Virtue ethicsKomilla Chadha 2010

Virtue Theory

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Contents

1. The Agent-Centred approach

to ethics (P3)

2. The principles of Aristotle’s

Virtue Theory (P4)

3. Eudaimonia and the Doctrine

of the Golden Mean (P5)

4. Importance of Virtue Theory and

examples of virtuous people

(P6)

5. Modern Virtue Theory (P7)

6. Evaluating Virtue Theory (P8)

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1. The agent centred approachFor Aristotle the ‘golden mean’ (or virtue) wasn’t the same for everyone or all circumstances this is why he emphasised on an autonomous, person-centred and virtue-centred morality.

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Virtue theory or otherwise know as Aretaic ethics, aretaic meaning excellence, originates back to the Stoics. Even Plato had formulated his own version of Virtue Theory yet none are as popular, particularly in this last century, as Aristotleʼs version.

Virtue theory was revolutionary because it is agent-centred. This is still today a relatively knew branch to ethics. More detail on this can be found in section 1.

Theory of causality

In order to understand Virtue Theory (VT) we first must understand Aristotleʼs theory of causality because that underlies VT.

According to Aristotle, in order to understand something fully we must address the thingʼs four causes;

- Material (what is made of)- Formal (Form/shape)- Efficient (Agent/producer)- Final (Purpose)

The final cause being the most important.

So how does this affect VT?

Well if we apply this principle to humans then we can see the basis of VT. Aristotle says the Final cause for humans is

eudaimonia - i.e. human flourishing. In order to achieve this we should act virtuously. (For more depth on eudaimonia see section 3).

Now that we know why we need to act virtuously we can figure out what the virtues are.

Virtues are positive character traits and Aristotle divides them into two categories intellectual virtues and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues are ones that are taught by a pedagogue whereas moral virtues are ones that develop through habitual behaviour. Below I have listed the intellectual virtues.

Intellectual Virtues

Primary

WisdomIntelligenceScientific KnowledgePractical WisdomArt

Secondary

ClevernessResourcefulnessUnderstanding Judgement

There are 12 moral virtues which are listed and explained in section 3.

Many modern philosophers have described the process of

becoming virtuous as analogous to learning to play a musical instrument. For example both activities are difficult but possible and require us to learn simple things first before we jump to the more complex. Once we accomplish this with the help of a teacher (having a pedagogue was crucial for Aristotle) we can enjoy the rewards and flourish (which in terms of becoming virtuous is reaching eudaimonia).

For many understanding the application of this theory proves the most difficult because the theory does not set any clear rules.

But essentially what Aristotle is saying we will make ethical decision based on whether they will help us to develop the virtuous and become virtuous.

However, Aristotle said that while all people have the potential to become virtuous only a few achieve it and those are ʻgentlemen and philosophersʼ. This statement seems a bit archaic to use today so scholars interpret this as external factors affecting upbringing which determine whether or not one becomes virtuous.

2. Principles of Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics

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EudaimoniaEudaimonia translates as the

ʻflourishingʼ. What Aristotle means by this is that the human race will reach its maximum potential and society will be at its highest level to date.

Eudaimonia is something that should be achieved for its intrinsic value not as a means to an end.

Aristotle did not believe in an after like Plato.

I believe that Adam Smith theory of specialisation/division of labour is very closely knitted to the idea of eudaimonia. If we interprets flourishing as a high societal status we might say that like by exercising the virtues we develop our strengths - we can develop our skills through practice and soon there will reach a point when the division of labour will occur. At this point we could say society would ʻflourishʼ as we would have reached the highest level of productivity.

Doctrine of the Golden Mean

Virtues as stated before are positive states of characters and they are described as the ʻGolden Meanʼ often. This is because Aristotle said it is not good to posses too much or too little of a characteristics. The two extremes he called vices.

For example he said courage is a good attribute to have - if we are rash however and have too much of it we posses the vice of excess and if we do not have enough and are

cowards we posses the vice of deficiency. The 12 moral virtues which make up this golden mean are depicted below.

1. Courage2. Temperance 3. Liberality4. Magnificence5. High-mindedness6. Right ambition7. Good temper8. Friendliness9. Sincerity10.Wittiness11.Modesty12.Just resentment

3. Eudaimonia and the Doctrine of the Gold Mean

‘We are what we repeatedly do;

excellence, then is not an act but a habit’

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4. Importance of Virtue

Theory and examples

of virtuous people...

Virtue theory is importance because it brought a whole new dimension into ethics - taking it away from act-centred to person-centred. It also did something that no other did it took into account human and emotion into ethical decision making. The theory also has profound impacts on society. If people are constantly trying to become virtuous then this has the impact of making

society more moral and can have positive effects.

We can see examples of virtuous in the past and today. If we take examples like David Beckham or Russell Brand they depict virtues such as wittiness whereas if look at Mother Teresa we may see virtues like modesty and sincerity. So ultimately we can use anyone as an example of a virtuous person.

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5. Modern Virtue Theory

Elizabeth AnscombeAnscombe critised other theories for

being so focused on autonomous forgetting that there is a social aspect of morality that binds

community. She also believed that our society is becoming secular that is why we cannot rely on the idea of reward or punishment and the divine

law.

Michael SloteSlote believed rather than

eudaimonia humans strive for their well-bring. He argues

virtuous motives are not only necessary but sufficient for

human well-being.

Martha NussbaumNussbaum interprets Aristotle’s virtues as

absolutes. She believes that the relativist approach

is incomplete with Aristotle’s theory. Many

modern philosophers disagree with this.

Ben FranklinFranklin was a utilitarian

virtue theorists and believed the best way to

be utilitarian was the practice of the virtues.

Alasdair MaclntyreMaclyntyre believed context for key for

understanding everything. He believed the virtues changed over time hence VE was

more applicable and practical than any other ethical theory. For example homeric virtues

like physical strength became athenian virtues like friendship. He also differentiates between two types of goods; internal and external. Internal goods are ones that are intrinsic e.g. giving money to charity and

external goods are instrumental e.g. inspiring others to give money to charity.

Philippa FootFoot believed in making the world a better place not dry theorising ethics (she was

founder of oxfam). She was a modern virtue theorist

because she believed virtues weren’t just good for

individuals but for society.

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6. Evaluating Virtue TheoryStrengths Weaknesses

1. Human nature and emotion is taken into account which no other ethical theory of the time manages to do so profoundly.

1. The theory is too vague. It does not clearly tell you what to do and what not. It relies on interpretation. It is anti-codificable

2. Given that the virtues changes with time and different cultures means that it is more applicable and easier to understand.

2. How can different acts be moral for different society - doesn’t this imply that morality is something which is made up by society.

3. It is a secular theory i.e. relies no belief in God hence many people would be attracted to use it.

3.Does not address the question when people are committing unmoral acts but believed they are working virtuously. This is a result from the vagueness from the theory.

4. Does not look at individual acts but all the acts committed in a lifetime as a whole giving room for mistakes and learning. This means it is more realistic as people seem to learn over time.

4. According to the philosopher Pojman some rules cannot be broken which many people agree with.

5. It is flexible which it is easier to apply to different situations.

5. Some people believe that if you were going to judge character then this is done by actions not virtues hence this ethical theory is pointless.

6. The focus isn’t on acts it is on what it means to be human and as Zagzebski says ‘persons are ontologically more fundamental than acts; acts are defined in terms of persons”.