, LPG companies have introduced small

sized cylinders, ensuring that price remains in the

affordable range for its consumers in rural sector.

Companies like Adidas and Reebok too increased their

sales by 50 percent in rural markets by reducing price of

their products. Keeping in mind the rural wallet, the

telecom g iant, Bharti Airtel had lowered its ticket sizes.

Instead of Rs. 30 recharge coupon valid for a month, it

launched a Rs. 10 coupon valid for 10 days for the rural

markets. Idea Cellular, from the A. V Birla Group, had also

introduced rural calling card that charged only 50 paise per

minute for a local call. Companies like Ph ilips and even

Eveready have brought out new cheap lanterns to replace

the kerosene ones specifically targeted at the rural market.

Consumer durable company, Philips also launched a low-

cost smokeless 'chulha '(stove). Eveready Industries India

Ltd. has launched product for rural markets in the form of

Homelite, a new alternate lighting solution based on LED

technology, which is safe, cost-effective and long lasting.

LG launched a range of direct cool refrigerators and Super

Slim TVs to attract rural consumers who are not able to

afford expensive LCD TVs. In the same way, DCM

Shriram developed a low-cost water purifier, especially for

rural areas. To address the problem of regular power

shortage in rural regions, Coca-cola provided low-cost ice-

boxes as families could not depend on a refrigerator.

Awareness: Creat ing brand awareness through appropriate

media is very important for the companies to gain

acceptability among rural folks. The Corporate Sector has

also utilized traditional arts of India very effectively in its

awareness campaigns in rural areas. For its entry into

Andhra Pradesh's interior, telecom company, Idea Cellular

used the folklore art form of Burra Katha (a t raveling

theatre troupe) to create brand awareness. Modern media

such as television has also invaded rural India by reaching

every nook and comer of the country. Television has

reduced the resistance to change by creating new

aspirations and awareness for rural fo lks, thereby

increasing the acceptability of most products in the rural

areas. Once acceptability is established and loyalties are

formed, the fame of the products spread like wildfire

through word-of-mouth, which in fact is the most effective

means of promotion in ru ral India. Various brands have

leveraged on the power of television penetration in rural

areas. The 'Gold Plus 'jewellery brand by Tata Group is a

fascinating example of the brand addressing the non-metro

jewellery culture. In rural India, gold jewellery is used as a

reserve store and given the adulteration in gold; Tata seal

of good faith is taking the brand far and wide. The telecom

sector has also focused its strategies towards making

serious inroads into rural India. The rural thrust has not

only helped the sector escape the slowdown, but also

allowed it to flourish. The telecom sector has carved a

prominent model that is shifting focus to rural areas as

majority of the players are expanding their rural

infrastructure base for boosting organic growth. Telecom

Company, Tata Teleservices has planned a fresh marketing

strategy of going door-to-door and even involving gram

panchayats to impress upon people, the benefits of mobile

telephony. The FMCG companies are also venturing into

the rural markets with their innovative strategies to create

awareness about their products. FMCG companies like

Hindustan Unilever, Procter & Gamble, Colgate, Godrej,

and Maricos are gearing up for bigger advertisement and

sales promotion campaigns targeted at rural markets to

create brand awareness. Automobile sector is also giving

extra attention to rural markets as a considerable chunk of

their product line such as commercial vehicles, tractors,

motorcycles etc, are catering specifically to the rural

demand. Automobile companies are also being assisted in

this rural push by their growing partnerships with public

sector banks, all of which enjoy a good presence in the

rural belt and have a ready list of potential customers.

Maruti Suzuki rolled out a special campaign for rural areas

by roping in Panchayat members and primary health centre

workers. Recognizing the potential of rural India, the

company Hero Honda has also established a dedicated

'rural vertical' running under the theme 'Har Gaaon, Har

Aangan' (Every village, every house), to penetrate

untapped rural and upcountry markets in India. The

Company has also deployed 500 sales executives who meet

opinion leaders and talk about Hero Honda. Consumer

electronics company, Samsung had also rolled out its

'Dream Home 'road show, which was to visit 48 small

towns in 100 days in an attempt to increase brand

awareness of its products. The company also has plans to

expand its sales channel by 25-30 in rural India.

Availability: In the rural areas with places far flung and not

well connected with proper roads, delivering the product to

the rural consumers can be a challenge. Companies have

realized this and are trying to be creative in this situation.

For making the products available to consumers,

companies adopt a variety of means such as direct selling,

using company delivery vans, syndicated distribution

between non-competitive marketers, setting up of

temporary stalls in rural melas or haths etc. Making use of

stockist and their staff for effect ive direct sales to

consumers in rural India have also been found to be

successful for companies such as Hindustan Unilever, ITC,

Colgate, Godrej etc. Rural markets or mandis are coming

up as target centers of direct sales by the companies. The

company, BPCL in itiated specially designed 'Rural

Marketing Vehicle', which moved from villages to villages

for filling cylinders on spot. On the other hand, soft drink

companies are making use of the traditional wholesale

retail model. Products are firstly transported to small towns

and later they are transferred to various comers by making

use of transport like cycle, auto, hand-cart, camel-cart etc.

While Airtel and Samsung have tied up with IFFCO. Indian

farmer's cooperative of fertilizers, to sell their mobiles and

services, other telecom giants and DTH providers are

eyeing PCOs as a channel of distribution. In the absence of

a suitable system, some companies have resorted to

creating the whole ecosystem from scratch. Such schemes

helped the companies in earning quite a few points on the

social service front and yet make significant inroads to

augment their sales numbers. ITC has formed a supply

chain infrastructure called e-choupal system. In the same

way, Hindustan Unilever's project 'Shakti' empowers

women's self-help groups. The project 'Shakti' with a social

aim of upliftment of rural women by providing income -

generating opportunities was intended to amplify the

company's rural distribution network. HUL's Shakti project

connects Self Help Groups (SHGs) with business

opportunities. The company promotes and uses the SHGs

network present in the villages for increasing its sales in the

rural areas. The SHGs are presented chance to become

company's local small-scale distributor in the rural areas.

These groups typically of 15 to 20 people, buy a small

stock of items like soap, detergents or shampoos and sell

directly to consumers in their homes. This innovative

distribution model is a win-win for the company and the

village SHGs. Over the past few months. India's top mobile

company, Bharti A irtel has set up hundreds of rural centers,

branded 'Iserve'lo activate, reactivate and recharge mobile

connections, sell and exchange SIM cards and provide

value added services like ring tones and hello tunes across

the country. Telecom Company, Idea Cellular too has

started on in Maharashtra countryside. Every second new

subscriber is from rural area as growth in the number of

urban subscribers has slowed down. The company also

introduced rural calling card. In its after-sales service, it

introduced the concept of 'Care Vans', which go from

villages every month following a fixed route to cover a

cluster of villages in one outing. For the automobile

industry, semi-urban and rural markets contribute nearly 40

percent of sales, driven by demand for two-wheelers, entry-

level cars and tractors. Rural ma rkets are also significant

for Hero Honda, the biggest bike maker. Th is two-wheeler

manufacturer fo llowed a Hub and Spoke model in

channelizing its products in rural areas. In order to meet the

after sales requirements of rural areas, it has started the

concept of 'service on wheels'. Companies in consumer

durables sector are also unearthing the potential of

hinterlands. Consumer Electronics majors such as LG and

Samsung made 35 percent and 27 percent of their sales

from rural India respectively LG has established 45 area

offices and 59 ru ral and remote area offices. Furthermore, it

has outlined plans to invest towards development of entry-

level products targeted at rural markets. The growth

potential of rural India is also enticing the companies in the

FMCG sector. FMCG companies have traditionally driven

their growth initiat ives by way of rural schemes such as

small size packaging, low pricing strategy and deep

distribution channels. Godrej Consumer Products Limited

(GCPL) witnessed rural sales grow at 40 percent in the last

few months, which was double of that in urban areas. The

company has project 'Dharti' for rural India and covers

nearly 17,000 villages. Emami Group has also initiated new

level of distribution to enhance penetration in rural regions.

The Group has introduced new super-stockist networks for

covering rural areas. The van operations model has also

been established to enable the products' reach rural

villages. Rural markets account for about 20 percent of the

country's Indian drug retail market. Several pharmaceutical

companies are targeting Indian countryside for expansion.

Pharma MNCs operating in India are drawing aggressive

strategies to tap the rural markets. Aventis Pharma, the

Indian arm of the French drug major Sanofi-aventis has

launched a rural market division with 10 products and a

sales team of300 people as it is eyeing at a bigger share of

the fast growing Indian rural market. Another company,

Novartis is targeting villages in 7 states with consistently

priced products, which are available in a variety of package

sizes. The model supplies medicines to more than 16,000

pharmacies. The company's stockists in district towns

supply to village pharmacies. On the other hand, Novo

Nordisk sends mobile clinics through villages in Goa to

screen patients for diabetes. The company, Elder

Pharmaceuticals had established a rural marketing division,

Elvista to tap this segment. Similarly, Pharma giant, Roche

Diagnostic (India) has tied up with Delh i based Mankind

pharma to market its new diabetes monitoring devices for

the rural market. The incidence of diabetes in rural regions

is high and Mankind's reach is very wide, which helped

Roche Diagnostic to significantly increase its sales in rural

markets.

Acceptability: There is a great need to offer products and

services that suit the rural consumers in order to obtain

their acceptability. It is not just value for money, but also

value add-ons that attract the rural people and help in

gaining their acceptability for the products. Therefore,

imaginative ideas and dedicated efforts of corporate houses

are fast transforming the rural landscape into big consumer

markets. New parad igms in banking like the SBI Tiny

Account with just a paid volunteer equipped with a small

box, which enables biometric measurements (fingerprints),

and a mobile that enables communication with the zonal

office to check on available balance is both creative as well

as helpful. Mobile device companies are also tailoring their

products to the rural markets. For instance, Nokia had

earlier launched a basic handset with a torch and an alarm

clock. In December 2008, the company launched Nokia

Life Tools, which is a range of agriculture, education and

entertainment services designed especially for consumers

in small towns and rural areas of emerging markets. The

product is meant to provide timely and relevant information

customized to the user's location and personal preference

directly on their mobile devices. Companies are designing

products especially for the rural markets. LG Electronics

developed a customized T. V., christened as

'Sampoorna''for the rural markets. The company managed

to sell 100000 sets in the first year. Samsung too introduced

stabilizer-free operations in its direct-cool refrigerators to

take care of voltage fluctuations and silver-nano features in

semiautomatic washing machines for use in areas, where

the water quality is not good. Both the telecom companies -

Bharti Airtel and Idea Cellular apart from providing service

messages in the local lingo of the subscriber, also provide

alerts on commodity prices at the nearest wholesale market

and even English language tutorials. The most popular

value-add service is music, especially in the local dialect of

the subscriber. Tata Chemicals newly launched water

purifier, Swach, targets the lower-income group in rural

India and aims to resolve one of the crucial issues plaguing

rural India, i.e ., access to clean drinking water. Tata

Chemicals plans to sell Swach as fast-moving-consumer-

goods (FMCG). Studies reveal that 75 percent of the rural

population does not have access to pure drinking water

leading to high incidence of water borne diseases and Tata

Group is going to address this issue through Tata Swach,

which is manufactured using nano technology. Companies

like Nestle and GlaxoSmithKline Consumer Healthcare

(GSK) too have launched products especially for rural

markets. Swiss Foods Company; Nestle had also

announced the launch of a low-priced variant of Maggi

noodles under its flagship Maggi Instant Noodles, aimed at

meals for the bottom of pyramid consumers. The new

Maggi variants have been developed especially fo r the rural

and semi-urban markets in order to provide low-cost

fortified meals for consumers. While 'Rasile Chow' is gravy

noodles at Rs. 4, 'Maggi Masala Magic 'is a taste enhancer

in a single use sachet priced at Rs. 2 each. In the same way,

GlaxoSmithKline is rolling out 'Asha', a milk food drink in

the line of Horlicks for rural consumers in Andhra Pradesh.

Glaxo Smith Kline's 'Asha', which is 40 percent cheaper

than the regular variant of Horlicks, is the first product

from the UK based MNC designed for rural consumers.

Coca Cola has begun selling a powder-based fortified

beverage called 'Vitigo' 18 gm sachets at Rs. 2.50 each

across villages in Orissa. The Company has tied up with

NGO and micro finance institution BISWA in Orissa for

the same.

VI. CONCLUSION

The scenario of Urban Marketing has taken a deep

importance in India. It is almost impossible to ignore it for

many companies. Prolonged urban slowdown has driven

the companies across different segments to make fo ray at

the burgeoning rural markets to fuel their growth engine.

Rural India has so far been insulated from the slowdown

and a large untapped market exists there. There is a good

potential in the rural market, not only for the consumer

durable products, but also for FMCG products. Saturation

and slowdown in the urban markets, along with low

penetration of consumer goods in rural areas is also a big

bait for companies to rush towards India's six lakh odd

villages. There is a beginning of rural market boom and

companies across different sectors have caught the idea that

rural markets cannot be ignored and instead, they be served

as a priority. Increasing rate of literacy, increase in

longevity, economic development of rural areas and huge

development in standard of liv ing of the rural people, all

provide market ing opportunities for companies to sell their

products and services in rural areas. Further, the growth in

rural India and the Government's commitment for the

development of rural reg ion will sustain and strengthen the

boom in the hinterland. In fact, rural markets have

unlocked new fronts for the modem marketers. Companies

across different sectors are now approaching rural markets

with attractive incentives to ensure targeted sales. The

income of rural population in India and their purchasing

power has augmented in recent years. The companies have

to ascertain their needs and desires in order to exp loit vast

potentials of rural markets with suitable marketing

strategies. However, the rural markets are broadly scattered

and heterogeneous. There is insufficient rural

transportation, inefficient communicat ion and inadequate

warehousing facilities. Overall backwardness, preference

for conventional way of life of the rural people etc. are

some such factors, which must be tackled aptly, as these

have been hindering the growth of companies in the rural

regions.

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10 September, 2009

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Times. 14 December. 2009:4.

