vol 2 issue 02 dec 2013
TRANSCRIPT
EDITORIAL BOARD
MARA INNOVATION JOURNAL
Volume 2 Issue 02 December 2013 ISSN: 2289-2818
Patron
Datuk Ibrahim bin Ahmad
Director General Majlis Amanah Rakyat
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Nor Aini Aziz
Editors
Hasmah Markom Wan Shahriza Wan Ab Rahman
Maizul Deraman Hadijah bt.Haron
Roskhairul Hanafi bin Subiran Mohamad Nizam bin Asmuni
Sarinah bt. Sulaiman Mazni bt. Suleiman
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DEVELOPING MALAYSIAN MICRO-ENTREPRENEURS
THROUGH E-BUSINESS
Azahari Jamaludin
International School of Entrepreneurship
Universiti Kuala Lumpur
Raemah Abdullah Hashim
Faculty of Business Administration
Universiti Tun Abdul Razak
Yasmin Yahya
Malaysian Institute of Information Technology
Universiti Kuala Lumpur
ABSTRACT
E-business has been proven to be an effective and successful concept of developing
business and has been practiced globally, in fact it has been used as one of the media to
enter international markets. Despite this fact, researches involving e-business appeared to
have been viewed less important, specifically in Malaysia. The literature showed that e-
business has received relatively limited theoretical and empirical attention from social
scientists as an imperative area of research. Based on the researchers’ own literature review
of past studies, this paper attempts to provide an insight into e-business – specifically
focusing on identifying and discussing the contributing elements to the success of e-
business that have yet to be explored rigorously – that would benefit prospective micro-
entrepreneurs, small and medium-sized enterprises, future researchers, government, and
private agencies.
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INTRODUCTION
The term ‘business model’ is often mentioned in print and by business executives.
Based on the existing term, a business model is a method in which an organization
sustains itself in the long run and includes its value proposition for stakeholders and
its revenue streams. A business model does not exist in vacuum, but relates to
strategy in which a firm will select one or more business models as its strategies in
accomplishing business goals. For example, if the firm’s goal is to position itself as a
high-tech, innovative company, it might decide to use the Internet to connect and
communicate with its stakeholders, as does Dell Computer Company, Intel, Cisco
and many more. How does a firm select the best business models? The critical
components in appraising the fit of a business model for the firm and its environment
include: customer value, scope, revenue sources, connected activities,
implementation, capabilities, and sustainability. Traditional business models such as
retailing, selling, advertising, and auctions have been around ever since the first
business set up shop. What makes a business model an e-business model is the
use of information technology (Strauss & Frost, 2009; Baltzan & Philips, 2009; Afuah
& Tucci, 2001). This study, therefore, focuses on e-business which first emerged
during dot-com boom. The research is exploratory and descriptive in nature.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In 2003, Tom Anderson and Chris DeWolf started MySpace, a social networking
website that offers its member information about the independent music scene
around the country representing both Internet culture and teenage culture.
Musicians sign up for free MySpace home pages where they can post tour dates,
songs, and lyrics. Fans sign up for their own webpages to link to favorite bands and
friends. As of February 2006, MySpace was the world’s fifth most popular English-
language Web site with over 60 million users (“A Site Stickier,” 2005).
According to Stair and Reynolds (2010), one of the biggest benefits of the Internet
is its ability to allow organizations to perform business with anyone, anywhere, and
anytime. E-business is the conducting of business on the Internet, not only buying
and selling, but also serving customers and collaborating with business partners. E-
business also refers to online exchanges of information. For example, a financial
institution allowing its customers to view their banking, credit card, and loan
accounts or manufacturer allowing its suppliers to monitor production schedules. In
the last few years, e-business seems to have spread to every single part and
aspect of our daily activities. In order to enhance productivity, maximize
convenience, and improve communication globally, both individuals and
organizations have embraced Internet technologies. From banking to entertainment
to shopping, the Internet has become necessary to our daily life activities (Baltzan &
Philips, 2009; Mahajan, Srinivasan, & Wind, 2002; Brynjolfsson & Smith, 2000).
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E-Business Model
An e-business model may be defined as the utilization of information and
communication technologies (ICT) in support of all business activities (Strauss &
Frost, 2009) or is an approach to conducting electronic business on the Internet
(Baltzan & Philips, 2009; Bulkeley, 2001). E-business transactions take place
between two major entities – businesses and consumers. All e-business activities
happen within the framework of two types of business relationships: (1) the
exchange of products and services between businesses (business-to-business, or
B2B) and (2) the exchange of products and services with consumers (business-to-
consumer, or B2C). The major difference between B2B and B2C is the customers;
B2B customers are other businesses while B2C markets to consumers. On an
overall basis, B2B relations are more complex and have higher security needs; plus
B2B is the dominant e-business force, representing 80 percent of all online
businesses. Table 1.1 illustrates all the basic e-business models: Business-to-
Business (B2B), Business-to-Consumers (B2C), Consumer-to-Business (C2B), and
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010; Hanson & Kalyanam,
2007; emarketer, 2006).
Table 1.1 Basic E-Business Models
E-Business Term Definition
Business-to-Business (B2B) Applies to businesses buying from and selling
to each other over the Internet.
Business-to-Consumers (B2C) Applies to any business that sells its products
or services to consumers over the Internet.
Consumer-to-Business (C2B) Applies to any consumer that sells a product or
service to a business over the Internet.
Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) Applies to sites primarily offering goods and
services to assist consumers interacting with
each other over the Internet.
According to Baltzan and Philip (2009), in order to stay competitive and be more
effective, a business must master the art of electronic relationships and really look
into the electronic medium as an additional channel to conduct and grow the
business. The major business areas or activities taking advantage of e-business
include: marketing and sales, financial services, procurement, customer service,
and intermediaries (“Business Week,” 2000). The following Table 1.2 presents the
specific list of potential e-business models for micro entrepreneurs to embark on.
Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Business
E-business has drastically changed the way businesses function in today’s global
economic marketplace. The technological development and advancement in the
past few decades have given businesses the opportunity and ability to grow as well
as expanding beyond their local and existing market territories. The Internet
became a medium or channel for businesses to reach global consumers with their
products and services, increasing their revenue and profits (Vitez, 2010; Hagel &
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Armstrong, 1997a). With all these benefits that e-businesses possess, there must
be advantages (pros) and disadvantages (cons) of e-businesses as presented in
Table 1.3.
E-Business Contributions
As shown in Table 1.4, e-business strategies help firm to decrease internal
expenses, often improving the value proposition for consumers and business
associates. They can also increase and strengthen the enterprise revenue stream,
an important part of the e-business model (Stair & Reynolds, 2010; Strauss & Frost,
2009; Hanson & Kalyanam, 2007).
Table 1.2 The Specific List of Potential E-Business Models
E-Business Models Descriptions
Content Sponsorship An e-commerce business model that involves companies
selling online website space or e-mail space to advertisers.
Infomediary An online organization that aggregates and distributes
information.
Intermediaries A firm that appears in the channel between the supplier and
the consumer, and specializes in performing functions
more efficiently than the supplier could such as online
brokers, online agents, and online retailer.
Online Brokers An intermediary that brings buyers and sellers together but
does not represent either side. Like agents, brokers are
paid by either the buyer or the seller e.g. online exchange
and online auction.
Online Agents An intermediary who represent either the buyer or the seller,
does not take title to the goods, and makes a commission
for work completed e.g. selling agent (affiliate program),
manufacturer’s agent (catalog aggregator), shopping
agent, reverse auction, and buyer cooperative.
Online Retailer Use of digital technologies such as the internet and bar code
scanners to enable the buying and selling process. E-commerce is
about transactions through distribution channels and e-tailing e.g.
digital products, tangible products, and direct distribution.
Source adopted from Strauss & Frost, 2009
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Table 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Business
Advantages (Pros) of E-Business Disadvantages (Cons) of E-Business
Global presence and worldwide market
Multiple market segments
Cost effective/low business costs for marketing and
promotions
Competitive advantages
Business 24/7 and 365 days
Speed in customer service
Self-freedom
Keeping the cash
Open up opportunity
Minimum risk
Tax advantages
Spending more time with family
Minimum stress
Maximize productivity
Opportunities for professional growth
Develop own creativity
Sectoral limitations
Costly e-business solutions for
optimization
Stiff competition
Difficult customer relationship
High maintenance costs
Security and privacy issues
Virus threat
Physical products constrain
Perishable goods
Payment issues
Identity issues
Contract issues
Governing laws
Table 1.4 The Contributions of E-Business
Increases Benefits
Online mass customization and personalization.