Environmentally Sustainable Development 1Arjun Singh

1Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, K.S. Vira College of Engineering

1singh0470@gmail.com

Abstract - The term environmentally sustainable development

with many definitions emphasising some, or many, of the economic, political, social and ecological dimensions

associated with the term. In recent years there has been a

marked shift from an emphasis on the notion of the

„sustainability‟ of socio-ecological systems to a focus on the

notion of the „resilience‟ of the ecosystem, and people‟s capacity to diversify their livelihoods to facilitate the

ecosystem‟s recovery from shocks and stresses. When

development takes place keeping environmental consideration

in mind we follow the concept “sustainable development”. The

environmental sustainability includes criteria‟s such as the pollutants related to energy should not exceed the absorptive

capacity of environmental media (land, water and air), etc.

I. INTRODUCTION

The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from

human actions, ambitions, and needs, and attempts to

defend it in isolation from human concerns have given the

very word ―environment‖ a connotation of naivety in some

political circles. The word ―development‖ has also been

narrowed by some into a very limited focus, along the lines

of ―what poor nations should do to become richer,‖ and

thus again is automatically dis missed by many in the

international arena as being a concern of specialists, of

those involved in questions of ―development assistance.‖

But the ―environment‖ is where we live; and

―development‖ is what we all do in attempting to improve

our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. Th is

paper aims at discussing some of the important issues

relating to environmental sustainability form that would

lead to sustainable urban development with possible

references to India. The paper is based on available

literature and secondary data.

II. WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?

Sustainable development can be defined in technical terms

as a development path along which the maximization of

human well-being for today‘s generations does not lead to

declines in future well-being. Attaining this path requires

eliminating those negative externalities that are responsible

for natural resource depletion and environmental

degradation. It also requires securing those public goods

that are essential for economic development to last, such as

those provided by well-functioning ecosystems, a healthy

environment and a cohesive society. Sustainable

development also stresses the importance of retain ing the

flexib ility to respond to future shocks, even when their

probability, and the size and location of their effects,

cannot be assessed with certainty. Beyond this technical

definit ion, the notion of sustainable development has

gained a broader political usage. Here, it embodies a

concern for taking a broad view of what human welfare

entails, and for balancing the goals of economic efficiency,

social development and environmental protection.

Sustainable development also underscores the importance

of taking a longer-term perspective about the consequences

of today‘s activities, and of global co-operation among

countries to reach viable solutions. These elements have

made sustainable development a key objective for domestic

and regional policy formulation, as well as for international

relations between countries in the 21st century.

III. ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In the broadest sense, sustainability refers to the capacity of

socio-ecological systems to persist unimpaired into the

future (Raskin et al.1996). ‗Environmental sustainability‘

refers to the maintenance of the ecosystem and the natural

resource base. Environmental degradation signifies failure

in this regard. It takes three forms: depletion of resources;

pollution, or overuse of the waste-absorbing capacity of the

environment; and reduction in biodiversity - a loss of some

types of resources. ‗Social sustainability‘ is the term used

to refer to the social conditions necessary to support

environmental sustainability (Hardoy et al. 1992). Th is

stresses the fact that natural resources are used within a

social context and that it is the rules and values associated

with this context that determine the distribution of

resources within the present generation and the next. More

recently, there has been more emphasis on the notion of

‗resilience‘1. Eco logists have reached a better

understanding both of the processes involved in the

ecosystem‘s capacity to recover from shocks and stresses

(such as drought) and of people‘s capacities to facilitate the

recovery of the ecosystem and to diversify their livelihood

activities from natural resource-based to money or market-

based activities.

The Brundtland Commission‘s brief definit ion of

sustainable development as the ―ability to make

development sustainable—to ensure that it meets the needs

of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs‖ is surely the standard

definition when judged by its widespread use and

frequency of citation. The use of this definit ion has led

many to see sustainable development as having a major

focus on intergenerational equity. Although the brief

definit ion does not explicitly men tion the environment or

development, the subsequent paragraphs, while rarely

quoted, are clear. On development, the report states that

human needs are basic and essential; that economic

growth—but also equity to share resources with the poor—

is required to sustain them; and that equity is encouraged

by effective citizen participation. On the environment, the

text is also clear:

WHAT IS TO BE SUSTAINED ?

FO R HOW LO NG?

25 years ―Now and in the future‖

forever

WHAT IS TO BE DEVLOPED:

NATURE

Earth

Biodiversity

Ecosystems

PEOPLE

Child Survival

Life expectancy

Education

Equity

Equal Opportunity

LIFE SUPPORT

Ecosystem

Services

Resources

Environment

LINKED BY

Only

Mostly

But

And

Or

ECO NOMY

Wealth

Productive

Consumption

COMMUNITY

Cultures

Groups

Places

SOCIETY

Institutions

States

Regions

Figure 1. Definitions of sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development does imply

limits—not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the

present state of technology and social organization on

environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere

to absorb the effects of human activities. Thus under the

heading ―what is to be sustained,‖ the board identified three

major categories—nature, life support systems, and

community—as well as intermediate categories for each,

such as Earth, environment, and cultures. Drawing from the

surveyed literature, the board found that most commonly,

emphasis was placed on life support systems, which

defined nature or environment as a source of services for

the utilitarian life support of humankind. The study of

ecosystem services has strengthened this definition over

time. In contrast, some of the sustainable development

literature valued nature for its intrinsic value rather than its

utility for human beings. There were also parallel demands

to sustain cultural diversity, including livelihoods , groups,

and places that constitute distinctive and threatened

communit ies.

Similarly, there were three quite dis tinct ideas about what

should be developed: people, economy, and society. Much

of the early literature focused on economic development,

with productive sectors providing employment, desired

consumption, and wealth. More recently, attention has

shifted to human development, including an emphasis on

values and goals, such as increased life expectancy,

education, equity, and opportunity. Finally, the Board on

Sustainable Development also identified calls to develop

society that emphasized the values of security and well-

being of national states, regions, and institutions as well as

the social capital of relat ionships and community ties.

There was ready agreement in the literature that sustainable

development implies linking what is to be sustained with

what is to be developed, but here, too, the emphasis has

often differed from extremes of ―sustain only‖ to ―develop

mostly‖ to various forms of ―and/or.‖ Similarly, the t ime

period of concern, ambiguously described in the standard

definit ion as ―now and in the future,‖ has differed widely.

It has been defined from as little as a generation—when

almost everything is sustainable—to forever— when surely

nothing is sustainable.

IV. DIMENSIONS AND GOALS OF ENVIRONMENTALLY

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The most commonly accepted understanding of

environmentally sustainable development (ESD) is

encapsulated by the Brundtland definition: ‗meeting the

needs of present generations without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs‘. It is

recognised that meeting essential needs requires economic

growth and equity facilitated by ‗political systems that

secure effective citizen participation in decision-making‘.

ESD has several dimensions implying different types of

needs: economic, social, polit ical and ecological.

Economic dimensions: Economic needs such as adequate

livelihood and productive assets, and systems, and how

these interact with the environment.

Social and cultural dimensions: Social and cultural needs

and systems, e.g. health, education, shelter, equity, cultural

institutions and norms, and their relat ionship with the

environment.

Political dimensions: Political needs (ability to participate

in decision-making processes) and systems, and how they

influence the environment.

Ecological dimensions: The maintenance of ecosystems

and the natural resource base.

However despite the mult i-d imensional nature of ESD

there is a common goal: development that enhances rather

than depletes environmental capital or assets. The

environmental cap ital can be div ided into three broad

types:

The ‗natural sink‘ capacity of local and global systems to

absorb or break down organic wastes and absorb gases

without adverse effects on climate or the stratospheric

ozone layer;

The finite stock of non-renewable resources, e.g. fossil

fuels and other minerals. Bio logical d iversity, one key

part of environmental capital, might also be considered a

non-renewable resource;

Renewable resources such as crops and trees which are

renewable only within finite limits set by the ecosystem

within which they grow. Fresh water resources are also

fin ite; in the case of aquifers, human use often exceeds

their natural rate of recharge and as such is

unsustainable.

VI. ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

While planning for sustainable development of the towns,

we should also take into account the factor of climate

change. Explain ing implications of climate change for

sustainable development the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change notes. One of the greatest challenges that

the world is facing today is climate change. Climate change

is the variation in the earth‘s global climates over time. It

involves changes in the variability or average state of the

atmosphere over durations ranging from decades to

millions of years. These changes can be caused by dynamic

process on earth, external forces including variations in

sunlight intensity and more recently by human activities.

Human influences can be by increase in CO2 levels due to

combustion of fossil fuels, aerosols, cement manufacture

etc. Other factors like ozone depletion, animal agriculture

and deforestation also change climate. The effect of climate

change can be found on among other things, on rising sea

level that may accelerate coastal erosion, on increasing

temperature, on increase in intensity of natural disaster, and

very importantly on vector borne diseases. There has been

an increasing trend in the annual mean temperature in

India. In recent decades the east coast has been

experiencing fewer rainy days while the northwest has been

experiencing heavy summer monsoon. There have also

been some ext reme climatic events like heat wave, intense

rain, floods and droughts in India. Researchers have

documented the increase in frequency of hot days and

multip le-day heat waves in the past century. There has been

record rainfall in Mumbai, India on 26 to 27 July 2005,

which led to loss of large numbers of lives. Consecutive

droughts between 2000 and 2002 caused crop failures,

mass starvation and affected millions of people in Orissa.

Also, increased water stress poses to be a major prob lem

for India. Accelerated glacier melt is likely to cause

increase in the number and severity of glacial melt -related

floods, slope destabilisation and a decrease in river flows as

glaciers recede. The researchers have predicted that with

the current trend in the melt of g laciers, the Ganga, Indus,

Brahmaputra and other rivers could likely become seasonal

rivers in the near future and affect the lives of people

residing around them.

Thus, it is likely that climate change will hamper

sustainable development of India as it increases the

pressures on natural resources and the environment

associated with rapid urbanisation, industrialisation and

economic development. In order to reduce the effect of

climate change, we need to include climate-proofing

concepts in national development initiat ives. Urban areas

mostly face problems of air quality pollution, green house

gases, and unsustainable consumption and of inadequate

sanitation and water supply. Thus translated into policy

initiat ives, environmental sustainability of urban form

should aim at energy efficiency in t ransport and buildings,

optimal planning solutions in terms of locations, distances

and spaces, which will reduce air and noise pollution. It

should also aim at sustainable management of sanitation

and water supply, promote equity in provision of services

and of course reduce deforestation. All these concerns,

questions and initiatives about sustainable environment and

climate change have resulted in experiments and debates

over city forms that are sustainable. Before discussing the

relevant city forms it would be pertinent to discuss the

sustainable management of urban basic services and the

inefficiency in the land policy in India and its implications

for sustainable city form and development in India, which

is done in the next part.

VII. CONCLUSION

Energy is a basic necessity for survival and a critical factor

affecting economic development and employment. Energy

crisis has drawn attention of planners, on the impact of

energy costs on economic growth, industrial production,

employment, etc. When development takes place keeping

environmental consideration in mind we follow the concept

―sustainable development‖. But unfortunately short-sighted

developmental planning and overlook over environmental

damages has severely affected the ecological balance of the

region making the very existence of Planet earth unstable.

Apart from that, Climate change is posing a challenge to

the world and it has the potential to affect the economies,

rich and poor both. This is likely to affect the water supply

and ecosystems among other things. Climate change would

affect the poor of the world more because they are more

vulnerable and does not have the means to protect

themselves against the vagaries of extreme climat ic

conditions. There are three main issues here, which are

meet ing the deficiencies in services, how to manage the

services in an environment friendly way and the need to

make them more equitable. So, all of them should consider

economic, social and environmental aspects of

development.

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Performance And Emission Characteristics Of Different

Biodiesels

A Review Ankit Gupta

1,

Mayank Bhardwaj2

1Assistant Professor Mechanical Engg. Deptt. K.S.Vira CEM Bijnor

2 Mechanical Engg. Deptt. K.S.Vira CEM Bijnor

1 ankitgupta510@gmail.com

2luck.bhardwaj35@gmail.com

Abstract- As a renewable, sustainable and alternative fuel

for compression ignition engines, biodiesel in place of diesel

has been increasingly fueled to study its effects on engine

performances and emissions in the recent a decade. The scientists and researchers conducted the test, using different

types of raw and refined oils. These experiments with raw

biodiesel as fuel did not show the satisfactory results, when

they used the raw biodiesel. These biodiesel create the some

problem as injector choking and piston ring solder. A vast majority of scientists mixed the transesterified biodiesel oil

with diesel with different ratios. The blends of biodiesel with

small content in place of petroleum diesel can help in

controlling air pollution and easing the pressure on scarce

resources without significantly sacrificing engine power and economy. Moreover, the biodiesel fuel is environment

friendly, produces much less NOx and HC and absolutely no

Sox and no increase in CO2 at global level. In this work,

reports about biodiesel published by highly rated journals in

scientific indexes.

Keywords- Biodiesel, Performance, Emission, NOx, BSFC

I. INTRODUCTION

Biofuels made from agricultural products reduce the

dependence on oil imports and support local agricultural

industries, while offering serious benefits in terms of

sustainability, reduced pollutant and greenhouse gas

emissions, and increased energy diversity and economic

security [1]. The resources of petroleum as fuel are

dwindling day by day and increasing demand of fuels, as

well as increasingly stringent regulations, pose a

challenge to science and technology. With the

commercialization of bioenergy, it has provided an

effective way to fight against the problem of petroleum

scarce and the influence on environment. Biodiesel can be

one of the best alternatives. It is made from the oils of

various types of oilseed crops like sunflower, palm,

cottonseed, rapeseed, soybean and peanut. The use of

biodiesel is almost as old as diesel engine itself. Rodulf

Diesel patented his engine in 1892 and introduced the first

diesel engine intended to run on vegetable oil. In 1900 he

ran the engine on peanut oil for several hours

successfully. In 1912, he predicted that in future the

vegetable oil will be a fuel like diesel oil [2]. Biodiesel, as

an alternative fuel of diesel, is described as fatty acid

methyl or ethyl esters from vegetable oils or an imal fats.