24/7 convenience store.
Self-service ordering and tracking.
One-stop shopping centre.
Learning from customers on social networking sites.
Increases Revenues
Online transaction revenues such as product, information, advertising, and subscription
fees; or commission on a transaction or referral.
Adds value to products/services and increase prices (e.g., online FAQ and customer
support).
Increases customer base by reaching new markets.
Builds customer relationship and, thus, increases current customer spending (share
wallet).
Decreases Costs
Lowers distribution costs of communication messages (e.g., e-mail).
Lowers distribution channel costs for digital-based products or services.
Lowers transactions processing costs.
Lowers knowledge acquisition costs (e.g., customer feedback and market research).
Develops efficiencies in supply chain (through communication and inventory
optimization).
Reduces the cost of customer service.
Source adopted from Strauss & Frost, 2009
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Potential of E-Business in Malaysia
According to Gordon (2010), micro-entrepreneurs are the owners of small
businesses that consist of less than five employees with the startup capital of less
than $35,000 and annual sales of less than $100,000. There are about 21.5 million
micro- entrepreneurs in the U.S. Examples of micro-entrepreneurs are owners of
art and craft shops, bakeries, painting businesses, family-owned businesses,
contracting businesses, and small-inventory trading businesses. The definition
highlights that e-business can be seen as a new way of handling business and
business processes in which people do not have to be in a specific physical place
to conduct the business. The business can be operated from home or anywhere as
long as they are connected to the internet (Zorayda, 2003). The increasing use of
the Internet and web-based technology has introduced various web-based
applications and strategies for businesses. Today, the e-business is not only widely
adopted by large organizations but gradually followed by medium, small and micro-
sized entrepreneurs (Al Qirim, 2006).
According to Damanpour (2001), e-business can be seen as a new way of
conducting a business that has changed the conventional buying and selling
process into an online-based process. It has also changed the way people perceive
their Internet technology by focusing on new e-business models and concepts.
Today, these perceptions may have changed as e-business allows not just the type
of home business as described above but also the professional workers utilizing the
Internet and web-based applications to perform their tasks from home (Bateman,
2000).
With further deployment of wireless technologies, the number of Internet users is
expected to increase to 4 billion individuals in the next few years. This is among the
reasons why individuals and businesses love to do e-business. From a research,
there are about 17 million people in Malaysia use Internet as their medium to do
many activities such as surfing, shopping, chatting, blogging and many other
related activities. The majority of the Internet users are located in Selangor, Kuala
Lumpur, Johor, and Penang (Irfan, 2010).
In Malaysia, the e-business adoption by medium, small and micro-sized
entrepreneurs is still at the early stage. Therefore, this study looks into the
potentials of e-business for micro-sized entrepreneurs that operate from home - the
so called Home-Based Business Models (HBBMs). It is described as a business
with its primary business activities being carried out from home and it can be of any
size or any type as long as the site itself is located in a home (Fong, Ching, Yip, &
Chan, 2000). In earlier practices, the HBBM is categorized as a business that
operates from home and mostly carried out as a part time job. It is also claimed to
be mostly suitable for women, for example, women can sew clothes or sell
homemade cookies or shoes while taking care of the family and doing house
chores (Loscocco & Smith-Hunter, 2004).
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As Malaysia moved towards advanced information, communication and multimedia
services, the technology awareness among Malaysians is increasing tremendously
from time to time. Thus, a large number of high-tech companies from around the
world have started to set up in Malaysia Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) Project.
According to Telecom Malaysia (TMB), the number of Internet users in Malaysia is
expected to reach the 10 million mark in the next five years. This was based on the
growing trend of Internet users in the last three years. In 2004 the number of
Internet users was close to 3 million, in 2005 it increased to over 3.5 million, and in
2006 the number was almost 5 million. This is an encouraging growing trend, and
the majority of the Internet users were looking for high speed broadband
infrastructure. In relation to the number of fraud cases involving Internet activities, it
is relatively small and Malaysia has sufficient laws to deal with and curb such fraud
cases (“Malaysia Internet,” 2007).
Developing e-business strategy is started by asking firms what they want to sell and
how they will sell it. From the e-business channel, some firms sell their whole
product line while some just a few selected items. The important and critical
question here will be is the product or service suitable for online business? Will
consumer purchase the product or service offered? Most firms are seeking to
realize the potential of e-business and to engage in the e-marketing (Haque,
Sadeghzadeh, & Khatibi, 2006; Rowley, 2000). For firms operating on the Internet,
being successful depends on how they manage to identify the potentials of e-
business of their products or services. Not all products or services have potentials
for e-business. Almost 50 percent of advertisement costs are wasting (Smith &
Brynjolfsson, 2001), so if large firms and small and medium-sized firms as well as
micro-entrepreneurs are unable to adopt a suitable strategy for selecting their
relevant products or services, which have enough potential for e-business, they
may incur heavy losses. So understanding which elements determine potential of e-
business of a specific product or service in a particular marketplace is imperative
(Poon & Joseph, 2001; Blackwell, Miniard, & Engle, 2000).
CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTS TO E-BUSINESS SUCCESS
The well-known marketing mix has been in existence for more than 40 years as the
4Ps of Product, Price, Place, and Promotion (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010; Kalyanam
& McIntyre, 2002). But, in the post dot-com boom era, marketers and marketing
managers are learning to manage with a whole host of new marketing elements
that have emerged from the online world of the Internet. In some ways these new
marketing elements have close analogs in the off-line world, and yet from another
perspective they are revolutionary and worthy of a new characterization into what
we coin as the E-Marketing mix. Today, few if any business plans can be completed
without a blending of the E-Marketing mix into the traditional marketing mix to form
an effective business strategy (Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002).
Here, we find it worthwhile to characterize the E-Marketing Mix using a 4Ps +
S2P2C2. In other words we keep the original 4Ps (which have been discussed in
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great details by many marketing scholars) and add Site Design, Security,
Personalization, Privacy, Customer Service, and Community to characterize the E-
Marketing Mix (see Figure 1.1) (Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002).
From the review of past research data and as reported by the United States
Department of Commerce (1996), only about 23 percent of small businesses
survived to their fifth year. As far as business success is concerned, a business
does not guarantee a success to its owner. However, the success of a business
depends on various internal and external elements. The success of e-business
model depends largely on the following e-marketing elements as depicted in Figure
1.1 (Azahari & Abd. Razak, 2010).
Customer Service
Site Design
Community
Product
Price
Promotion
Place (Distribution
Channel)
Personalization
Security
Privacy
Figure 1.1 The E-Marketing Mix
E-Marketing Mix
Product
The aspect of the E-Marketing mix has many similarities to the assortment selection
practices of retailers. Given these similarities, we only focus on some of the more
unique capabilities in the online environment. Merchandising and Recommendation
- once the assortment has been selected, it is a common practice in the retail
industry for the merchant to provide some creative expression for the product. For
instance, retailers often display the merchandise in some specific context, perhaps
with accessories, or against the backdrop of a particular environment. Online, these
merchandising practices can be enhanced by using the multi-media audio and
visual aids. The context and the accessories that are highlighted in the
merchandising can form the basis for recommendations. The recommendations can
be made accessible to the consumers using buttons for recommendations, callouts,
accessories or suggested use. These recommendations are based on the expertise
of the merchant. In contrast to these expert recommendations, in the online world,
one can provide recommendations based on a data mining techniques that have
been popularly referred to as collaborative filtering. Collaborative filtering forms the
basis of a well-known recommendation engine on Amazon. In this approach,
recommendations are generated by comparing the purchase patterns of past
customers to the preference patterns of the current customers based on their
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similarities. For example, if Mr. Lee is on the site and has purchased 9 books in the
past, he can be compared to other customers who also bought those 9 books and
what else those other customers have purchased. Those other purchases would
become natural recommendations for Mr. Lee (Stair & Reynolds, 2010; Strauss &
Frost, 2009; Hanson & Kalyanam, 2007; Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002; Poon &
Joseph, 2001; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Price
We will focus our discussion on the online pricing techniques, particularly those that
are substantially new including: Dynamic pricing – refers to changing prices on
continuous basis in order to meet the characteristics and needs of individual
customers and situations. Forward auction – sometimes called English Auction, as
popularized by eBay. In this approach the seller places an item for auction. The
item is available over a pre-specified time interval. The seller may or may not
stipulate a minimum reserve price. The interested buyers bid on the item until the
auction closes. Reverse auction refers to an exchange arrangement in which
individual buyers enter the price they will pay for particular items at the purchasing
agent’s Web site, and sellers can agree or not (Strauss & Frost, 2009; Kalyanam &
McIntyre, 2002; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Promotion
We will focus our discussion on the promotion techniques, particularly those that
are substantially new including: Banner ad refers to rectangular space appearing on
a Web site, paid for by an advertiser, which allows the user to click-through to the
advertiser’s Web site. Sponsored Links refers to integration of editorial content and
advertising on a Web site, the sponsor pays for space and creates content that
appeals to the publisher’s audience. E-mail refers to Internet-based direct
marketing is the use of personalized e-mails. Given database of prospects and
customers e-mail messages can be highly targeted. E-mail campaigns can rely on
“opt-in” or “permission marketing” to be sure that respondents do not receive
unsolicited message. Apart from text, emails include video, audio and web pages.