It is renewable, b iodegradable and oxygenated. The

primary cause is a lack of new knowledge about the

influence of biodiesel on diesel engines. For example, the

reduce of engine power for biodiesel, as well as the

increase of fuel consumption, is not as much as

anticipated. As compared to diesel the advantages of

application of biodiesel are higher the cetane number,

better lubricity, absence of aromatic, less tailpipe

emission, higher flash point and inbuilt oxygen[3].

Advantages of biodiesel compared to diesel include

reduction of most exhaust emissions, biodegradability,

higher flash point, inherent lubricity and domestic orig in.

Several researchers reported that high viscosity and low

volatility of pure vegetable oil or b iodiesel reduces fuel

atomizat ion and increase's fuel spray penetration and

lower spray cone angle [4].The objective of the current

study is to investigate the best use of biodiesel instead of

diesel fuel.

II. PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS

CHARACTERISTICS OF BIODIESEL

The performance parameters such as power output,

specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency along

with tail pipe emissions like Carbon monoxide (CO),

Hydrocarbon (HC), Nitrogen oxides (NOx). Part iculate

matter (PM), smoke of different biodiesels had been

reviewed.

Palm oil

The palm oil is very frequently used in Malaysia as B5 as

a biodiesel fuel. The iodine value of the oil is slightly

greater than that of pure diesel. The viscosity is 3.5–5 and

specific gravity 0.86–0.9; which is acceptable for

biodiesel. However it works very pleasantly when it is

used in the blend form with diesel oil. [5].

Mohamed et al. [6] performed experiments by using raw

palm oil instead of diesel oil on four cylinder, four stroke

direct injection diesel engine. The results show that the

engine brake power, torque and brake specific fuel

consumption when using crude palm oil (CPO) and diesel

oil mixture are comparable with those when using

ordinary diesel fuel o il under various operating

conditions. Under light load operation, the CPO–diesel

mixture suffered a loss of fuel efficiency and increased

CO emissions relative to the diesel system. Sapaun et al.

[7] reported that palm oil, b lends of palm oil and diesel

fuel, and 100% diesel fuel. Short-term tests using palm oil

fuels showed no signs of adverse combustion chamber

wear, increase in carbon deposits, or lubricating oil

contamination. Prateepchaikul and Apichato [8] made

experiments with refined palm o il and diesel oil in a small

single cylinder in-d irect inject ion diesel engine more than

2000 h. They find that during the 1000 h of operation the

specific fuel consumption of the engine fueled by refined

palm oil was 15–20% higher and the black smoke density

was not significantly different but bad adverse effect on

compression rings of the engine, fueled by refined palm

oil was significantly higher as compared to the use of

pure diesel.

Sunflower Oil

The viscosity of raw sunflower oil is much higher than

diesel fuel about 15 times more than that of diesel oil.

When it is transesterfied, it becomes very close to diesel.

The viscosity of methyl ester processed by using

methanol—is 3.2, while that of diesel is 2.8. The density

of methyl ester is just 4.5% more than diesel. These

properties become nearly the same when the sunflower oil

is used in the form of B20 blend of 20% vegetable oil and

80% diesel. German et al. [9] made an on-farm study

using six John Deere and Case tractors by more than 1300

h of operation. Carbon deposits on the internal engine

components were greater for the tractors fueled with B 50

blend sunflower oil than for those fueled with a B 25

blend sunflower oil. Bruwer et al. [10] studied the use of

sunflower seed oil as a renewable energy source. He run

the tractors with 100% sunflower oil instead of diesel fuel

and reported that an 8% power loss occurred after 1000 h

of operation. The power loss was corrected by replacing

the fuel injectors and injector pump. After 1300 h of

operation, the carbon deposits in the engine were reported

to be equivalent to an engine fueled with 100% diesel

except for the injector tips, which exhibited excessive

carbon build-up. Tahir et al. [11] tested sunflower oil as a

replacement for diesel fuel in agricu ltural tractors. Engine

performance using the sunflower oil was found similar to

that of diesel fuel, but due to relatively lower heating

value of sunflower oil than diesel, more fuel was

consumed and engine produced slightly less power when

it was fueled with sunflower oil. Yarbrough et al. [12]

made experiments using sunflower oils as diesel fuel

replacements. They published their results that raw

sunflower oils were found to be unsuitable fuels, while

refined sunflower oil was found to be satisfactory. The

processing of sunflower oils is required to degumm and

dewax, even if the vegetable oils were blended with diesel

fuel, to prevent the failure. Biofuel industries in their

report entitled ‗Sunflower Biodiesel‘ sunflower oil is an

environmentally friendly alternative fuel. It reduces

significantly the harmfu l exhaust emissions. There is a

reduction of 12.6% CO2, 11% HC, 18% part iculates and

15% air toxics [b iofuel industries] [13]. Rokopouluset.al.

[14] for effect of blending for sunflower and cottonseed

oil on CO emission lower than the diesel and cotton seed

biodiesel produces little lower CO emission than the

diesel and cotton seed bio diesel produces little lower CO

emission than sunflower.

Cottonseed Oil

The cottonseed oil is abundantly produced in Pakistan.

The properties of methyl ester are also very much similar

to diesel, particularly, when it is used in the form of B20.

The viscosity of cottonseed oil is 3.2 and density is 0.9.

These properties are comparable to d iesel. However the

iodine value (IV) of the oil is higher than diesel, so the oil

is relatively less stable and more susceptible to oxidation.

International Harvester Company [15] reported that

cottonseed oil and diesel fuel blends behaved like

petroleum-based fuels in short-term performance and

emissions tests. The experimental fuels performed

reasonably well when standards of judgment were power,

fuel consumption, emissions, etc. However, engine

durability was an issue during extensive use of these fuel

blends because of carbon deposits and fueling system

problems. Aydin et al. [16] reported that the torque was

decreased with the increase in CSOME (cottonseed oil

methyl ester) in the blends (B5 B20 B50 B75 B100) due

to higher viscosity and lower heating value of CSOME.

Rapeseed Oil

The flash point of rapeseed oil is 220 1C, which is much

higher than that of diesel. It makes the ignit ion relat ively

difficult, but the transportation and handling is much

safer. The calorific value is 10–15% less in comparison to

diesel, but because of higher density the volumetric

content of heat value is nearly about the same as that of

diesel. Sims et al. [17] indicated that vegetable oils,

particularly rapeseed oil, could be used as a replacement

for diesel fuel. According to his results, the initial short-

term engine tests showed that a 50% vegetable oil fuel

blend had no adverse effects. While in long-term tests

they encountered injector pump failure and cold starting

problems were also noted. Carbon deposits on

combustion chamber components were found to be

approximately the same as that found in engines operated

on 100% diesel fuel. They concluded that rapeseed oil

had great potential as a fuel substitute, but that further

testing was required. Hazar and Aydin [18] studied two

fuel blends with mixture o f 20 and 50% rapeseed oil in

diesel fuel in a CI engine to investigate the effects of

preheated fuel on engine performance and emission. The

tests showed that the power increment for the blends

remains lower as compared to diesel fuel. Although the

mass of fuel consumptions for blends were higher than

those of diesel preheating reduced mass of fuel

consumption. NOx increased with preheating and increase

in percentage SVO in the blends. Emissions of CO and

smoke decreased with preheating. Labeckas and

Slavinskas [19] have presented the comparative bench

testing results of a naturally aspirated, 4-stroke, four

cylinders, water cooled, direct in jection diesel engine

operating on diesel fuel and cold pres sed rapeseed oil.

Operating with rapeseed oil, at full load condition, test

results revealed that the BSFC at the maximum torque

and rated power was higher than that for diesel fuel by a

value of 12.2 and 12.8%.

Rubberseed oil

The availability of rubber seed is about 30 thousand MT

per year in India. Rubber seed kernel constitutes of 50–

60% of the seed and about 40–50% of pale yellow o il.

The viscosity of cottonseed oil is 4.32mm2/s and density

is 882.8 kg/m3. Ramadhas et al. [20] carried out a series

of tests on a constant speed (1500 rpm), 4-stroke, d irect

injection, water cooled, single cylinder, CI engine with

blends of rubber seed oil and diesel as fuel. Highest

thermal efficiency of the engine was observed with

blend having 20% rubber seed oil, while blend with 40%

rubber seed oil emitted lowest smoke. SFC for rubber

seed oil was higher than that of diesel.

Ramadhas et al. [21] reported 1% lower BTE, 12% more

fuel consumption for biodiesel compared to diesel in the

test conducted with rubber seed oil, rubber seed oil

biodiesel and its blend on a 4-stroke, direct in jection,

naturally aspirated single cylinder d iesel engine. The

reduction in CO and smoke density in exhaust gas was

reported to increase with increasing concentration of

biodiesel in the blend.

Karanja Oil

The growth of karanja tree is fast and it can reach up to a

height of 40 ft. Karanja belongs to humid and

subtropical environments; however, it can thrive in areas

having an annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 2500 mm.

The seed oil has a high content of triglycerides. The

viscosity of cottonseed oil is 9.6mm2/s and density is

885 kg/m3. Srivastava and Verma [22] have shown that

methyl ester of karanja oil have slightly reduced thermal

efficiency as compared to diesel. The maximum thermal

efficiency reported for methyl ester of karanja oil was

about 24.87% compared to 30.59% for d iesel. Agarwal

and Rajamanoharan [23] have conducted experiment to

investi- gate the performance and emission

characteristics of a CI engine fuelled with karan ja oil and

its blends (10, 20, 50 and 75%) besides diesel with and

without preheating/pre-conditioning. The emitted smoke

from preheated lower blends as well as unheated lower

blends was almost similar to that of diesel fuel, while for

the same blends HC emission was lower. The emission

of NOx from all blends with and without preheating

was lower than diesel at all load conditions.

Mahua oil

Mahua oil (MO) is non-edible oil which is widely

available in India and neighbouring countries. The

density and viscosity of mahua methyl ester were

observed to be about 4mm2/s. Agarwal et al. [24]

investigated the performance and emis - sion

characteristics of linseed oil, mahua oil, rice bran oil and

LOME and their blends in a stationary single cylinder, 4-

stroke diesel engine and compared it with diesel. The

results show that 30% mahua oil b lend was not only

most thermally efficient but also provided marginally

better BSEC than other oil b lends. However, smoke

density was higher for mahua blends compared to diesel

at lower loads. Puhan et al. [25] have tested mahua oil

ethyl ester (MOEE) in a four stroke naturally aspirated

direct inject ion diesel engine and reported an increase in

BSFC and a slight increase in BTE for MOEE compared

to diesel. The emission of carbon monoxide, hydro-

carbon, oxides of nitrogen and smoke were decreased by

58, 63, 12 and 70% respectively. Raheman and Ghadge

[26] tested different blends of methyl ester of mahua oil

(MOME) in a Ricardo E6 engine, the results enunciate

that reduction in exhaust emissions and BSFC together

with increased BP, BTE made the blend of biodiesel

(B20) a suitable alternative fuel for d iesel.

Soybean oil

Biodiesel from soybean oil is highly unsaturated and

highly prone to oxidatione specially at higher temperature

[27]. Viscosity, surface tension and specific gravity of the

soybean oil methyl ester are relatively higher than diesel

[28]. Osborne et al. [29] have shown in their experiments,

with line-haul locomotive with 3280 kW rated traction

power, that biodiesel reduced rated power with 7%

increase in fuel consumption. Pereira et al. [30]

experimented successfully with soybean biodiesel and its

blends with diesel for electrical energy generation. The

power generated reported to be same for biodiesel (1593

W) and diesel (1584 W ), while fuel consumption

increased by 4% with biodiesel. However, the lowest

consumption of fuel was obtained with the mixture B20

(20% soybean biodiesel and 80% diesel). Moscherosch et

al. [31] demonstrated 15% increase in BSFC, reduction in

NOx, emissions by approximately 16% for each start of

injection (SOI) test point with soy methyl ester compared

to diesel on a turbocharged direct injection diesel engine.

The reported ignition delay for B100 and B20 were on

average 8.4% longer than the ignition delay for the diesel

at an intake oxygen concentration of 16%.

Coconut oil

Coconut oil belongs to lauric oil group of vegetable oils.

More than 90% of fatty acids of coconut oil are saturated

and the iodine value is around 7–12 [32]. Refique and

Ahmed [33] utilised three different methods to improve

the combustion characteristics- incorporating a copper

perforated medium beneath, using coconut oil directly as

an additive to diesel and finally preheating the coconut

oil blended diesel. The analysis shows that preheated

(50%) coconut oil blends were found to be better in

terms of both emission and performance. Singh et al.

[34] tested hybrid fuels consisting of coconut oil,

aqueous ethanol and a surfactant (butan-1-ol) as a fuel in

a direct inject ion diesel engine. The results revealed that

the engine efficiency of the hybrid fuels was similar to

diesel and the SFC of the hybrid fuels was higher in

comparison to diesel.

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engines. SAE-Australia. In: Paper presented at the national conference on fuels from crops of the Society of Automotive Engineers, Australia,

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[19] Labeckas G, Slavinskas S. Performance of direct -injection off-road diesel engine on rapeseed oil. Renewable Energy 2006;31:849–63.

[20] Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S, Muraleedharan C. Characterization and

effect of using rubber seed oil as fuel in the compression ignition engines. Renewable Energy 2005;30 795–03.

[21] Ramadhas AS, Muraleedharan C, Jayaraj S. Performance and emission evaluation of a diesel engine fueled with methyl esters of

rubber seed oil. Renewable Energy 2005;30:1789–800. [22] Srivastava PK, Verma M. Methyl ester of karanja oil as an alternative

renewable source energy. Fuel 2008;87:1673–7. [23] Agarwal AK, Rajamanoharan K. Experimental investigations of

performance and emissions of Karanja oil and its blends in a single cylinder agricultural diesel engine. Applied Energy 2009;86:106–12.

[24] Agarwal D, Kumar L, Agarwal AK. Performance evaluation of a vegetable oil fuelled compression ignition engine. Renewable Energy

2008;33(6):1147–56.

[25] Puhan, Vedaraman, Sankaranarayanan G. Ram BVB. Performance

and emission study of mahua oil ethyl ester in a four stroke natural aspirated direct injection diesel engine. Renewable Energy 2005;30: 1269–78.

[26] Raheman H, Ghadge SV. Performance of compression ignition

engine with mahua (Madhuca indica) biodiesel. Fuel2007;86:2568–73. [27] Canakci M, Monyem A, Gerpen JV. Accelerated oxidation process in

biodiesel. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers 2005;42:1565–72.

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[29] Osborne D, Fritz S, Glenn D. The effects of biodiesel fuel blends on exhaust emissions from a general electric tier 2 line-haul locomotive. Transactions of ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 2011;133 102803–1–7.

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Performance Characteristics of Induction Motor

During Transient (Starting) Condition Using

SIMULINK 1Rohitash Singh Pal

2 Lokesh Kumar Agrawal

1Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering Deptt, K.S. Vira CEM, Bijnor

2Assistant Professor, Electrical Engineering Deptt, K.S. Vira CEM, Bijnor

1rohit_singh81@rediffmail.com 2lokesh7575@rediffmail.com

Abstract- Induction motors are the most widely

used electrical motors due to their reliability, low

cost and robustness. However, induction motors

do not inherently have the capability of variable

speed operation. Due to this reason, earlier dc

motors were applied in most of the electrical

drives. The analysis of the performance

characteristic of the induction motor during

transient condition such as starting of the motor is

necessary in designing frame of reference. This

paper presents a step by step Simulink

implementation of an induction machine to obtain

the performance parameters of the motor during

the starting.

I. INTRODUCTION

Be it domestic applicat ion or industry,

motion control is required everywhere. The systems

that are employed for this purpose are called drives.

Such a system, if makes use of electric motors is

known as an electrical drive. In electrical drives, use

of various sensors and control algorithms is done to

control the speed of the motor using suitable speed

control methods. The basic block diagram of an

electrical drive is shown below:

Figure 1: Block diagram of an electrical drive

Earlier only dc motors were employed for drives

requiring variable speeds due to ease of their speed

control methods. The conventional methods of speed

control of an induction motor were either too

expensive or too inefficient thus restricting their

application to only constant speed drives. However,

modern trends and development of speed control

methods of an induction motor have increased the use

of induction motors in electrical d rives extensively.

In this paper, we have studied the various

performance parameters such as stator current, rotor

current, speed and electromagnetic torque with the

speed torque characterstic of 3-Φ induction motor

during the transient using Simulink Model.

Based on the construction of the rotor, a 3-Φ

induction motor can be categorized into two Types:

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

2. Wound Rotor or Slip Ring Induction Motor

The stator of both types of motors consists of a three

phase balanced distributed winding with each phase

mechanically separated in space by 120 degrees from

the other two phase windings. This gives rise to a

rotating magnetic field when current flows through

the stator. In squirrel cage IM, the rotor consists of

longitudinal conductor bars which are shorted at ends

by circular conducting rings. Whereas, the wound

rotor IM has a 3-Φ balanced distributed winding even

on the rotor side with as many number of poles as in

the stator winding.

Considering the three phases to be balanced,

the analysis of a 3-Φ induction motor can be done by

analyzing only one of the phases. The per phase

equivalent circuit of an induction motor is shown

below:

Power

Modulator Source

Motor

Control Unit

Sensing

Unit

Load

Input

Comm

and

Figure 2: Per phase approximates equivalent circuit of a 3-Φ induction motor

R2 and X2 are the stator referred values of rotor

resistance R1 and rotor reactance X1. Slip is defined

by

s = (ωs – ωm) / ωs (1)

where, ωm and ωs are rotor and synchronous speeds,

respectively.

Further,

ωs = 120f /p rpm (2)

Where f and p are supply frequency and number of

poles, respectively.

Since, stator impedance drop is generally

negligible compared to terminal voltage V, the

equivalent circuit can be simplified to that shown

below From the equivalent circuit as shown in fig 2

the rotor current can be given as

XXR

R

VI

rS

r

S

0

2

jS

(3)

Power t ransferred to air gap (air gap power or rotor

input power)

S

rRIPg

2

23 (4)

Rotor copper loss is given by

RIP r

2

2cu3 (5)

The electrical power converted in to the mechanical

power

PPP cugmech

Or

S

S13 RIP r

2

2mech

(6)

Electromagnetic Torque Developed by the Motor

m

mech

e

PT (7)

Therefore

ωRI

Ts

r

2

2

e S

3 (8)

Substituting the value of I2 in equation 8, we get

XX

s

RR

RV

T

rsr

sS

S

3

2

2

s

r

2

0

e

(9)

Differentiating equation (9) with respect to s and

equating to zero gives the slip corresponding to

maximum torque

XXR

RS

rs

22

S

r

m

(10)

Substituting the equation (10) in equation (9), we will

get the maximum value of electromagnetic torque as

]])XX(R[R[

V3T

2

rs

2

sr

2

0max

(11)

II. INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL

A model of a 3-Φ induction motor was setup

in MATLAB SIMULINK and the rotor and stator

currents, speed, electromagnetic torque and the

Torque-Speed characteristics were observed .The

SIMULINK model is shown below

Figure 3: SIMULINK Model of 3-Φ Induction

Figure 4: Internal Structure of SIMULINK Model of a 3-Φ Induction Motor

III .SIMULINK RESULTS

Induction motor of 50hp was in this

simulated model. The results of the simulation are

given for the induction motor with the following

specifications:

Hp = 50 VL = 460 f = 60

Rs = 0.09961 Ls = 0.000867 P = 4

Rr = 0.05837 Lr = 0.000867 J =

0.4

Lm = 0.03039 rpm = 1710

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

-100

-50

0

50

100

150

200

Speed (Rad/Sec)

Torq

ue (

N-M

)

X Y Plot

Figure 5: Speed Torque Characterstic 3-Φ induction motor

0 .6 0 .8 1 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6 1 .8 2 2 .2-4 0 0

-3 0 0

-2 0 0

-1 0 0

0

1 0 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

4 0 0

5 0 0

Time (Sec)

Sta

tor

Curr

ent

(Am

p)

Figure 6: Stator Current of 3-Φ induction motor

0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3-4 0 0

-3 0 0

-2 0 0

-1 0 0

0

1 0 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

4 0 0

Time (Sec)

Roto

r C

urr

ent

(Am

p)

Figure 7: Rotor Current of 3-Φ induction motor

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 00

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

1 2 0

1 4 0

1 6 0

1 8 0

Time (Sec)

Speed

(R

ad/S

ec)

Figure 8: Speed of 3-Φ induction motor

0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5-1 0 0

-5 0

0

5 0

1 0 0

1 5 0

2 0 0

Time (Sec)

Ele

ctro

mag

net

ic T

orque

(N-M

)

Figure 9: Electromagnetic Torque of a 3-Φ induction motor

IV. CONCLUSION

In this paper, an implementation and

transient modeling of a three-phase induction motor

using Matlab/Simulink are presented in a step-by-

step manner. The model was tested a rating of

induction motor and results were satisfactory.

This concludes that the Matlab/Simulink is

a reliab le and sophisticated way to analyze and

predict the behavior of induction motors under

transient condition.

References

[1] Gopal K. Dubey, ―Fundamental of Electrical Drives‖, Narosa Publication House, Second Edition, 2011 [2] A. E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. And Stephan D. Umans,

―Electrical Machinery‖, McGraw-Hills Publications, Year 2002 [3] ―IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction Motors and enerators‖, volume 112, issue 1996 of IEEE, by IEEE

Power Engineering Society [4] Scott Wade, Matthew W. Dunnigan, and Barry W. Williams, ―Modelling and Simulation of Induction Machine Vector Control with Rotor Resistance Identification‖, IEEE transactions on power

electronics, vol. 12, no. 3, may 1997. [5] D.W. Novotney, et al (editor), ―Introduction to Field Orientation and High Performance AC drives‖, IEEE IAS tutorial

course, 1986. [6] Ramon Blasco Blasco Gimenez, ―High Performance Sensorless Vector Control of Induction Motor Drives‖, The University of

Nottingham, December 1995.

Search Engine Optimization: Technical Support in

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) & In

Speculative Area.

Arunjay Kumar1

Nidhi Bishnoi2

1Assistant Professor, C.S. & Engg. Deptt, K.S.Vira CEM, Bi jnor

2Associate Professor & HOD, C.S. & Engg. Deptt, K.S.Vira CEM, Bi jnor

arunjay.shri04@gmail.com

bishnoi_nidhi@rediffmail.com

Abstract- Search Engine Optimization (SEO) is an art of making a

website to achieve higher position in a search engine when searchers

type in their queries. While looking for any content on the web,

searchers enter their queries in the search engines (Google, Yahoo,

MSN – to name the top 3) of their choice and submit their queries.

This paper introduces the concept of speculative search engine

optimization (2SEO ). And Support in Information Communication

Technology(ICT) based on some recently conducted studies,

guidelines are provided on how to optimize scholarly literature for

speculative search engines in general and for any other search engine

(like:-Google Scholar) in particular. I am trying to discuss about

techniques and concepts for SEO to improve their articles.

Keywords - ICT, Speculative search engines, Crawl, Google Scholar,

ranking algorithm, search engine optimization, SEO , Fresh site ,

Indexer.

I. INTRODUCTION

The plentiful content of the World-Wide Web is

useful to millions. Some simply browse the Web through

entry points such as Yahoo. But many in formation seekers

use a search engine to begin their Web activity. In this

case, users submit a query, typically a list of keywords, and

receive a list of Web pages that may be relevant, typically

pages that contain the keywords. In this paper we discuss

the challenges in building good search engines, and

describe some of the techniques that are useful. Many of

the search engines use well-known informat ion retrieval

(IR) algorithms and techniques. However, IR algorithms

were developed for relatively small and coherent

collections such as news- paper articles or book catalogs in

a (physical) library. The Web, on the other hand, is

massive, much less coherent, changes more rapidly, and is

spread over geographically distributed computers. This

requires new techniques, or extensions to the old ones, to

deal with the gathering of the informat ion, to make index

structures scalable updateable, and to improve the

discriminating ability of search engines. For the last item,

discriminating ability, it is possible to exploit the linkage

among Web pages there is no ques tion that the Web is huge

and challenging to deal with. Several studies have

estimated the size of the Web and while they report slightly

different numbers, most of them agree that over a billion

pages are available. Given that the average size of a Web

page is around 5{10K bytes, just the textual data amounts

to at least tens of terabytes. The growth rate of the Web is

even more dramatic. According to, the size of the Web has

Doubled in less than two years, and this growth rate is

projected to continue for the next two years. Aside from

these newly created pages, the existing pages are

continuously updated. For example, in our own study of

over half a million pages over 4 months, we found that

about 23% of pages changed daily. In the .com domain

40% of the pages changed daily, and the half-life o f pages

is about 10 days (in 10 days half of the pages are gone, i.e.,

their URLs are no longer valid). We also report that a

Poisson process is a good model for Web page changes.

Later in Section 2, we will show how some of these results

can be used to improve search engine quality. In addition to

size and rapid change, the interlinked nature of the Web

sets it apart from many other collections. Several studies

aim to understand how the Web's linkage is structured and

how that structure can be modeled. One recent study, for

example, suggests that the link structure of the Web is

somewhat like a \bow-tie". That is, about 28% of the pages

constitute a strongly connected core (the center of the bow

tie). About 22% form one of the tie's loops: these are pages

that can be reached from the core but not vice versa. The

other loop consists of 22% of the pages that can reach the

core, but cannot be reached from it. (The remaining nodes

can neither reach the core nor can be reached from the

core.) to better identify the truly relevant pages.

Before we describe search engine techniques, it is

useful to understand how a Web search engine is typically

put together. Figure 1 shows such an engine schematically.

Every engine relies on a crawler module to provide the

grist for its operation (shown on the left in Figure 1).

Crawlers are s mall programs that `browse' the Web on the

search engine's behalf, similarly to how a human user

would follow links to reach different pages. The programs

are given a starting set of URLs, whose pages they retrieve

from the Web. The crawlers ext ract URLs appearing in the

retrieved pages, and give this information to the crawler

control module. This module determines what links to visit

next, and feeds the links to visit back to the crawlers.

(Some of the functionality of the crawler control module

may be implemented by the crawlers themselves.) The

crawlers also pass the retrieved pages into a page

repository. Crawlers continue visiting the Web, until local

resources, such as storage, are exhausted.

This basic algorithm is modified in many

variations that give search engines different levels of

coverage or topic bias. For example, crawlers in one engine

might be biased to visit as many sites as possible, leaving

out the pages that are buried deeply within each site. The

crawlers in other engines might specialize on sites in one

specific domain, such as governmental pages. The crawl

control module is responsible for directing the crawling

operation. Once the search engine has been through at least

one complete crawling cycle,

The crawl control module may be informed by

several indexes that were created during the earlier

crawl(s). The crawl control module may, for example, use a

previous crawl's link graph (the structure index in Figure 1)

to decide which links the crawlers should exp lore, and

which links they should ignore. Crawl control may also use

feedback from usage patterns to guide the crawling process

(connection between the query engine and the crawl control

module in Figure 1).

Figure 1: General search engine architecture

Section 2 will examine crawling operations in more detail.

The indexer module extracts all the words from each page,

and records the URL where each word occurred. The result

is a generally very large \lookup table" that can provide all

the URLs that point to pages where a given word occurs

(the text index in Figure 1). The table is of course limited to

the pages that were covered in the crawling process. As

mentioned earlier, text indexing of the Web poses special

difficult ies, due to its size, and its rapid rate of change. In

addition to these quantitative challenges, the Web calls for

some special, less common kinds of indexes. For example,

the indexing module may also create a structure index,

which reflects the links between pages. Such indexes would

not be appropriate for tradit ional text collections that do not

contain links. The collection analysis module is responsible

for creating a variety of other indexes. The utility index in

Figure 1 is created by the collection analysis module. For

example, utility indexes may provide access to pages of a

given length, pages of a certain \importance," or pages with

some number of images in them. The collection analysis

module may use the text and structure indexes

When creating utility indexes. Section 4 will examine

indexing in more detail. During a crawling and indexing

run, search engines must store the pages they retrieve from

the Web. The page repository in Figure 1 represents this

|possibly temporary |collection. Somet imes search engines

maintain a cache of the pages they have visited beyond the

time required to build the index. This cache allows them to

serve out result pages very quickly, in addition to providing

basic search facilities. Some systems, such as the Internet

Archive], have aimed to maintain a very large number of

pages for permanent archival purposes. Storage at such a

scale again requires special consideration.