Viral marketing refers to online equivalent of word-of-mouth and referred to as
word-of-mouse, which occurs when individuals forward e-mail to friends, coworkers,
family, and others on their e-mail lists. E- coupons refers to traditional coupons, but
Internet users’ “point and clip” these electronic coupons (Strauss & Frost, 2009;
Hanson & Kalyanam, 2007; Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002; Smith & Brynjolfsson,
2001).
Place (Distribution Channel)
We will focus our discussion on the place or distribution channel techniques,
particularly those that are substantially new including: Remote Hosting refers to
using a technology called remote merchant hosting the portal can host a mirror
image of the site. Retailer can rent space on these shopping sections and the portal
take the order and forward it to the retailer. Affiliates refer to a link to an e-tailer’s
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Web site, put in by firms to make a commission on all purchases by referred
customers (Strauss & Frost, 2009; Hanson & Kalyanam, 2007; Smith &
Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Site Design
A well develop and appealing website can be considered as a potent online
portfolio of a company or an individual engaged in online business. A well designed,
easy to navigate and search engine friendly website will obviously rank high in
search engine result page resulting more traffic to the website. A website is an
online identity of a company or of an individual involved in Internet business. The
task related with the website is to represent a company, attract more visitors, sell
company’s name, promote more sale of company’s products and services,
generate more business leads and ultimately, help to gain more return on
investment. In this era of advanced technology, electronic commerce have highly
dominated the business practice, and due to easy availability and affordability of the
Internet, people are running after it and making a lot of profit at the comfort of their
home. As a serious e-business person, what is important for our business is, to
prepare a website that is well designed, attractive, easy to navigate, highly usable,
good content, full of relevant information, enough functionalities and are capable of
retaining visitors for long and make them come back again (Stair & Reynolds, 2010;
Strauss & Frost, 2009; Hanson & Kalyanam, 2007; Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002;
Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Security
Along with personalization and privacy a related concern is with the Security of the
web site itself. Specific issues of concern include whether someone can intercept
the transaction and the credit card information and how easy it would be for a
hacker to enter the web site. Sites address these issues with a security policy that
addresses among other issues including: (1)what aspects of the site and the
transaction are secure, (2) what technology is being used, and (3) what the liability
of the customer is if a credit card number is stolen or there is a security breach
(Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002 & 2001; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Personalization
Personalization refers to methods of individualizing an impersonal computer
networked environment such as web sites that greet users by their name, providing
personalized information. In an analogous way, Personalization in the online world
is a term use to connote any aspect of a web-site or web service that is tailored
individually in response to a returning customer. Usually users register with a site
and create a profile. When the users return they only shown the information that
they signed up for or find relevant. Personalization on the web can be widespread
compared to what a traditional storekeeper could achieve. For example,
personalization at Amazon.com takes place in the form of personalized book
recommendations for well over 30 million shoppers (Strauss & Frost, 2009; Hanson
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& Kalyanam, 2007; Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002 & 2001; Hagen, Howe, & Berman,
1998; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Privacy
A topic of much debate, including issues of the Warren and Brandeis concept of a
right to be left alone, often referred to as the seclusion theory; access control, which
places its emphasis on laws and standards that enable persons to reasonably
regulate the information that they are giving up; and autonomy that identifies private
matters such as those necessary for a person to make life decisions. A typical
privacy policy addresses what information is being collected and how it will be used
and whether the information will be sold or shared with third parties and if so in
what context (Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002 & 2001; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Customer Service
We will focus our discussion on the customer service techniques, particularly those
that are substantially new including: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ’s) and Help
Desks refers to link which leads to a help desk or a support page that provides
users with links to specific customer support tools. A very common customer
support tool is a frequently asked questions (FAQ) list. This list is usually reflective
of the most common types of customer support issues. E-mail Response
Management refers to an automated response management system which
responded immediately with an acknowledgement or thank you for the sender’s
inbound e-mail query. Chat room refers to virtual space where Internet users can
communicate in real time using special software (Strauss & Frost, 2009; Kalyanam
& McIntyre, 2002; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
Community
In term of an e-marketing tool, “community” means getting customers to interact
with one another in a way that increases the benefits of coming to the sponsor’s
web site. A virtual community is also a location on the Internet where individuals
interact with one another. For example, chat rooms where people discuss specific
stocks, automobiles, or buy and sell goods and services through auctions like eBay
are all of virtual communities. Internet technologies have enabled, in a very cost
effective manner, the building of communities that are at the same time very narrow
in terms of their focus while geographically broad in terms of their reach. In some
cases the purpose of the interaction is to conduct transaction as in the case of an
online auction or a gift registry (Strauss & Frost, 2009; Hanson & Kalyanam, 2007;
Kalyanam & McIntyre, 2002; Smith & Brynjolfsson, 2001).
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CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This paper attempts to provide some useful insight into e-business. Based on the
literature reviews, the researchers highlighted as well as discussing the important
elements contributing to the success of e-business. In particular, the researchers
suggested that any newly set-up or existing entrepreneurs should carefully study
and analyze the e-marketing elements before making any investment decisions in
e-business activities. With regard to this, it is imperative that entrepreneurs seeking
professional advice regarding any concerns and questions before making any
commitment in this type of business model.
A primary limitation of this study is that the E-Marketing Mix framework has yet to
validate as a “valid” framework. After all, others might come up with alternatives
frameworks or different classifications. Therefore, this is only a starting point and
should be viewed as exploratory. This suggests that the first line of empirical
research might be to validate this particular framework and categorization. Such an
empirical validation of classification could be done with experts in the form of
knowledgeable E-Marketing managers or successful e-business entrepreneurs. It is
hoped that this study would not only increase the entrepreneurs understanding of e-
business, but also generate more interest in this type business model.
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KELENTURAN DALAM MENJANA MASALAH STATISTIK MELALUI
DATA SELANJAR
Faridah binti Salleh
Bahagian Pendidikan Menengah MARA
Effandi bin Zakaria
Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
ABSTRAK
Pengajaran dan pembelajaran matematik di peringkat sekolah menengah banyak melibatkan
aktiviti penyelesaian masalah. Melalui aktiviti sebegini, keupayaan murid untuk memahami
konsep dan prosedur pembelajaran boleh dikenal pasti. Masalah yang disediakan oleh guru
harus mempunyai ciri kelenturan yang dapat menggalakkan murid menggunakan kemahiran
kognitif mereka. Artikel ini membentangkan dapatan kajian tentang keupayaan guru menjana
masalah yang mempunyai ciri kelenturan dalam pembelajaran topik statistik. Kajian tinjauan
ini melibatkan 175 orang guru matematik dari 46 buah Maktab Rendah Sains MARA yang
dipilih melalui persampelan berstrata. Guru diberikan stimulus yang merupakan satu set data
selanjar dan kemudian meminta mereka menjana seberapa banyak masalah statistik tanpa
menyediakan skema penyelesaiannya. Kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan instrumen telah
dikenal pasti manakala pengesahan tentang penilaian kelenturan masalah ini pula dilakukan
oleh pakar yang telah ditentukan. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan guru dapat menjana 221
(68.6%) masalah statistik dalam tempoh yang ditetapkan dan tahap kelenturan masalah
yang dijanakan oleh guru adalah pada tahap sederhana. Analisis ANOVA Sehala
menunjukkan tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam min skor kelenturan bagi tiga
kumpulan guru (Kumpulan K1: mengajar kurang daripada 5 tahun; kumpulan K2: mengajar
antara 6 hingga 10 tahun; dan kumpulan K3: mengajar lebih daripada 10 tahun) dengan nilai
F(2,172) = 3.01 dengan p = 0.052. Ini menunjukkan bahawa perbezaan yang wujud tidak
signifikan pada tahap 0.05. Pengkaji berharap supaya dapatan kajian ini dapat memberikan
maklumat kepada Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia dan Bahagian Pendidikan MARA,
tentang perlunya guru diberikan pendedahan melalui kursus dalam perkhidmatan demi
meningkatkan kemahiran menjana masalah seterusnya meningkatkan tahap kelenturan
masalah yang dijanakan.
Kata kunci: Penjanaan masalah, Masalah Statistik, Kelenturan, Data Selanjar
17
Pendahuluan
Dalam pembelajaran matematik, membangunkan kemahiran berfikir secara kolektif
dan kritikal, dapat dilaksanakan melalui aktiviti penyelesaian masalah yang sering
dikaitkan dengan persoalan harian dan masalah yang melibatkan data dan
maklumat. Masalah begini banyak dibincangkan dalam topik statistik. Kemahiran
yang diperolehi melalui pembelajaran statistik ini menjadi asas kepada
meningkatnya ilmu pengetahuan dalam pelbagai bidang profesion (Friel et al., 2001;
Gal, 2002; Watson, 2011). Masalah-masalah yang diberikan kepada murid harus
dapat menyediakan ruang berfikir bagi membolehkan mereka menggunakan
kemahiran kognitif peringkat tinggi seperti menganalisis, menilai, dan mencipta.
Keupayaan guru menjana dan menghasilkan masalah sendiri merupakan
satu kelebihan berbanding menggunakan masalah daripada buku teks atau buku
rujukan. Guru boleh mempelbagaikan bentuk persoalan yang dapat disesuaikan
dengan situasi dan tahap kognitif murid. Sesuatu masalah yang boleh merangsang
murid untuk menjawab harus mempunyai daya tarikan yang dapat membawa
kepada keinginan murid untuk menyelesaikannya (Krulik & Rudnick, 1996).
Disamping itu, kreativiti guru boleh diukur melalui masalah yang dijana sendiri.
Kreativiti seseorang guru merupakan suatu petunjuk yang melambangkan
keupayaan mereka mempelbagaikan bentuk dan aktiviti pembelajaran yang dapat
menarik dan meningkatkan pembelajaran murid.
Kreativiti biasanya diukur dengan menggunakan Torrance Test of Creative
Thinking (TTCT) dan alat pengukuran ini (TTCT) digunakan ke atas murid dan juga
orang dewasa yang melibatkan pengukuran daripada 3 komponen utama. Pertama,
kelancaran (fluency) iaitu proses menghasilkan idea yang banyak pada satu-satu
masa yang singkat. Melalui elemen kelancaran ini, idea yang dijana tidak
semestinya terlalu berbeza. Kedua, kelenturan (flexibility) iaitu proses menghasilkan
idea-idea dengan kepelbagaian kategori dan berbeza sama sekali. Ketiga, keaslian
(originality) iaitu proses menghasilkan idea-idea yang baharu dan asli (Balka, 1974;
Silver, 1997). Untuk menilai kreativiti dalam matematik, terdapat kajian yang
membangunkan sendiri instrumen yang berkaitan kreativiti ini (Jesen, 1973), tetapi
masih merujuk kepada tiga komponen kreativiti yang sama iaitu kelancaran,
kelenturan, dan keaslian masalah yang dijanakan (Silver, 1994).
Oleh itu, melalui artikel ini, keupayaan guru menjana masalah statistik yang
merujuk kepada elemen kelenturan akan dibincangkan secara lebih mendalam.
Dapatan yang dipaparkan merupakan sebahagian dapatan daripada kajian asal
yang melibatkan kreativiti guru melalui elemen kelancaran, kelenturan, dan keaslian
masalah.
Elemen kelenturan
Kelenturan merupakan salah satu elemen kreativiti yang mampu menghasilkan
idea-idea dengan kepelbagaian kategori dan berbeza sama sekali. Kelenturan
sesuatu masalah berkaitan dengan bagaimana seseorang itu berfikir untuk menjana
18
masalah daripada satu aplikasi biasa kepada aplikasi yang lain. Proses pemikiran
yang mempunyai ciri kelenturan ini melibatkan pemikiran divergen dan konvergen
(divergent & convergent) (Haylock, 1987; Sak & Maker, 2005; Shahabuddin &
Rohizani, 2003). Pemikiran distruktur semula dengan memecahkan blok kognitif
agar masalah yang dijana itu, dapat dianalisis dalam pelbagai perspektif (Sak &
Maker, 2005). Bagi menjana sesuatu masalah, pemikiran divergen mengutamakan
fokus kepada kedua-dua kualiti dan kuantiti idea. Pemikiran divergen yang bercorak
kreatif ini mampu menggunakan segala sumber maklumat dalam usaha
melaksanakan suatu tugas yang diberikan, sehingga terhasil pelbagai idea
berkenaan sesuatu perkara dalam tugasan tersebut (Shahabuddin & Rohizani,
2003; Yuan & Sriraman, 2010).
Dapatan kajian Leung dan Silver (1997) menunjukkan terdapat hubungan
antara elemen kelancaran dan kelenturan dalam kreativiti lisan dan dalam
penjanaan masalah. Pertama, guru yang mempunyai skor tinggi dalam kelancaran
ujian kreativiti lisan juga mendapat skor yang tinggi dalam kelancaran penjanaan
masalah (r=0.361, p<0.01). Kedua, guru yang mendapat skor yang tinggi dalam
kelenturan ujian kreativiti lisan tidak semestinya mendapat skor yang tinggi dalam
kelenturan penjanaan masalah. Ketiga, skor kelenturan dalam kreativiti lisan dan
dalam penjanaan masalah berkorelasi secara signifikan (r=0.265, p<0.05). Dapatan
kajian menunjukkan bahawa kelancaran adalah suatu yang umum dalam kreativiti
lisan dan penjanaan masalah manakala kelenturan pula lebih spesifik dalam
penjanaan masalah aritmetik. Ini bermakna, seseorang perlu memahami secara
spesifik isi kandungan dalam satu-satu topik untuk mereka meningkatkan kelenturan
masalah yang dijanakan (Cruz, 2006).
Masa adalah antara halangan kepada guru untuk menjana masalah yang
lebih bermutu. Menurut Sriraman (2008), seorang yang kreatif memerlukan masa
yang panjang untuk melaksanakan sesuatu tugasan. Walaupun begitu, menurut
Maimunah (2005), jika seseorang mencabar diri dengan memberikan tumpuan dan
fokus dalam masa terhad, beliau dapat meningkatkan idea melaksanakan tugasan.
Selain itu, elemen kreativiti juga dapat dihasilkan dengan hanya melalui stimulus
seperti pandangan, sentuhan, dan rasa (Garner, 2013).
Ini bermakna kreativiti khasnya kelenturan guru boleh digilap dan
ditingkatkan apabila ada ruang untuk mereka menunjukkan kreativiti mereka. Dalam
hal ini peluang guru menjana masalah perlu disediakan, disokong, dan digalakkan
bagi memperbaiki kelenturannya dan meningkatkan mutu masalah yang dijanakan.
Penjanaan masalah
Dalam aktiviti penjanaan masalah, seorang penjana masalah harus mengenal pasti
ciri yang dapat menarik perhatian penyelesai masalah iaitu penerima masalah
berkaitan (Krulik & Rudnick, 1993, 1996). Beberapa kajian yang dijalankan
menunjukkan bahawa bentuk masalah yang berbeza formatnya mempengaruhi
pencapaian seseorang dalam menyelesaikan masalah yang diterimanya (Stickles,
2006) seperti contohnya dari segi struktur masalah, konteks masalah, panjang
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penggunaan ayat, serta magnitud nombor yang digunakan (Goldin & McClintock,
1984). Terdapat sebilangan besar guru yang terlibat dalam kajian ini menyatakan
tidak berminat membaca masalah yang mempunyai ayat yang panjang dan berbelit-
belit (Stickles, 2006). Sudah tentu murid juga tidak berminat menyelesaikan
masalah yang panjang kerana ini memerlukan ketelitian dalam mengenal pasti
maksud yang terkandung dalam permasalahan itu. Ini bermakna guru perlu
berkemahiran menjana masalah yang bersesuaian dan dapat menarik seseorang
untuk cuba menyelesaikan masalah yang diberikan.