The query engine module is responsible for

receiving and filling search requests from users. The engine

relies heavily on the indexes, and sometimes on the page

repository. Because of the Web's size, and the fact that

users typically only enter one or two keywords, result sets

are usually very large. The ranking module therefore has

the task of sorting the results such that results near the top

are the most likely ones to be what the user is looking for.

The query module is of special interest, because Traditional

informat ion retrieval (IR) techniques have run into

selectivity problems when applied without modification to

Web searching: Most traditional techniques rely on

measuring the similarity of query texts with texts in a

collection's documents. The tiny queries over vast

collections that are typical for Web search engines prevent

such similarity based approaches from filtering sufficient

numbers of irrelevant pages out of search results. Search

algorithms that take advantage of the Web's interlinked

nature. When deployed in conjunction with the traditional

IR techniques, these algorithms significantly improve

retrieval precision in Web search scenarios. In the rest of

this article we will describe in more detail the search engine

components we have presented. We will also illustrate

some of the specific challenges that arise in each case, and

some of the techniques that have been developed. Our

paper is not intended to provide a complete survey of

techniques. As a matter of fact, the examples we will use to

illustrate will be drawn mainly from our own work since it

is what we know best. In addition to research at universities

and open laboratories, many \dot-com" companies have

worked on search engines. Unfortunately, many of the

techniques used by dot, coms, and especially the resulting

performance, are kept private behind company walls, or are

`disclosed' in patents whose language only lawyers can

comprehend and appreciate. We therefore believe that the

overview of problems and techniques we provide here can

be of use.

II CRAWLING WEB PAGES

The crawler module (Figure 1) retrieves pages from the

Web for later analysis by the indexing module. As

discussed in the introduction, a crawler module typically

starts o_ with an init ial set of URLs S0. Roughly, it first

places S0 in a queue, where all URLs to be retrieved are

kept and priorit ized. From this queue, the crawler gets a

URL (in some order), downloads the page, extracts any

URLs in the downloaded page, and puts the new URLs in

the queue. This process is repeated until the crawler decides

to stop. Given the enormous size and the change rate of the

Web, many issues arise, including the following:

What pages should the crawler download?

In most cases, the crawler cannot download all

pages on the Web. Even the most comprehensive search

engine currently indexes a small fraction of the entire Web.

Given this fact, it is important for the crawler to carefully

select the pages and to visit \important" pages _rst by

prioritizing the URLs in the queue properly, so that the

fraction of the Web that is visited (and kept up-to-date) is

more meaningful.

How should the crawler refresh pages?

Once the crawler has downloaded a significant

number of pages, it has to start revisiting the downloaded

pages in order to detect changes and Refresh the

downloaded collection. Because Web pages are changing at

very different rates, the crawler needs to carefully decide

what page to revisit and what page to skip, because this

Decision may significantly impact the \freshness" of the

downloaded collection. For example, if a certain page

rarely changes, the crawler may want to revisit the page

less often, in order to visit more frequently changing ones.

How should the load on visited Web sites be minimized?

When the crawler co llects pages from the Web, it

consumes resources belonging to other organizations. For

example, When the crawler downloads page p on site S, the

site needs to retrieve page p from its _le system, consuming

disk and CPU resource. Also, after this retrieval the page

needs to be transferred through the network, which is

another resource, shared by mult iple organizations. The

crawler should minimize its impact on these resources [54].

Otherwise, the administrators of the Web site or a particular

network may complain and sometimes completely block

access by the crawler.

How should the crawling process be parallelized?

Due to the enormous size of the Web, crawlers

often run on multiple machines and download pages in

parallel. Th is parallelization is often necessary in order to

download a large number of pages in a reasonable amount

of time. Clearly these parallel crawlers should be

coordinated properly, so that different crawlers do not visit

the same Web site multiple times, and the adopted crawling

policy should be strictly enforced. The coordination can

incur significant communication overhead, limiting the

number of simultaneous crawlers. In the rest of this section

we discuss the first two issues, page selection and page

refresh, in more detail. We do not discuss load or

parallelization issues, main ly because much less research

has been done on those topics.

III. PAGE SELECTION

As we argued, the crawler may want to download

\important" pages first, so that the downloaded collection is

of high quality. There are three questions that need to be

addressed: the meaning of \importance," how a crawler

operates, and how a crawler \guesses" good pages to visit.

We discuss these questions in turn, using our own work to

illustrate some of the possible techniques.

Importance metrics

Given a Web page P, we can define the

importance of the page in one of the following ways:

Interest Driven. The goal is to obtain pages \of

interest" to a particular user or set of users. So important

pages are those that match the interest of users. One

particular way to define this Notion is through what we call

a driving query. Given a query Q, the importance of page P

is defined to be the \textual similarity‖ between P and Q.

More formally , we compute textual similarity by first

viewing each document (P or Q) as an m-dimensional

vector hw1; : : : ;wni. The term wi in this vector represents

the ith word in the vocabulary. If wi does not appear in the

document, then wi is zero. If it does appear, wi is set to

represent the significance of the word. One common way to

compute the significance wi is to multiply the number of

times the ith word Appears in the document by the inverse

document frequency (idf ) of the ith word. The idf factor is

one divided by the number of times the word appears in the

entire \collection," which in this Case would be the entire

Web. Then we define the similarity between P and Q as a

cosine product between the P and Q vectors. Assuming that

query Q represents the user's interest, this metric shows

how \relevant" P is. We use IS(P) to refer to this particular

importance metric. Note that if we do not use idf terms in

our similarity computation, the importance of a page, IS(P),

can be computed with \local" informat ion, i.e., P and Q.

However, if we use idf terms, then we need global

informat ion. During the crawling process we have not seen

the entire collect ion, so we have to estimate the idf factors

from the pages that have been crawled, or from some

reference idf terms computed at some other time. We use

IS0(P) to refer to the estimated importance of page P,

which is different from the actual importance IS(P), which

can be computed only after the entire Web has been

crawled. Presents another interest-driven approach based

on a hierarchy of topics. Interest is defined by a topic, and

the crawler tries to guess the topic of pages that will be

crawled (by analyzing the link structure that leads to the

candidate pages).

Popularity Driven. Page importance depends on how

\popular" a page is. For instance, one way to define

popularity is to use a page's backlinks count. (We use the

term backlink for links that point to a given page.) Thus a

Web page P's backlinks are the set of all links on pages

other than P, which point to P. When using backlinks as

popularity metric, the importance value of P is the number

of links to P that appear over the entire Web. We use IB(P)

to refer to this importance metric. Intuitively, a page P that

is linked to by many pages is more important than

one that is seldom referenced. Th is type of \citation count"

has been used in bibliometrics to evaluate the impact of

published papers. On the Web, IB(P) is useful for ranking

query results, giving end-users pages that are more likely to

be of general interest. Note that evaluating IB(P) requires

counting backlinks over the entire Web. A crawler may

estimate this value with IB0(P), the number of links to P

that have been seen so far. (The estimate may be inaccurate

early on in a crawl.) IR(P), that can also be used as a

popularity measure.

Location Driven. The IL(P) importance of page P is a

function of its location, not of its contents. If URL u leads

to P, then IL(P) is a function of u. For example, URLs

ending with \.com" may be deemed more useful than URLs

with other endings or URLs containing the string \home"

may be of more interest than other URLs. Another location

metric that is sometimes used considers URLs with fewer

slashes more useful than those with more slashes. Location

driven metrics can be considered a special case of interest

driven ones, but we list them separately because they are

often easy to evaluate. In particular, all the location metrics

we have mentioned here are local since they can be

evaluated simply by looking at the URL u. As stated

earlier, our importance metrics can be combined in various

ways. For example, we may define a metric IC(P) = k1 _

IS(P) + k2 _ IB(P) + k3 _ IL(P), for some constants k1, k2,

k3 and query Q. Th is combines the similarity metric, the

backlink metric and the location metric.

IV. CRAWLER MODELS

Our goal is to design a crawler that if possible vis its high

importance pages before lower ranked ones, for a certain

importance metric. Of course, the crawler will only have

estimated importance values (e.g.,IB0(P)) availab le. Based

on these estimates, the crawler will have to guess the high

importance pages to fetch next. For example, we may

define the quality metric of a crawler in one of the

following two ways:

* Crawl & Stop: Under this model, the crawler C starts at

its initial page P0 and stops after visiting K pages. (K is a

_xed number determined by the number of pages that the

crawler can download in one crawl.) At this point a perfect

crawler would have visited pages R1; : : : ;RK, Where R1

is the page with the highest importance value, R2 is the

next highest, and so on. We call pages R1 through RK the

hot pages. The K pages visited by our real crawler will

contain only M (_ K) pages with rank h igher than or equal

to that of RK. (Note that we need to know the exact rank of

all pages in order to obtain the value M. Clearly, this

estimation may not be possible until we download all pages

and obtain the global image of the Web. We restrict the

entire Web to the pages in the Stanford domain and

estimate the ranks of pages based on this assumption.) Then

we define the performance of the crawler C to be PCS(C) =

(M _ 100)=K. The performance of the ideal crawler is of

course 100%. A crawler that somehow manages to visit

pages entirely at random, and may revisit pages, would

have a Performance of (K _ 100)=T, where T is the total

number of pages in the Web. (Each page visited is a hot

page with probability K=T. Thus, the expected number of

desired pages when the crawler stops is K2=T .).

* Crawl & Stop with Threshold: We again assume that the

crawler visits K pages. However, we are now given an

importance target G, and any page with importance higher

than G is considered hot. Let us assume that the total

number of hot pages is H. Again, we assume that we know

the ranks of all pages and thus can to obtain the value H.

The performance of the crawler, PST (C), is the percentage

of the H hot pages that have been visited when the crawler

stops. If K < H , then an ideal crawler will have

performance (K _ 100)=H. If K _ H, then the ideal crawler

has 100% performance. A purely random crawler that

revisits pages is expected to visit (H=T) _ K hot pages

when it stops. Thus, its performance is (K _ 100)=T . Only

if the random crawler visits all T pages, is its performance

expected to be 100%.

Ordering metrics A crawler keeps a queue of URLs it has

seen during the crawl, and must select from this queue the

next URL to visit. The ordering metric is used by the

crawler for th is selection, i.e ., it selects the URL u such that

the ordering value of u is the highest among all URLs in

the queue. The ordering metric can only use information

seen (and remembered if space is limited) by the crawler.

The ordering metric should be designed with an importance

metric in mind. For instance, if we are searching for high

IB(P) pages, it makes sense to use an IB0(P) as the ordering

metric, where P is the page u points to. However, it might

also make sense to consider an IR0(P), even if our

importance metric is the simpler citation count. In the next

subsection we show why this may be the case. Location

metrics can be used directly for ordering, since the URL of

P directly gives the IL(P) value. However, for similarity

metrics, it is much harder to devise an ordering metric,

since we have not seen P yet. We may be able to use the

text that anchors the URL u as a predictor of the text that P

might contain. Thus, one possible ordering metric is IS(A)

(for some query Q), where A is the anchor text of the URL

u. Reference [23] proposes an approach like this, where not

just the anchor text, but all the text of a page (and \near"

pages) is considered for IS(P).

Page refresh

Once the crawler has selected and downloaded \important"

pages, it has to periodically refresh the downloaded pages,

so that the pages are maintained up-to-date. Clearly there

exist multiple ways to update the pages, and different

strategies will result in different \freshness" of the pages.

For example, consider the following two strategies:

Uniform refresh policy: The crawler revisits all pages at the

same frequency f, regard less of how often they change.

Proportional refreshes policy: The crawler rev isits a page

proportionally more often, as it changes more often. More

precisely, assume that _i is the change frequency of a page

ei, and that fi is the crawler's revisit frequency for ei. Then

the frequency ratio _i=fi is the same for any i. For example,

if page e1 changes 10 times more often than page e2, the

crawler revisits e1 10 times more often than e2. Note that

the crawler needs to estimate _i's for each page, in order to

implement this policy. This estimation can be based on the

change history of a page that the crawler can collect. For

example, if a crawler v isited and downloaded a page p1

every day for a month, and it detected 10 changes, the

crawler may reasonable estimate that _1 is one change

every 3 days.

Freshness metric Intuitively, we consider a collect ion of

pages \fresher" when the collection has more up-to-date

pages For instance, consider two collections, A and B,

containing the same 20 web pages. Then if A maintains10

pages up-to-date on average, and if B has maintains 15 up-

to-date pages, we consider B to be fresher than A. Also, we

have a notion of \age:" even if all pages are obsolete, we

consider collection A \more current" than B, if A was

refreshed 1 day ago, and B was refreshed 1 year ago. Based

on this intuitive notion, we have found the following

definit ions of freshness and age to be useful. (Incidentally,

has a slightly different definition of freshness, but it leads

to results that are analogous to ours.) In the following

discussion, we refer to the pages on the Web that the

crawler monitors as the real-world pages and their local

copies as the local pages.

Freshness: Let S = fe1; : : : ; eNg be the local collection of

N pages. Then we define the freshness of the collection as

follows.