Aktiviti penjanaan masalah dan aktiviti penyelesaian masalah kedua-duanya
saling melengkapi antara satu sama lain (Kilpatrick, 1987; Polya, 1973). Untuk
menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah, perlulah ada masalah yang telah dijana oleh
seseorang sebelumnya (Polya, 1973) yang berkemungkinan ia seorang pakar
matematik, pendidik matematik atau guru itu sendiri. Seorang penjana masalah
bertindak sebagai pakar yang berupaya memikirkan bentuk masalah yang tulen dan
asli (Brown & Walter, 2005; Polya, 1973). Aktiviti penjanaan masalah ini merupakan
suatu aktiviti kognitif yang kompleks kerana ia melibatkan pelbagai proses kognitif
dan metakognitif (Cruz, 2006; Mastre, 2002; Pittalis et al., 2004). Proses penjanaan
masalah ini melibatkan pemilihan, pengklasifikasian, melakukan transformasi,
membuat perkaitan, penelitian, dan seterusnya menjana masalah (Cruz, 2006).
Melalui aktiviti penjanaan masalah ini, ciri kreativiti dalam matematik dapat dikenal
pasti (Silver, 1997) malahan melalui proses yang kompleks ini juga, seorang
penjana masalah dapat memahami isi kandungan sesuatu topik dengan lebih
mendalam (Cruz, 2006). Ini menunjukkan, kekerapan guru menjana masalah yang
mempunyai ciri kelenturan dan keaslian dapat membantu guru itu sendiri mendalami
isi kandungan mata pelajaran yang hendak disampaikan kepada murid.
Pengetahuan guru tentang perkaitan antara isi kandungan mata pelajaran
dapat membantu mereka menjana masalah dengan baik (Cruz, 2006). Pengetahuan
tentang isi kandungan yang baik ini membolehkan guru menggunakan kemahiran
berfikir secara tepat dan berkesan (Rotherhem & Willingham, 2009). Guru juga
dapat menjana masalah yang dapat membangunkan konsep dan kemahiran murid
(Callingham, 1997).
Dapatan kajian yang lepas menunjukkan bahawa guru berpengalaman lebih
berjaya melaksanakan tugasan yang diberikan berbanding guru novis (Schoenfeld,
1985, Meyer, 2004). Ini disebabkan pengalaman mengajar dikatakan dapat
mengukuhkan kemahiran dalam mata pelajaran yang disampaikan kepada murid
(Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009). Guru berpengalaman mempunyai asas
pengetahuan yang terbina dengan baik, mereka didapati lebih lentur dengan
pelbagai corak menangani penyelesaian tugasan (Meyer, 2004). Pengurusan
pengajaran guru berpengalaman dikatakan seimbang dalam pengajaran sebagai
seni dan sains. Mereka menggunakan pengalaman harian murid untuk membantu
kefahaman dalam pengajaran. Malah guru berpengalaman sering menjadi rujukan
guru novis untuk memperkuatkan kefahaman matematik mereka (Cuddapah &
Burtin, 2012). Guru novis pula hanya melihat sesuatu perkara dan proses secara
sempit dan terbatas, ini menjadikan keupayaan menyelesaikan tugasan begitu
terhad (Meyer, 2004). Jurang perbezaan antara guru berpengalaman dan guru
20
novis dapat diatasi dengan mengadakan latihan dalam perkhidmatan dalam
kalangan guru.
Bagi membolehkan murid-murid menganalisis sesuatu pernyataan secara
kritikal semasa pembelajaran statistik, mereka perlu diberikan konsep asas dan
pengetahuan tentang pendekatan pengukuran yang dikenali sebagai statistik
deskriptif dengan jelas (Rasfield, 2001). Jika guru tidak cukup pengetahuan dan
ilmu tentang statistik terutamanya konsep data, konsep purata, konsep median, dan
juga konsep sisihan piawai, sudah tentu murid tidak akan menerima maklumat yang
tepat tentangnya (Callingham et al., 1995; Callingham, 1997). Penerangan mereka
menjadi hambar kerana tidak dapat memberikan penjelasan dengan mendalam.
Kebiasaannya, pembelajaran statistik juga melibatkan sesuatu maklumat
atau paten yang digambarkan dalam bentuk jadual, carta atau graf yang sesuai dan
mudah dikenal pasti (Harradine & Konold, 2006). Manakala sesuatu struktur jadual
yang mengandungi data pula berkait dengan graf yang bakal diwakilkan. Disamping
itu, setiap bentuk jadual atau graf pula ada tujuan yang spesifik (Freil et al., 2001).
Murid perlu berkebolehan memerhati dan menginterpretasi paten (Scheaffer &
Tabor, 2008) dan berkemahiran melihat perhubungan antara graf dan
kesesuaiannya dalam situasi tertentu (Mooney, 2010). Oleh itu, guru perlu
berkemahiran menjana masalah yang memerlukan kemahiran dalam membuat
perwakilan jadual dan grafik daripada hasil analisis data, serta membolehkan murid
mentafsir dengan baik. Perwakilan grafik yang betul dapat menggambarkan sesuatu
maklumat dengan jelas dan bermakna.
Kesimpulannya, kemahiran guru dan pengetahuan yang mendalam tentang
isi kandungan dapat membantu mereka menjana masalah yang baik. Pengalaman
mengajar juga seharusnya dapat membantu dalam menjana masalah yang
bercirikan kelenturan. Kecekapan guru dan kelenturan mereka menjana masalah
akan membolehkan murid menggunakan pengetahuan tentang konsep dan
prosedur yang kemudian berupaya mengaplikasi serta menganalisis sesuatu
permasalahan dengan baik.
Pernyataan masalah
Kemahiran menyelesaikan masalah pembelajaran matematik dapat meningkatkan
kefahaman dan kemahiran murid sekaligus membantu mereka menyelesaikan
masalah sebenar dalam situasi harian (Abu-Elwan, 1999; Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia, 2004). Menyediakan masalah kepada murid adalah satu cabaran kepada
guru kerana mereka biasanya kurang yakin dengan kebolehan murid terutamanya
dalam menyelesaikan masalah bukan rutin. Ini menyebabkan mereka memberikan
hint agar murid mampu menyelesaikan masalah yang disediakan (Crespo, 1998,
2003). Guru seharusnya memilih masalah yang dapat meningkatkan kemahiran
berfikir, membuat analisis, membuat perbandingan dan membuat jangkaan
(Cookson Jr, 2009; Krulik & Rudnick, 1993, 1996; Ormrod, 2008).
21
Terdapat kajian yang menunjukkan guru kerap menjana masalah pada tahap
kognitif yang rendah. Kebanyakan masalah yang dijana berbentuk rutin dan tidak
memerlukan tahap pemikiran yang tinggi. Walaupun guru (47% guru) sedar
keperluan untuk menyediakan masalah yang melibatkan pemikiran tahap tinggi
kepada murid dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran, guru kerap
menyediakan masalah (95.6% masalah) yang mengukur pada tahap rendah sahaja
(Ball, Doss, & Dewalt, 1986). Begitu juga dengan kajian Harpster (1999), sebanyak
60% orang guru menjana masalah pada tahap rendah dan melalui kajian Thompson
(2008) sebanyak 55% masalah yang dijana juga berada pada tahap rendah. Malah
Stickles (2006) dalam kajiannya mendapati 40% masalah yang dijana bukan
merupakan masalah matematik. Manakala kajian Carbone (2009) berkaitan topik
pecahan, menunjukkan peratusan yang tinggi iaitu sebanyak 80% guru tidak
mampu menjana masalah berayat. Ini menunjukkan kemampuan guru untuk
menjana masalah yang berkualiti dan yang dapat menggalakkan pemikiran yang
kritis serta kreatif masih tidak jelas (Xia et al., 2008).
Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia telah cuba memasukkan unsur
pendekatan penjanaan masalah dalam mata pelajaran matematik. Contohnya
dalam buku matematik Integrated Curriculum for Secondary Schools: Mathematics
KBSM Form 2 (VI) 2003. Walaupun terdapat subtopik dalam buku matematik
Tingkatan 2 ini yang meminta murid menjana masalah, pendekatan yang khas tidak
ditunjukkan (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2003). Guru juga tidak menerima
latihan yang khusus untuk melaksanakan pendekatan ini. Perlaksanaan aktiviti
penjanaan masalah oleh guru masih tidak diketahui, adakah guru dapat
melaksanakan dengan baik atau guru mengabaikan subtopik berkenaan.
Merujuk pernyataan-pernyataan di atas, jelas sekali suatu kajian tentang
keupayaan guru menjana masalah perlu dilakukan. Maklumat tentang pengetahuan
guru dalam asas statistik, atau dalam penjanaan masalah statistik di Malaysia perlu
dikaji bagi mengenal pasti tahap keupayaan mereka menyediakan masalah yang
bermutu. Keupayaan guru menjana masalah yang mempunyai ciri kelenturan, dapat
memberikan ruang dan peluang untuk murid menajamkan pemikiran mereka ketika
menyelesaikan masalah yang berkaitan.
Tujuan Kajian
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk melihat kelenturan masalah yang dijana oleh guru.
Disamping itu, kajian juga ingin mengenal pasti perbezaan skor kelenturan tiga
kumpulan guru dalam menjana masalah menerusi data selanjar. Satu hipotesis nol
dibentuk untuk dibuktikan, iaitu;
Ho1: Tidak wujud perbezaan dalam skor kelenturan penjanaan masalah
statistik dalam kalangan guru mengikut pengalaman mengajar.
22
Metodologi kajian
Kajian ini merupakan satu kajian tinjauan yang melibatkan seramai 175 orang guru
matematik daripada populasi 46 buah MRSM. Pemilihan sampel kajian adalah
secara persampelan rawak berstrata dan jantina guru tidak diambilkira. Kesemua
175 orang guru dikumpulkan mengikut kumpulan merujuk kepada bilangan tahun
pengalaman mengajar (Kumpulan K1; mengajar kurang daripada 5 tahun; kumpulan
K2; mengajar antara 6 hingga 10 tahun; dan kumpulan K3; mengajar lebih daripada
10 tahun).
Instrumen yang digunakan untuk melihat kelenturan masalah adalah
instrumen penjanaan masalah. Melalui instrumen ini, satu stimulus yang berupa
data selanjar diberikan kepada guru. Guru diminta menjanakan seberapa banyak
masalah statistik tanpa menyediakan jalan penyelesaiannya. Masa yang diberikan
adalah selama 20 minit dan masa ini merujuk kepada beberapa kajian seperti
Stickles (2006) dan Silver et al. (1996). Melalui kajian mereka, dalam masa yang
ditetapkan seorang guru mampu menjanakan antara 2 ke 4 masalah yang
berkaitan.
Masalah yang telah dijanakan, dianalisis melalui 3 fasa iaitu; pertama:
mengenal pasti adakah ia masalah statistik yang boleh diselesaikan; kedua: apakah
konteks penceritaan yang digunakan dan isi kandungan statistik yang
dirangkumkan. Pengkaji merujuk konteks penceritaan yang terdiri daripada 7
kategori (rujuk Jadual 1) dan isi kandungan statistik mengikut kategori dalam Jadual
2. Ketiga, elemen kelenturan pula diukur melalui rubrik yang disediakan dalam
Jadual 3. Kajian rintis telah dijalankan di tiga buah sekolah yang tidak terlibat dalam
kajian sebenar. Melalui kajian rintis ini kesahan dan kebolehpercayaan instrumen
kajian telah dikenal pasti. Penilaian terhadap elemen kelenturan masalah yang
dijana oleh guru, dinilai oleh pengkaji dan disahkan oleh 2 orang pakar. Nilai
kebolehpercayaan Cohen Kappa adalah 0.635 iaitu melebihi daripada 0.6 yang
membawa maksud ia pada tahap baik (Landis & Koch, 1977).
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l
2
Jadual 1 Konteks Penceritaan Mengikut Kategori Kod Kategori masalah
yang dijana Penjelasan
1 Pertandingan Masalah yang dijana melibatkan aktiviti pertandingan di dalam atau di luar sekolah.
2 Pengangkutan Masalah yang dijana melibatkan segala aktiviti berkaitan pengangkutan atau jenis kenderaan sama ada di dalam atau di luar sekolah.
3 Persekolahan Masalah yang dijana melibatkan aktiviti berkaitan sekolah sama ada guru atau murid, di dalam atau di luar sekolah.
4 Keluarga Masalah yang dijana melibatkan ahli keluarga murid, guru atau penduduk persekitaran.
5 Kewangan Masalah yang dijana melibatkan aktiviti kewangan di dalam atau di luar sekolah.
6 Kesihatan Masalah yang dijana melibatkan aktiviti yang berkaitan dengan kesihatan di dalam atau di luar sekolah.
7 Lain-lain Masalah yang dijana melibatkan aktiviti selain dari 6 kategori yang dinyatakan.
23
Jadual 2 Isi Kandungan Statistik
5 sub-isi
kandungan
utama
Kategori isi kandungan statistik
(S1) Statistik asas (SS)
Statistik asas seperti kekerapan/frekuensi, skor/nilai, peratusan,
beza, nisbah, selang kelas, saiz kelas, jadual kekerapan/frekuensi.
(S2) Kecenderungan memusat (KM)
Ukuran kecenderungan memusat terdiri daripada min, mod,
median.
(S3) Ukuran serakan (US)
Ukuran serakan terdiri daripada julat, julat antara kuartil, sisihan
piawai, varians.
(S4) Carta atau graf (CG)
Jadual kekerapan longgokan, graf palang, graf garisan, carta pai,
histogram, poligon kekerapan, Ogif.
(S5) Pendapat atau kesimpulan (PK)
Memberi pendapat, membuat kesimpulan / rumusan.
Rubrik penskoran elemen kelenturan
Rubrik pemarkahan digunakan bagi memberi skor pemarkahan dan menjelaskan
kriteria yang menjurus kepada masalah yang dijanakan. Rubrik ini diubahsuai
dengan merujuk kepada beberapa kajian seperti Jensen (1973), Craig (1999),
Moskal dan Leydens (2000), Fetterly (2010), dan Yuan dan Sriraman (2010). Satu
masalah yang diterima harus mengandungi konteks penceritaan yang logik dan
munasabah, serta mengandungi satu atau beberapa isi kandungan statistik yang
boleh di selesaikan.
Skor kelenturan adalah skor yang diberikan kepada masalah yang dijana
oleh guru secara individu dengan merujuk perbezaan masalah-masalah yang
mereka janakan dan kemudian perbandingan dibuat terhadap masalah-masalah
tersebut. Kesukaran dalam menilai kelenturan sebenarnya berkaitan dengan
membuat keputusan tentang masalah mana yang berbeza (Jensen, 1973).
Contohnya, jika guru menjana tiga masalah, skor kelenturan 4 diberikan kepada
masalah pertama yang dijana oleh guru. Kemudian pengkaji melihat masalah
kedua, adakah masalah berbeza melalui konteks penceritaannya dan isi
kandungannya berbanding dengan masalah pertama. Seterusnya pengkaji melihat
masalah ketiga, adakah berbeza dengan masalah pertama dan masalah kedua.
Jika terdapat masalah yang dijana mengandungi sekurang-kurangnya dua isi
kandungan yang berbeza dengan masalah yang lain, guru mendapat skor 3. Jika
masalah mengandungi satu isi kandungan yang berbeza dengan masalah yang lain,
skor 2 diberikan. Manakala jika guru menjana masalah yang mempunyai isi
kandungan yang sama atau serupa dengan masalah yang dijana sebelumnya
(Jensen, 1973), maka skor 1 diberikan. Jadual 3 menunjukkan kriteria skor bagi
elemen kelenturan.
24
Jadual 3 Kriteria Skor bagi Elemen Kelenturan
Skor
Kriteria
Skor1 Skor 2 Skor 3 Skor 4
Kelenturan
Satu masalah
yang
mengandungi
konteks
penceritaan, dan
terdapat isi
kandungan
statistik yang
sama dengan
masalah yang
telah dijanakan
sebelum ini oleh
seorang guru
yang sama.