Definition 1 The freshness of a local page ei at time t is

F(ei; t) = (1 if ei is up-to-date at time t

0 otherwise.(By up-to-date we mean that the

content of a local page equals that of its real-world

counterpart.) Then, the freshness of the local collection S at

time t is F(S; t) = 1,N,XN, i=1, F(ei; t):

The freshness is the fraction of the local collection that is

up-to-date. For instance, F(S; t) will be one if all local

pages are up-to-date, and F(S; t) will be zero if all local

pages are out-of-date. Age: To capture \how old" the

collection is, we define the metric age as follows:

Definition 2 The age of the local page ei at time t is A(ei; t)

= ( 0 if ei is up-to-date at time t, t − modi_cation time of ei

otherwise. Then the age of the local collection S is

A(S; t) = 1, N, XN, i=1 A(ei; t):

The age of S tells us the average \age" of the local

collection. For instance, if all real-world pages changed one

day ago and we have not refreshed them since, A(S; t) is

one day. Obviously, the freshness (and age) of the local

collection may change over time. For instance, the

freshness might be 0.3 at one point of time, and it might be

0.6 at another point of time. Because of this possible

fluctuation, we now compute the average freshness over a

long period of time and use this value as the

\representative" freshness of a collection.

Refresh strategy In comparing the page refresh strategies, it

is important to note that crawlers can download/update only

a limited number of pages within a certain period, because

crawlers have limited resources. For example, many search

engines report that their crawlers typically download

several hundred pages per second. (Our own crawler, which

we call the Web Base crawler, typically runs at the rate of

50{100 pages per second.) Depending on the page refresh

strategy; this limited page download resource will be

allocated to different pages in different ways. For example,

the proportional refresh policy will allocate this download

resource proportionally to the page change rate. To

illustrate the issues, consider a very simple example.

Suppose that the crawler maintains a collect ion of two

pages: e1 and e2. Page e1 changes 9 times per day and e2

changes once a day. Our goal is to maximize the freshness

of the database averaged over time. In Figure 3, we

illustrate our simple model. For page e1, one day is split

into 9 intervals, and e1 changes once and only once in each

Interval. However, we do not know exactly when the page

changes within an interval. Page e2 changes once and only

once per day, but we do not know precisely when it

changes. A database with two pages with different change

frequencies because our crawler is a tiny one, assumes that

we can refresh one page per day. Then what page should it

refresh? Should the crawler refresh e1 or should it refresh

e2? To answer this question, we need to compare how the

freshness changes if we pick one page over the other. If

page e2 changes in the middle of the day and if we refresh

e2 right after the change, it will remain up-to-date for the

remain ing half of the day. Therefore, by refreshing page e2

we get 1=2 day \bene_t"(or freshness increase). However,

the probability that e2 changes before the middle of the day

is 1=2, so the \expected benefit" of refreshing e2 is 1=2 _

1=2 day = 1=4 day. By the same reasoning, if we refresh

e1 in the middle of an interval, e1 will remain up-to-date

for the remaining half of the interval (1=18 of the day) with

probability 1=2. Therefore, the expected benefit is 1=2 _

1=18 day = 1=36 day. From this crude estimation, we can

see that it is more effective to select e2 for refresh! Of

course, in practice, we do not know for sure that pages will

change in a given interval. Further- more, we may also

want to worry about the age of data. (In our example, if we

always visit e2, the age of e1 will grow indefinitely.) We

have studied a more realistic scenario, using the Poisson

process model. In part icular, we can mathemat ically prove

that the uniform policy is always superior or equal to the

proportional one, for any number of pages, change

frequencies, and refresh rates, and for both the freshness

and the age metrics, when page changes follow Poisson

processes. We also show how to obtain the optimal refresh

policy (better than uniform or any other), assuming page

changes follow a Poisson process and their change

frequencies are static (i.e., do not change over time). To

illustrate, in Figure 2 we show the refresh frequencies that

maximizes the freshness value for a simple scenario. In this

scenario, the crawler maintains 5 pages with change rates,

1; 2; : : : ; 5 (times/day), respectively, and the crawler can

download 5 pages per day. The graph in Figure 2 shows the

needed refresh frequency of a page (vertical axis) as a

function of its change frequency (horizontal axis), in order

to maximize the freshness of the 5 page collect ion. For

instance, the optimal rev isit frequency for the page that

changes once a day is 1:15 times/day. Notice that the graph

does not monotonically increase over change frequency,

and thus we need to refresh pages less often if the pages

change too often. The pages with change frequency larger

than 2:5 times/day should be refreshed less often than the

ones with change frequency 2nd

times/day. When a certain

page changes too often, and if we cannot maintain it up-to-

date under our resource constraint, it is in fact better to

focus our resource on the pages that we can keep track o f.

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

------------------------------------------------------

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2: change frequency vs. refresh frequency for freshness

optimization

The shape of the graph is the same for any distribution of

change frequencies under the Poisson process model. That

is, the optimal graph for any collect ion of pages S is exactly

the same as Figure 2, except that the graph of S is scaled by

a constant factor from Figure 2. Thus, no matter what the

scenario, pages that change too frequently (relat ive to the

available resources) should be penalized and not visited

very frequently. We can obtain the optimal refresh policy

for the age metric, as described Finally, some of the

informat ion on the Web is now \hidden" behind a search

interface, where a query must be submitted or a form filled

out. Current crawlers cannot generate queries or fill out

forms, so they cannot visit the \dynamic" content. This

problem will get worse over time, as more and more sites

generate their Web pages from databases.

V. CONCLUSION

In this section, we discussed the challenges that a crawler

encounters when it downloads large collections of pages

from the Web. In particular, we studied how a crawler

should select and refresh the pages that it retrieves and

maintains. There are, of course, still many open issues. For

example, it is not clear how a crawler and a Web site can

negotiate/agree on a right crawling policy, so that the

crawler does not interfere with the parallelization is either

ad hoc or quite preliminary, so we believe this issue needs

to be carefully studied. Finally, some of the informat ion on

the Web is now \hidden" behind a search interface, where a

query must be submitted or a form filled out. Current

crawlers cannot generate queries or fill out forms, so they

cannot visit the \dynamic" content. This problem will get

worse over time, as more and more sites generate their Web

pages from databases.

References

[1] Jöran Beel and Bela Gipp. Google Scholar‘s Ranking Algorithm: The Impact of Citation Counts (An Empirical Study). In André Flory and Martine Collard, editors, Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE International

Conference on Research Challenges in Information Science (RCIS’09), pages 439–446, Fez (Morocco), April 2009. IEEE. doi: 10.1109/RCIS.2009.5089308. ISBN 978-1-4244-2865-6. Available on http://www.sciplore.org.

[2] Jöran Beel and Bela Gipp. Google Scholar‘s Ranking Algorithm: An

Introductory Overview. In Birger Larsen and Jacqueline Leta, editors, Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Scientometrics and Informetrics (ISSI’09), volume 1, pages 230–241, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil),

July 2009. International Society for Scientometrics and Informetrics. ISSN 2175-1935. Available on http://www.sciplore.org.

[3] Jöran Beel and Bela Gipp. Google Scholar‘s Ranking Algorithm: The Impact of Articles‘ Age (An Empirical Study). In Shahram Latifi, editor, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information

Technology: New Generations (ITNG’09), pages 160–164, Las Vegas

(USA), April 2009. IEEE. doi: 10.1109/ITNG.2009.317. ISBN 978-1424437702. Available on http://www.sciplore.org.

[4] Google. Google‘s Search Engine Optimization Starter Guide. PDF, November 2008. URL http://www.google.com/webmasters/docs/search-engine-optimization-starter-guide.pdf.

[5] Albert Bifet and Carlos Castillo. An Analysis of Factors Used in Search Engine Ranking. In Proceedings of the 14th International World Wide Web Conference (WWW2005), First International Workshop on Adversarial Information Retrieval on the Web (AIRWeB’05), 2005..

[6] Michael P. Evans. Analysing Google rankings through search engine

optimization data. Internet Research, 17 (1): 21–37, 2007. doi: 10.1108/10662240710730470.

[7] Jin Zhang and Alexandra Dimitroff. The impact of metadata implementation on webpage visibility in search engine results (Part II). Cross-Language Information Retrieval, 41 (3): 691–715, May 2005.

[8] Harold Davis. Search Engine Optimization. O‘Reilly, 2006.

[9] Jennifer Grappone and Gradiva Couzin. Search Engine Optimization: An Hour a Day. John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, 2008.

“Optimization of Nutritional Constituents for Enhanced Production of L-asparaginase by Using

Submerged Fermentation” Ashutosh Pandey

1

Brajesh Singh2

Assistant Professor, Biotechnology Engg. Deptt, K.S.Vira CEM, Bijnor India1

Associate Professor & Head Deptt. of BE&FT, HBTI, Kanpur (U.P.) India2

ashutoshpandey.hbti@gmail.com1

brajeshskatiyar@gmail.com2

Abstract - Bacteria , Filamentous fungi , Yeast , Actinomycetes

and Algae all contain L-Asparginase (E.C. 3.5.1.1.) , that is

effectively used in the treatment of Acute lymphoblastic

leukemia (A.L.L.) and other type of Lymphosarcoma and is

also able to reduce the formation of acrylamide during frying of starchy foods , So L-Asparginase is an industrially

important enzyme. Enzyme production rate varies with

sources and conditions, so for effective large scale industrial

production of enzyme, optimization of production parameter

is very much essential. A stepwise optimization strategy was applied to maximize the production of antileukemic

glutaminase free enzyme L-Asparginase from Erwinia

carotovorum MTCC 1428. The effect of varying one

parameter at a time on the overall production of L-

asparaginase was monitored keeping the other parameters constant. The maximum L-asparaginase production was

found under the following condition:- a medium containing

3% (w/v) lactose, 2% (w/v) yeast extract, pH 7.0 with

inoculums size of 4%(v/v) and an incubation period of 48 hrs

at 30ºC under shaking condition of 150 rpm.The maximum specific activity of L-Asparginase in the optimized medium

was 16.18 U/mg of protein resulting in overall 3.8-fold

increase in the production compared to un-optimized

medium.

Keywords- L-Asparaginase, ALL, Antileukemic & Glutaminase.

I. INTRODUCTION

L-asparginase (L-aspargine amidohydrolase; E.C. 3.5.1.1.)

catalyze the deamination of L-aspargine to L-aspartic acid

and ammonia. Although Clementi in 1922 had reported its

presence in guinea-pig serum,the anti-tumor properties of

the enzyme were only recognized some time later .Tsuji

first reported deamination of L-asparginase by extract of

E.Coli in 1957. L-asparaginase is used as a

chemotherapeutic agent for acute lymphocytic leukaemia

(ALL) and less frequently for acute myeloblastic

leukaemia, chronic lymphocytic leukaemia,Hodgkin‘s

disease, melonosarcoma and non-Hodgkin‘s lymphoma.

Since several types of tumour cells require L-asparagine for

protein synthesis, they are deprived of an essential growth

factor in the presence of L-asparaginase. Effective

depletion of L-asparagine results in cytotoxicity for

leukaemic cells (Saleem Basha et. al. 2009). Current

clin ical studies indicate that this enzyme is also a promising

agent in treating some forms of neoplastic cell disease in

man (Peterson and Cieg ler, 1969). Various bacteria such as ,

E.coli, Erwinia aroideae, Proteus vulgeris ,Streptomyces

griseus, Vibrio succinogenes, Citrobacter freundi, Thermus

aquaticus, Enterobacter aerogenes ,Thermus thermophilus

Zymomonas mobilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) found

to produce L-asparaginase (Baskar & Renganathan,

2009).L-asparaginase is also tried for reducing the acryl

amide content in roasted and fried foods. Based on

sequence homology analysis (Borak D,Jaskolaski et al

2007) as well as biochemical (Cedar H. et al,1968

,Campbell HA. et al,1967& Dunlop PC et al,1980) and

crystallographic data (Miller M. et al,1993 & Yao

M.,Yasutake et al, 2005) available L-asparginase sequences

can be divided in to three families.Bacterial type l-

asparaginase, Plant type l-asparaginase & Rhizobium etli l-

asparaginase. Bacterial type l-asparaginase can be further

classified in to two sub-type; type I and type II. Two type

of l-asparaginase found in E.Coli; have been designated

EC1 and EC2 in E.Coli B (Campbell HA. et al 1967) , and

Asn I and Asn II in E.Coli K12 (Cedar H. et al,1968).Type-

I was found to be expressed constitutively whereas type-II

is induced by anaerobiosis (Cedar H. et al, 1968).Only the

type-II l-asparaginase present tumor inhib itory activity and

for this reason, have been extensively studied (Cedar H. et

al, 1968). L-asparaginase was produced by the technique of

submerged fermentation because it offer many advantages

over SSF such as submerged fermentations are generally

perfectly mixed reactions, high water content leads to

porosity, lower oxygen diffusion limitations. & ease of

control of environmental parameters etc.

II. MATERIALS & METHODS

Microorganisms

Pure cultures of Erwinia carotovorum MTCC 1428 was

procured from Microbial Type Culture Collect ion & Gene

Bank, Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh,

India.

Chemicals & Equipments

Chemicals which are used in the preparation of media and

for various studies were of L.R/A.R grade and were of

standard mark, which include: Dextrose, Starch, calcium

chloride, magnesium sulphate, calcium chloride (Thomas

Bakers), fructose, beaf ext ract (Qualigens), lactose, Di

sodium hydrogen phosphate (Central Drug

House),maltose,L-aspargine(Himedia), peptone , tryptone,

yeast extract (Accumix),urea, agar agar type-I (Titan

Biotech),sodium chloride (Merck Ind ia), potassium di-

hydrogen orthophosphate (SDF), 0.05M Tris -HCl, 1.5M

TCA, Bradford‘s reagent, Nesseler‘s reagent , phosphoric

acid & d istilled water.UV-Vis ible spectrophotometer

(Electronic Corporation India Limited) and Ult ra-sonicator

(Biologics Inc.).

Media and conditions

Growth medium number 3 recommended by IMTECH, Chandigarh for Erwinia carotovorum MTCC 1428 having

composition; Beef ext ract 1g; Yeast extract 2g; Peptone 5g;

Agar 15g; NaCl 5g & pH 7.0. Culture was grown under

aerobic condition at 25-28ºC for 48 hours in slants before

subculturing after 30 days.