Satu masalah
yang
mengandungi
konteks
penceritaan,
dan terdapat
satu isi
kandungan
statistik yang
berbeza
dengan
masalah lain
yang dijanakan
oleh seorang
guru yang
sama.
Satu masalah
yang
mengandungi
konteks
penceritaan, dan
sekurang-
kurangnya dua
isi kandungan
statistik yang
berbeza dengan
masalah lain
yang dijanakan
oleh seorang
guru yang sama.
Masalah pertama
yang dijanakan oleh
guru dan telah
melepasi fasa 1
Atau
Satu masalah yang
mengandungi
konteks penceritaan,
dan isi kandungan
statistiknya berbeza
dengan satu masalah
lain yang dijanakan
oleh seorang guru
yang sama
Suatu skor penilaian tahap pencapaian yang dibina harus merujuk kepada
norma tempatan khasnya untuk kajian ini. Menurut Gregory (1992) dan Iran (1999),
bagi ujian dan penilaian yang digunakan untuk kegunaan tempatan atau kumpulan
tertentu, boleh membina norma tempatan yang mewakili sampel tempatan yang
bersifat lokal. Jadual 4 menunjukkan empat tahap yang ditetapkan mengikut skor
yang dikumpulkan oleh seorang guru. Skor elemen kreativiti itu adalah bagi setiap
elemen kelancaran, kelenturan, dan keaslian masalah yang dijanakan. Dalam kajian
ini skor elemen kreativiti yang dimaksudkan adalah skor kelenturan yang diperolehi
oleh guru.
Jadual 4 Skala Tahap Mengikut Skor Elemen Kreativiti
Skor elemen
kreativiti
Peratusan Penerangan tahap
0-4 0-25% Lemah
5-8 26-50% Sederhana
9-12 51-75% Baik
13-16 76-100% Cemerlang
Dapatan Kajian
Rajah 1 menunjukkan sebanyak 322 masalah statistik telah cuba dijana oleh guru
dalam kajian ini, tetapi hanya sebanyak 221 (68.6%) masalah statistik yang boleh
diterima untuk dianalisis secara keseluruhannya. Guru kumpulan K1 telah menjana
sebanyak 78 masalah, dan hanya 60.2% daripadanya diterima sementara guru
25
kumpulan K2 pula menjana sebanyak 114 masalah, tetapi hanya 66.7%
daripadanya diterima manakala guru kumpulan K3 pula menjana sebanyak 130
masalah tetapi hanya 75.4% sahaja yang diterima.
Rajah 1 Taburan masalah yang dijana melalui data selanjar mengikut pengalaman
mengajar
Rajah 2 pula menunjukkan mod bagi skor kelenturan guru adalah tahap sederhana
42.3% (K1:14.3%; K2:15.4%; K3:12.6%), diikuti dengan tahap baik baik 27.4%
(K1:4.6%; K2:9.7%; K3:13.1%), tahap lemah 16.7% (K1:5.2%; K2:6.3%%; K3:5.2%)
dan tahap cemerlang 13.7% (K1:1.1%; K2:4.6%; K3:8.0%).
Rajah 2 Tahap skor kelenturan mengikut pengalaman mengajar
Jadual 5 menunjukkan analisis ANOVA satu hala bagi perbezaan skor kelenturan
mengikut pengalaman mengajar melalui data selanjar. Ujian bagi menentukan
keseragaman varians bagi ketiga-tiga kumpulan guru menunjukkan nilai Levene
Statistik (skor kelenturan) = 0.255 (Sig = 0.775): dimana nilainya > 0.05. Oleh yang
demikian, andaian bagi ANOVA satu hala telah dipenuhi.
Dapatan kajian juga mendapati tahap kreativiti guru menerusi elemen kelenturan ini
adalah sederhana dengan min=4.66 (SP=3.35). Seterusnya dapatan kajian ini juga
menunjukkan min kelenturan guru K3 (M=5.4, SP=3.19) adalah lebih baik daripada
min kelenturan guru K2 (M=4.4, SP=3.43) dan K1 (M=3.91, SP=3.34). Walaupun
begitu, nilai F (2,172) bagi ujian ANOVA sehala ini ialah 3.01 dengan
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
<6thn 6-10 thn >10 thn keseluruhan
masalah yang cuba dijanakan
masalah yang diterima
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Cemerlang Baik Sederhana Lemah
K1 ( < 6 tahun)
K2 (6-10 tahun)
K3 (> 10 Tahun)9(5.2%
)
9(5.2%
)
22(12.6%)
11(6.3%)
27(15.4%) 25(14.3%
) 23(13.1
%) 17(9.7
%)
8(4.6%
)
14(8.0
%) 8(4.6%
) 2(1.1%
)
Bilangan Guru
Tahap skor kelenturan guru
Bilangan masalah
221 (68.6%)
322 (100%)
114 98 (75.4%) 130
78 47 (60.2%)
76 (66.7%)
26
kebarangkalian 0.052. Ini menunjukkan perbezaan min adalah tidak signifikan pada
aras p=0.05. Dengan itu, hipotesis nol yang menyatakan tidak wujud perbezaan
skor kelenturan penjanaan masalah dalam kalangan guru mengikut pengalaman
didapati benar dan diterima.
Jadual 5 Analisis ANOVA sehala bagi perbezaan skor kelenturan guru mengikut
pengalaman mengajar melalui data selanjar
Pembolehubah Pengalaman
mengajar
N Min SP p
Kelenturan K1: < 6 thn
44
3.91 3.34 0.052
K2: 6 – 10 thn 63 4.40 3.43
K3: >10 thn 68 5.40 3.19
*signifikan pada p<0.05
Contoh penilaian skor kelenturan setiap guru
Masalah yang dijana oleh setiap individu diberikan skor, merujuk kepada rubrik
penskoran yang disediakan dan pemberian skor ini bergantung kepada bilangan
masalah yang dijana oleh seorang guru.
Berikut adalah contoh skor kelenturan yang diberikan kepada guru U1G1T2. Kod ini
adalah merujuk kepada guru pertama (G1) daripada sekolah pertama di zon Utara
(U1) dan telah mengajar selama 2 tahun (T2). Penilaian skor kelenturan untuk guru
ini adalah dengan melihat satu demi satu masalah yang dijanakan. Guru U1G1T2
menjana 5 masalah rutin tetapi hanya 4 sahaja yang diterima (5(4)).
Masalah pertama (5(4)-1) merupakan masalah rutin yang boleh diselesaikan. Beliau
menjanakan masalah dalam konteks penceritaan tentang berat pelajar. Isi
kandungan kategori adalah dalam S2 iaitu berkaitan purata. Beliau layak diberikan
skor kelenturan 4 kerana itu merupakan masalah yang pertama.
Berat (Kg) 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 65-70 71-75
Frekuensi 3 6 8 14 10 5 4
5(4)-1
U1G1T2
Di dalam kelas terdapat pelajar yang mempunyai berat yang berbeza dan mereka
telah dikelaskan seperti jadual di atas. Apakah purata berat mereka?
Masalah kedua (5(4)-2) tidak dapat diselesaikan kerana maklumatnya yang tidak
mencukupi. Oleh itu skor kelenturan adalah 0.
Kelenturan = 4
27
5(4)-2
U1G1T2
Data menunjukkan masa larian bagi jarak larian 200m
(jarak 200m sahaja tidak logik dengan masa yang dicatatkan).
Masalah ketiga (5(4)-3) yang dijana oleh peserta berkaitan bilangan buku yang
dibaca semasa projek NILAM dilaksanakan dalam tempoh satu tahun. Isi
kandungannya merujuk kepada S2 yang berkaitan purata dan S3 yang menentukan
interkuartil. Oleh kerana guru menjana masalah tentang purata, beliau tidak boleh
mendapat skor 4, tetapi beliau telah menjana isi kandungan S3 iaitu suatu kelainan
daripada masalah rutin pertama yang telah dijanakannya. Mengikut rubrik, beliau
layak diberikan skor kelenturan 2.
Bilangan buku yang
dibaca
41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 65-70 71-75
Frekuensi 3 6 8 14 10 5 4
5(4)-3
U1G1T2
Dalam projek NILAM yang dijalankan di sebuah sekolah, bilangan buku yang telah dibaca
sepanjang tahun telah diambil dan di kelaskan seperti jadual di atas. Berapakah purata
bilangan buku yang telah dibaca oleh seorang pelajar sepanjang tahun tersebut dan cari
interkuartilnya.