Production media:

The production of L-Asparginase has been studied in

modified basal semi-synthetic medium for submerged

fermentation as shown in table 1:

TABLE1. PRODUCTION MEDIUM COMPOSITION

Ingredients

Weight

(g/L)

Carbon source 1.0

Nitrogen-source 1.0

( K H2 P O4 ) 3.0

Sodium chloride 0.5

N a2 HP O4 6.0

M gS O4 .7 H2 O 0.5

Ca Cl2 .2 H2 O 0.015

Methods

Maintenance of stock cultures

250 ml o f growth medium number 3 (YBP medium) was

prepared in 500 ml flasks. Medium was used to prepare

agar slants which were further inoculated with bacterial

strains. The slants were then incubated at 280C for 48

hours. Culture was further sub-cultured after a period of 30

days. The slants were maintained at 40C.

Inoculum development

The YBP medium (50 ml) was dispensed in 250 ml

Erlenmeyer flasks and sterilized. Then medium was

autoclaved and inoculated with Erwinia Carotovorum

MTCC 1428. The flasks were incubated in a rotary shaker

for 24 h at 180 rpm.

L-Asparginase production

Submerged fermentation was carried out for Erwinia

carotovorum MTCC 1428 using above said semi synthetic

basal medium. The production media were autoclaved at

121ºC for 15 minutes and were cooled to 37ºC. Then

medium were inoculated with 1 ml inoculums for 50 ml

production media in 250 ml shake flask and incubated at

30ºC for 24 hours and all the production exper iments were

carried out in t rip licate form.

Medium and process optimization

Stepwise optimization strategies was applied for this work,

in this method I studied ―one factor at a time‖ and other

kept constant and after getting optimum value for the

maximum enzyme activity, then it‘s was taken in to the

further studies.

Effect of various carbon sources

To optimize the cult ivation conditions yielding maximum l-

asparginase, the culture was grown on various carbon

sources at initial temperature 30ºC and incubation time of

24 h and the l-asparginase activity was observed. Glucose,

fructose, maltose, lactose and starch each at same

concentrations i.e., 1.0% were used as different carbon

sources for the production of l-asparginase enzyme and the

best carbon source was taken in to further studies.

Effect of various concentration of carbon source

Effect of different concentration of suitable carbon source

on production of l-asparginase by Erwinia carotovora was

checked. The data was collected for 1 %, 2%, 3%, 4% &

5% and its optimum concentration was taken in to further

studies.

Effect of various Nitrogen source

The effect of d ifferent nitrogen sources i.e., peptone, yeast

extract, urea, beaf extract and urea (each at a conc. Of

1.0%) on l-asparginase production was observed and

results are presented and the best nitrogen source was taken

in to further studies.

Effect of various concentration of Nitrogen source

Effect of different concentration of suitable nitrogen source

on production of l-asparginase by Erwinia carotovora was

checked. The data was collected for 1 %, 2%, 3%, 4% &

5% and its optimum concentration was taken in to further

studies.

Effect of various inoculums sizes

The effect of different inoculums size i.e. from 1-5 ml on l-

asparginase production was observed and results are

presented and the best inoculums size was taken in to

further studies.

Effect of various incubation times

Effect of fermentation time on the production of l-

asparginase by Erwinia carotovora was observed. The data

was collected for 12h, 24h, 48h and 60h.

Effect of incubation temperatures

The production medium was incubated at different

temperature levels, to study the effect of temperature on

production of enzyme. Various incubation temperature

viz.20ºC-40ºC were screened for the highest enzyme

production.

Effect of initial pH The influence of initial pH on l-

asparginase by Erwinia carotovora was determined in the

pH range (5-9). Medium was adjusted to required pH with

the addition of Phosphate or Tris buffer.

Effect of different rpm of shaking incubator

The influence of different rpm of shaking incubator on l-

asparginase by Erwin ia carotovora was determined in the

rpm range (50-300) and suitable rpm is screened for

maximum enzyme production.

Extraction of intracellular L-Asparginase by cell disruption

Using ultra sonication for release of L-asparginase, first

cells were harvested from the production medium and

centrifuged at 10000 rpm for 10 min & 40C. After this cells

were washed with 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer pH 8.6 and were

resuspended in the same buffer to make a cell suspension

of 2% w/v. Cells were disrupted using ultrasonication

probe with 30 pulses at 30 se c interval for 10 min. Disrupt

thus obtained was centrifuged at 12000 rpm for 15 min at 4

deg C. The cell free supernatant was subjected to enzyme

assay.

Standard Ammonium preparation

1M Ammonium stock solution was prepared by dissolving

114 g of anhydrous ammonium sulfate in 1 L D.W., from

that working standard was prepared. Working standard was

prepared by serial d ilut ion. From 1 µM working standard

solution, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0 and 2.4 µM. standards were

prepared by taking 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0 and 2.4 ml

respectively. The total volume was made upto 2.5 ml using

distilled water.1 ml of Tris-Hcl buffer was added to each

test tube and incubates it for 30 min. at 37ºC, 0.5 ml 15 M

TCA was added followed by 1 ml NaOH. Immediately the

solution was mixed and allowed to react for 20 min. The

final solutions

TABLE 2 STANDARD GRAPH FOR AMMONIA

Conc ent ra ti on o f

Am mo ni a (µ mol/ ml ) O. D. a t 480 n m

0.2 0.1

0.4 0.2

0.8 0.3

1.0 0.4

1.2 0.5

1.4 0.6

1.6 0.7

1.7 0.8

1.8 0.9

2.0 1.0

2.2 1.1

2.4 1.2

Fig 1 – Standard Graph for ammonia

TABLE 3 BOVINE SERUM ALBUMIN (BSA) STANDARD

CURVE

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0 20 40 60 80 100

OD

at 5

95 n

m

BSA concentration (µg/100ml)

Fig 2: Bovine serum albumin (BSA) standard curve.

III. PROCESS OPTIMIZATION

Effect of different Carbon sources on L-Asparginase

production

Using 1g/l (1% w/v) of different carbon sources, L-

Asparginase production was highest in lactose medium.

The nature and amount of carbon source in culture media

is important for growth and production of intracellu lar L-

Asparginase in bacteria. L-Asparginase yield was high in

media containing lactose as sole carbon source (Fig

3).lactose medium showing the maximum enzyme

activity was assayed for protein estimation by Bradford‘s

method and it was found that it contain 0.605 mg/ml of

protein content. The specific activity thus obtained was

3.97 U/mg.

BSA Concentration

(µg/ 100µl )

O pti ca l dens i ty a t

595 nm

0 0 .00

20 0 .10

40 0 .20

60 0.32

80 0.41

100 0.50

05

1015

l-as

para

gina

se

acti

vity

(U/m

l)

carbon source

Fig 3: l-asparaginase activity at different carbon sources

Effect of different concentration of lactose on L-

asparaginase production

Using different concentration of lactose (1-5% w/v), L-

asparginase production was highest in the concentration

of 4g/l (4% w/v) of lactose followed by 3% (w/v) but it

shows decrease in enzyme activity if lactose

concentration in higher than 4%(w/v) fig-4.Lactose

concentration (4% w/v) showing the maximum enzyme

activity was assayed for protein estimation by Bradford‘s

method and it was found that it contain 0.685 mg/ml of

protein content. The specific activity thus obtained was

6.11 U/mg.

0

1

2

3

4

1 2 3 4 5

l-as

par

agin

ase

act

ivit

y (U

/ml)

Concentration of lactose (g/l)

Fig :4 l-asparaginase activity at different concentration of lactose

Effect of di fferent N-Sources on L-asparginase production

Among the different N-sources (1g/ml) assessed, yeast

extract served as the best one followed by peptone (fig 5)

.The yeast extract showing the maximum enzyme activity

was assayed by protein estimat ion by Bradford‘s method

and it was found that it was found that it contains 0.528

mg/ml of protein content. The specific activity thus

obtained was 6.19 U/mg.

Fig 5 : l-asparaginase activity at different nitrogen sources

Effect of different Concentration of yeast extract on L-

asparaginase

Among the different concentration of Yeast ext ract (1-5

g/ml) assessed, 2g/l of yeast extract served as the best one

followed by 3g/l of concentration (fig-6).The 2g/l of yeast

extract concentration showing the maximum enzyme

activity was assayed by protein estimation by Bradford‘s

method and it was found that it was found that it contains

0.715 mg/ml of protein content. The specific activity thus

obtained was 6.55 U/mg.

0

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5

l-as

par

agin

ase

act

ivit

y (U

/ml)

Concentration of yeast extract (g/l)

Fig 6 :l-asparaginase activity at concentration of yeast extract

Effect of different inoculums size on L-asparginase

production

The most appropriate inoculums size for the production of

L-asprginase by Erwinia carotovorum MTCC 1428 using

submerged fermentation in 50 ml media was found to be

3.0 ml (6% v/v) (fig 7) the media containing 4.0 ml

inoculums size showing the maximum enzyme activity was

assessed for protein estimation by Bradford‘s method that it

contains 0.553 mg/ml of protein content. The specific

activity thus obtained was 8.53 U/mg.

05

1015

1 2 3 4 5

l-as

par

agin

ase

ac

tivi

ty (U

/ml)

inoculum size (ml)

Fig 7: Effect of different inoculum size on l-asparaginase production

Effect of different Incubation time on L-asparginase

production

The optimum temperature for the production of L-

Asparginase was found to be 30ºC. The fu rther increase in

temperature decreases the production of L-Asparginase

(fig.8). The incubation temperature of 30ºC showing the

maximum enzyme activ ity was assessed for protein

estimation by Bradford‘s method and it was found that it

contain 0.417 mg/ml of protein content. The specific

activity thus obtained was 11.23 U/ml.

Fig 8 : Effect of different incubation time on l-asparaginase production

Effect of different Incubation temperature on L-

asparginase production

The optimum temperature for the production of L-

Asparginase was found to be 30ºC. The fu rther increase in

temperature decreases the production of L-Asparginase

(fig.9). The incubation temperature of 30ºC showing the

maximum enzyme activ ity was assessed for protein

estimation by Bradford‘s method and it was found that it

contain 0.417 mg/ml of protein content. The specific

activity thus obtained was 11.23 U/ml.

Fig 9 : Effect of incubation temperature on l-asparaginase production

Effect of different pH on L-asparginase production

The bacteria strain Erwinia carotovorum MTCC 1428 was

found to be most active for the production of L-

Asparginase using the submerged fermentation method at

the initial pH 7 0f the fermentation media. So the bacterium

is found to be most active at the neutral pH (fig 10).The pH

showing the maximum enzyme activity was assessed for

protein estimat ion by Bradford‘s method and it was found

that it contain 0.917 mg/ml .The specific activity thus

obtained was 10.22 U/mg.

Fig 10: Effect of initial pH l-asparaginase production

Effect of different rotational speed (Agitation) of orbital

rotary shaker

The bacteria strain Erwinia carotovorum MTCC 1428 was

found to be most active for the production of L-

Asparginase using the submerged fermentation method at

the 150 RPM followed by 200 RPM and the enzyme

production was decreased as rotational speed was going to

be increased. So the bacterium is found to be most active at

150 RPM (fig 11).The pH showing the maximum enzyme

activity was assessed for protein estimat ion by Bradford‘s

method and it was found that it contain 0.869 mg/ml .The

specific activity thus obtained was 13.09 U/mg.

Fig 11. Effect of different rotational speed on L-asparaginase production

Optimized culture conditions

Finally the optimized values for the various process

parameters were deduced, when grown under all the

optimum conditions for submerged fermentation the

bacteria Erwinia carotovorum exhib it the increased enzyme

production. It was evident from the results that medium

under optimized condition showed the increase in enzyme

activity and specific activity when compared with

individually optimized parameter media. Hence I

concluded that the media and the bioprocess were

optimized.The reading for the optimized culture is as

follows;

L-asparaginase activity-13.96 U/ml

Protein concentration-0.836 mg/ml

Specific activ ity-16.69 U/mg

IV. CONCLUSION

In the optimizat ion of bioprocess variables for L-

asparginase production by Erwin ia carotovorum

MTCC1428, we found the following.

Among different carbon sources Lactose gave maximum

enzyme activity.

Among different concentration of Lactose 4g/l (4% w/v)

gave maximum enzyme activity.

Among different Nitrogen sources Yeast Extract gave

maximum enzyme activ ity.

Among different concentration of Yeast Extract 2g/l (2%

w/v) gave maximum enzyme activity.

Among different inoculums size 3 ml inoculums gave

maximum enzyme activ ity.

Among different incubation time 48 hrs gave maximum

enzyme activity.

Among different incubation temperature 30ºC was found to

give maximum enzyme activity.

Among different pH neutral pH was found to give

maximum enzyme activ ity.

Among different agitation speed 150 RPM was found to

give maximum enzyme activity.

These suggest that medium was optimized and Erwinia

carotovorum MTCC 1428 could be promising source for

production of L-Asparginase. However further work to

understand better control strategies for obtaining high

yields, the metabolism of L-Asparginase production and

downstream for production of l-asparaginase needs to be

done.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first author is thankful to department of BEFT, HBTI

Kanpur, India for providing the infrastructure facilit ies for

this study during M.Tech.

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Differing Tuning Technique Based Controller Design For

An Industrial Blending Process 1Manoj Kumar Bansal

2Mr. Manik Gupta

1Associate Professor, K.S. Vira CEM, Bijnor

2Assistant Professor NIIT najbabad

1manojbansal14@gmail.com 2manikbapu@gmail.com

Abstract- In the present paper, controller design is performed

using lambda tuning method and controller performance is compared for various values of desired closed loop time

constant. A blending system, which can be represented as a

first order plus dead time model, is selected from literature

survey for this analysis. The performance is calculated in

terms of rise time, settling time, over shoot (%), peak, gain margin, phase margin and closed loop stability. The PID

tuning parameters are calculated for performance evaluation.

Comparison is performed to select the best value of desired

closed loop response time which gives best performance for

the selected process model.

I. INTRO DUCTIO N

A simple b lending system process is used to introduce

some important issues in control system design [1].

Many processes in industry are modeled as FOPDT model.

This type of process has time delay as its inherent property.

Time delay may be because of many reasons, especially

due to far sensor location. This type of process is complex

in nature and requires special attention. Lambda tuning

technique, although invented long time back is still used in

industrial practice. This requires immediate attention to

compare the existing controller tuning technique for its set-

point tracking and disturbance rejection capability and find

the best value of lambda the process selected for investigation.

A simple blending process is used to introduce some

important issues in control system. Blending operations are

commonly used in many industries to ensure that final

products meet customer specification. A continuous,

stirred-tank blending system is shown in fig. 1 .The control

object is to blend the inlet stream that the has desired

composition. Stream 1 is a mixture of a two chemical

species, A and B .that its mass flow rate w1 is constant, but

the mass fraction of A .x1, varies with time. Stream 2

consists of pure A and thus x2=1 .The mass fraction of A in

the exit stream is denoted by x and the desired value (set

point) by Xsp .Thus for this control problem, the controlled

variable is x, the manipulated variable is w2, and the

disturbance variable is x1 [9].

Fig- Stirred tank bleding system

An Overview of PID Tuning

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller has been

used successfully for regulating processes in industry for

more than 60 years. Although many tuning techniques,

online or offline, model based or using analytical approach

exist but still the new tuning techniques are being

developed and compared for its performance evaluation with the existing tuning technique.

PID controllers are part icularly suited for pure first or

second order processes, while industrial plant often present

characteristics such as high order, time delays,

nonlinearities and so on. In this context, the tuning of the

parameter is a crucial issue and the many tuning techniques

are used such as internal model control, Ziegler Nichols

close loop method, Cohen Coon method, direct synthesis method, Fuzzy logic method, and soft tuning methods [1].

The control system performs poor and even it becomes

unstable, if improper values of the controller tuning

constants are used. So it becomes necessary to tune the

controller parameters to achieve good control performance

with the proper choice of tuning constants. The tuning method can be used to adjust the controller parameter.

Z-N(ZIEGLER NICHOLS) Tuning:

PID controllers are probably the most commonly used

controller structures in the industry. They do, however

present some challenges to control and instrumentation

engineers in the aspect of tuning of the gains required for

stability and good transient performance. There are several

prescriptive rules used in PID tuning. The Z-N tuning method is using closed loop method.[3]

Lambda Tuning :

―Lambda Tuning‖ refers to all tuning methods where the

control loop speed of response is a selectable tuning

parameter; the closed loop time constant is referred to as

―Lambda‖. It is based on the same IMC theory is model-

based and uses a model inverse and pole-zero cancellation to achieve the desired closed loop performance [15].

Lambda Tuning is used widely in the pulp and paper

industry .Where it was realized early -on that a strong

connection exists between paper uniformity and

manufacturing efficiency on the one hand, and control loop

interactions with upstream hydraulics on the other. Paper is

as solid product that can be judged (see and feel), therefore

it captures all upstream variability in its final product.

Lambda Tuning offered a new way of coordinating the

tuning of the paper mill loops to gain improved process

stability along with a uniform product. By contrast, the

Lambda Tuning technique is not well known outside the

pulp and paper industry at this time [7].

As stated above, one should first eliminate any bad acting

field devices prior to beginning Lambda Tuning. Once the

field devices have been checked and corrected as required,

a bump test with the controller in manual is performed to

understand open loop dynamics of the process. The testing

should be performed over a range of typical operating

parameters. The collected data should be fitted to a simple

dynamic model [13]. Poorly operating control loops cause

loss in productivity in almost every industry worldwide.

Therefore performance monitoring has been an active area

of research for the past decades. In this work, a newly

developed fault detection method is applied to the

monitoring of λ-tuned control loops. The λ-tuning method

has, due to its simple use, become very popular in the pulp

and paper industry and is now spreading to other industries

[7]. Lambda Tuning fo r an Integrating Process is slightly

different in that the user needs to determine the arrest time

for a d isturbance; the arrest time or Lambda is the time to

stop the rise or fall of the process variable (PV) due to a

step change in load. The technical aspects of Lambda Tuning are described in detail elsewhere [8].

Methodology

Z-N Tuning

The transfer function is given

G(s) = 1.54e- 1.075s /

5.93s+1

Now there are two step procedures for the controller

parameter (Kc)

Step 1:-

Total phase angle = controller phase angle +process phase

angle + Transportation phase angle

-180 = - tan-1

(5.93 Wco) - 1.07Wco*57.5

-180 = tan-1

(5.93wco) -61 .525wco

180 = 61.525wco+ tan-1

(5.93wco)

Now put the value of

Wco = 1.525

61.525*1.525+= tan-1

(5.93*1.525) = 180

93.8256+83.68988551=180

177.5154855 = 18

Now put the next value Wco = 1.5628

61.525*1.5628+ tan-1

(5.93*1.568) =180

179.9925932 = 180

Step2:- For estimation gain margin or (AR) amplitude

ratio is as follow

Total amplitude ratio = (amplitude ratio fo r controller) X

(amplitude ratio for process) (amplitude ratio for

transporting log).

1 = Kcu * (1.54)/ 1+ (5.93wco) 2

When:

Wco = 1.5628

Kcu = 1* 1+ (5.93*1.5628)2/ 1.54

= 9.3215004/1.54

Ku = Kcu =6.052

Tuning Method:- There are different type of tuning many

type of tuning method

The table of Z-N tuning method is given FOPDT by Now

the the value put of controller parameter for given table[4]

P Controler Action =Ku/2

We know that the value of Ku=6.052

P=6.052/2

P=3.026

Where we know that

Pcr=2 /Wco

Pcr=4.022

For PI controller:

Kp=.45Kc (Kcu = 6.052)

=.45×6.052

Kp=2.7234

Ti=4.022/1.2

=3.35166

PI=2.7234+.81243/S

For PID controller:

Kp=.6 1.5628

=.93768

Ti=.5Pcr

=.5 4.022

Ti=2.011

Td=.125 4.022

=.50275

Gd(s)=Kp(1+1/ IS +DS )

=[.93768+.46627/s+.50275s]

Now using MATLAB software.Draw a model using

MATLAB

Lambda Tuning

Blending operation is commonly used in many industries to

ensure that final products meet customer specification..The

transfer function is given as [1]:

G(s) = 1.54 exp (- 1.075s) /5.93s+1

Using Pade‘s approximation, the modified transfer

function may be written as :

G(s) = 1.54*(1-.535s)/ (5.93s+1) (1+.535s)

For finding the controller tuning parameters using lambda

tuning method, equating

1.54/ (5.93s+1) (1-.5355) = 1/Kcu (1+1/ TI s + Td s)*1/ s ;

is the tuning parameter.

Comparing above equation, we get

Kcu/ TIs = 1/ s

Kcu / TI = 1/

Therefore,we get

TI = 5.395 ; Td = .580 and Kcu = TI /

For = 1; Kcu (1) = 5.395/1 = 5.395

= 2; Kcu (2) = 5.395/2 = 2.697

= 3; Kcu (3) = 5.395/3 = 1.79

= 4 ; Kcu (4) = 5.395/4 = 1.3487

= 7 ; Kcu (7) = 5.395/7 = .7707

= 12; Kcu (12) = 5.395/12 = .449 = 16; Kcu (16) =

5.395/16 Kcu (16) = .337

=17; Kcu (17) = 5.395/17 Kcu (17) = .317

The PID controller transfer function is calculated now for

these values of lambda,

For =17, = Kcu [1+1/ TIs + TDs]

= .317[1+1/5.395 S - .58075]

= .317+.0587/s - 1.8547s

P = .317 I = .0587 D = -1.8547

Similarily, fo r

For = 12, P= .449 I = .083302 D = -.2607

For = 7 P= .7707 I = .1428 D = -.4475

Result Analysis

Simulation is performed to analyze the stability, set point

tracking and disturbance capabilities. The controller

parameters are determined and the controller is inserted in

the feedback loop along with FOPDT process model.

Controller design using different values of lambda for

lambda and Z-N Tuning.Tuning method is attempted as shown in figs. 2,3, 4,5,6 & 7.

Fig. 2 : PID controller response for lambda tuning method

Fig. 3: PID controller step rejection for lambda tuning method.

Fig. 4: PID controller open loop Bode plot for lambda tuning method.

Fig. 5 : PID controller response for Z-N tuning method

Fig. 6: PID controller step rejection for Z-N tuning method.

Fig. 7: PID controller open loop Bode plot for lambda tuning method.

The table 1 show that the PID controller for Lambda

tuning. The PID controller block parameter has calculated

.Now the applied .P Block controller parameter is .2673

and I block controller parameter is .0381.Now the

derivative parameter is -.26403.

TABLE 1: PID CONTROLLER TUNED AND BLOCKS PARAMETER FOR

LAMBDA TUNING

The performance parameter rise time, settling time,

overshoot (%), peak is 112, 198, 0, and 999 respectively.

The performance indices for different values are given in

table 3. Large value of give more sluggish control. So

Small values of is eatter as comparison to high values of

for PID controller of Lambda tuning

TABLE 2: PID CONTROLLER PERFORMANCE FOR LAMBDA TUNING

METHOD

Performance Tuned Block

Rise Time (sec) 4.54 112

Settling time (sec) 13.6 198

Overshoot (%) 5.72 0

Peak 1.06 .999

Gain margin Infinity Infinity

Phase margin 63.9 .0201

Closed loop stability stable stable

Controller parameter

Tuned Block

P 2.6835 .2673

I .64514 .0381

D -4.2086 .26403

N 6.3762 100

TABLE 3 : COMPARISON PID CONTROLLER DIFFERENT LAMBDA TUNING

VALUES

Performance

Parameter = 16 = 12 = 07 Automatic

tuned

Rise time(sec) 112 49.7 28 4.54

Settling time

(sec)

198 88.9 49.8 13.6

Overshoot (%) 0 0 0 5.72

Peak .999 .999 .999 1.06

Gain margin (db) Infinity 32.9 28.1 Infinity

Phasemargin(deg) .0201 90.1 87.7 63.9

Closed loop

stability

Stable Stable Stable Stable

The table 4 show that the PID controller for Z-N tuning.

The PID controller block parameter has calculated .Now

the applied .P Block controller parameter is .93768 and I

block controller parameter is .46627.Now the derivative parameter is -.50275.

TABLE 4 :PID CONTROLLER TUNED & BLOCK PARAMETER FOR Z-N

TUNING

The performance parameter o f PID controller for rise time is

8.94.and Settling t ime, Overshoot (%), Peak is 27.7, 9.58,

1.1.Now the gain and phase marg in (db) is infinity, .176.

TABLE 5 PID CONTROLLER PERFORMANCE FOR LAMBDA TUNING

METHOD

The comparison PID controller for different tuning method.

The PI controller fo r best tuning method is Z-N tuning.

Because different tuning method performance for PID controller table below shows that

TABLE 6 COMPARISON PID CONTROLLER Z-N & LAMBDA TUNING

TECHNIQUES

Performance parameter Block

Z-N

Block tuned

Lambda

Rise time 8.94 112

Settling time 27.7 198

Overshoot time 9.58 0

Peak 1.1 .999

Gain margin Inf Inf

Phase margin .176 .0201

Closed loop stability STABLE STABLE

Hence, small values of Lambda produce faster responses as

comparing Z-N tuning metod, while large value of lambda

gives more sluggish control, while designing controllers

based on lambda tuning method for a FOPDT model. So

this id the best tuning is lambda tuning.

References

[1] Dan Chen and Dale E. Seborg, PI/PID controller design based on

direct synthesis and disturbance rejection Ind .Eng.Chen.Res 2004 ,41,4807-4822.

[2] Morari M. and Zafiriou E., Robust Process Control, Prentice Hall, 1989.

[3] Guillermo J. silva stabilization of time delay system proceeding of

the American control conference Chicago ,llinods. Dec 2004

[4] Ziegler J.G. and Nichols N.B., Optimum settings for automatic

controllers,Trans. ASME, pp. 759-768, 1942

[5] Oglesby M. J. Achieving benefits using traditional control technologies,Trans. Inst. MC, Vol. No.1, 1996

[6] Dahlin E.B., Designing and Tuning Digital Controllers, Instr and Cont Syst, 41 (6), 77,

[7] Chien I-Lung and Fruehauf P.S., Consider IMC Tuning to Improve ControllerPerformance, Hydrocarbon Processing, Oct. 1990.

[8] William S. Levine, W.S (Editor), CRC Control Handbook, CRC Press and IEEE Press, 1996.

[9] William S. Levine, W.S (Editor), CRC Control Handbook, Chapter 72,"Control of the Pulp and Paper Making Process". CRC Press and IEEE Press,1996. Chapter 72 – Bialkowski W

[10] Gregory K. McMillan (Editor in Chief), Process / Industrial Controls and Instrumentation Handbook, 5The Edition. McGraw-Hill, 1999. Isbn 0-07-012582-1. Section 10.17

[11] Sell N, editor, Bialkowski W.L. and Thomasson F.Y. contributors, Process Control Fundamentals for the Pulp & Paper Industry, TAPPI Textbook,TAPPI Press, 1995

[12] J.Astrom and T .H.agglund (1995) PID Controllers: Theory, design and tuning. Instrument society of America, 2nd edition

[13] Jukka Lieslehto ―PID controller tuning using Evolutionary programming‖ American Control Conference, VA June 25-27,2001

[14] Ziegler, J. G.; Nichols, N. B. Optimum Settings for Automatic Controllers. Trans. ASME 1942, 64, 759.

[15] Rovira, A. A.; Murrill, P. W., Smith, C. L. Tuning Controllers for Setpoint Changes. Instrum. Control Syst. 1969, 42 (12), 67.

Controller

parameter

Tuned Block

P 2.6835 .93768

I .64514 .46627

D -4.2086 .50275

N .63762 100

S.No. Performance Tuned Block

1 Rise time(sec) 4.54 8.94

2 Settling time (sec) 13.6 27.7

3 Over shoot(%) 5.72 9.58

4 Peak 1.06 1.1

5 Gain margin Inf@Inf

Inf@NaN

6 Phase margin . 3 .176

7 Closed loop stability stable stable