Masalah keempat (5(4)-4) yang dijana oleh guru U1G1T2 berkaitan berat ikan yang
dipancing dalam suatu pertandingan. Isi kandungannya adalah merujuk kepada S2
iaitu berkaitan median. Oleh kerana guru menjana masalah tentang median, dan
median adalah dalam kategori S2, beliau tidak boleh mendapat skor 4, tetapi beliau
layak diberikan skor kelenturan 2.
Berat (Kg) 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 65-70 71-75
Frekuensi 3 6 8 14 10 5 4
5(4)-4
U1G1T2
Dalam satu pertandingan memancing, para peserta telah berjaya membawa naik
pelbagai jenis ikan yang mempunyai berat yang berbeza. Berat ikan-ikan
tersebut telah dikelaskan seperti di atas, kira median bagi berat ikan-ikan
tersebut.
Masalah kelima (5(4)-5) yang dijana oleh guru U1G1T2 pula berkaitan umur
penduduk di sebuah taman perumahan. Isi kandungannya merujuk kepada S2 iaitu
tentang purata dan S3 tentang menentukan kuartil pertama. Masalah ini
mempunyai persamaan dengan soalan pertama dan ketiga. Oleh itu, skor yang
boleh diterima adalah 1 sahaja.
Kelenturan = 0
Kelenturan = 2
Kelenturan = 2
28
Umur (tahun) 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 65-70 71-75
Frekuensi 3 6 8 14 10 5 4
5(4)-5
U1G1T2
Dalam satu kawasan taman perumahan, penduduknya terdiri daripada pelbagai lapisan
umur. Umur penduduknya telah dikelaskan berdasarkan jadual di atas. Kira purata umur
bagi penduduk di taman itu dan cari kuartil pertamanya.
Perbincangan
Masalah yang dijana oleh guru dalam kajian ini didapati kurang unsur kelenturan
dengan idea guru kelihatan serupa dan ini menjurus kepada isi kandungan yang
sama. Guru tidak dapat mengolah masalah untuk menjadikan idea itu berbeza.
Elemen kelenturan yang merupakan penghasilan idea-idea dengan kepelbagaian
dan kelainan kategori (Silver, 1997) tidak dapat dilahirkan oleh guru. Sesuatu
masalah itu seharusnya dipertimbangkan melalui pelbagai perspektif dengan
menghuraikan blok kognitif guru bagi mendapatkan masalah yang mempunyai ciri
kelenturan ini (Sak & Maker, 2005).
Persoalan yang dijana agak mendatar, menjurus kepada suatu masalah
dengan tepat, dan tidak memerlukan pemikiran yang mendalam. Bentuk
permasalahan ini hanya berupa latihan untuk menilai pengetahuan murid tentang
apa itu min, mod, median, interkuartil, dan sebagainya. Pendapat Cruz (2006) yang
menyatakan dalam penjanaan masalah, proses pemilihan dan membuat perkaitan,
memerlukan penelitian dan menghendaki aktiviti yang kompleks tetapi proses-
proses ini tidak ditunjukkan oleh kumpulan guru dalam kajian ini. Persoalan rutin
menyebabkan murid tidak perlu berfikir tentang bagaimana penyelesaian harus
dibuat kerana prosedur untuk mendapatkan hasil akhir amat jelas. Ilmu tentang
statistik terutamanya konsep data, purata, median, dan juga konsep sisihan piawai,
tidak dapat dikupas oleh murid melalui persoalan yang dijana oleh guru dalam
kajian ini (Callingham et al., 1995; Callingham, 1997). Melalui masalah yang dijana
juga, dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa guru tidak dapat menyelami kefahaman
murid kerana persoalan tentang mengapa dan untuk apa sesuatu nilai itu dicari
tidak diketengahkan.
Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa permasalahan yang dijana oleh
guru tidak dapat melibatkan secara mendalam tentang penggunaan carta, graf,
interpretasi paten, dan analisis maklumat. Masalah banyak ditumpukan kepada
menentukan ukuran kecenderungan memusat yang umum. Dalam pembelajaran
statistik, seharusnya guru menjana masalah yang dapat meningkatkan kemahiran
berfikir; membuat analisis, membuat perbandingan, dan membuat jangkaan
(Cookson Jr, 2009; Krulik & Rudnick, 1993, 1996; Ormrod, 2008) tetapi ini tidak
Kelenturan = 1
29
dapat ditunjukkan oleh guru dalam kajian ini. Kekurangan penjanaan masalah yang
memerlukan peringkat pemikiran yang tinggi diharapkan bukanlah kerana
kemampuan guru yang tidak mendalami isi kandungan statistik yang berkaitan
(Callingham et al., 1995; Rasfield, 2001; Scheaffer & Tabor, 2008).
Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan bahawa min kelenturan guru K3 lebih baik
berbanding dengan guru K1 dan guru K2. Guru K3 yang berpengalaman ini
seharusnya mempunyai pengetahuan yang kukuh berbanding dengan guru yang
baharu (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009; Mayer, 2004). Walaupun begitu,
ujian ANOVA sehala tidak signifikan pada nilai p=0.052. Ini menunjukkan perbezaan
yang wujud adalah terlalu kecil. Maka boleh dikatakan bahawa ketiga-tiga kumpulan
guru dalam kajian ini masih tidak mempunyai elemen kelenturan yang baik bagi
menghasilkan masalah statistik yang bermutu yang dapat meningkatkan kemahiran
berfikir pada tahap yang tinggi.
Dapatan kajian ini selari dengan dapatan kajian lepas oleh Ball, Doss, dan
Dewalt (1986), Harpster (1999), Thompson (2008), Stickles (2006) dan Carbone
(2009). Nampaknya semenjak hampir 30 tahun, kajian yang dijalankan terhadap
keupayaan guru menjana masalah, menunjukkan guru tidak dapat menghasilkan
masalah yang baik. Maklumat ini membuktikan bahawa guru sentiasa memerlukan
pendedahan ilmu pengetahuan dari masa ke masa bagi meningkatkan prestasi
mereka. Pembacaan, bengkel, latihan, dan sokongan di peringkat sekolah amat
penting untuk membangunkan prestasi mereka.
Rumusan
Mendidik murid supaya berkemahiran menyelesaikan masalah memerlukan guru
yang berkeupayaan memilih masalah yang dapat merangsang pemikiran murid dan
mewujudkan sikap ingin mencuba dalam diri murid tersebut. Tanggung jawab ini
amat besar kepada para guru. Oleh yang demikian, guru perlu mempunyai
kemahiran mengenal pasti bentuk masalah seterusnya menjana masalah yang
sesuai, kerana bukan semua masalah dalam buku teks atau buku-buku dalam
pasaran dapat digunakan bagi memenuhi kehendak pembelajaran. Dapatan kajian
ini jelas memberikan maklumat bahawa guru masih belum mempunyai tahap
kelenturan yang cemerlang dalam aspek penjanaan masalah statistik. Pengalaman
mengajar sahaja tidak mampu membantu guru menjana masalah yang mempunyai
elemen kelenturan. Bagaimana kita dapat membentuk murid yang dapat
menggunakan pemikiran tahap tinggi jika perkara ini tidak segera diatasi. Guru
masih perlukan bimbingan dan latihan dalam perkhidmatan. Pihak kementerian dan
juga MARA khasnya perlu merancang dan menyediakan ruang untuk guru
meningkatkan kemahiran dalam penjanaan masalah ini. Guru perlu sentiasa
memantapkan diri dengan ilmu pengetahuan, isi kandungan dan pengetahuan
pedagogi agar tahu dengan jelas hubungan konsep yang hendak diajar kepada
murid. Guru yang berdedikasi dan sentiasa menambah keupayaan diri sudah tentu
dapat membangunkan potensi murid mereka ke arah kecemerlangan.
30
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35
MICROFINANCE AND SMALL BUSINESS GROWTH IN KELANTAN AND
TERENGGANU
M. Mohd Rosli, PhD
Associate Professor
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Syamsuriana Sidek
Master of Entrepreneurship Candidate
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
ABSTRACT
Access to financial resources is crucial for small business performance. This financial access
would help small business to grow, and at the same time, it also promotes innovation and
supports entrepreneurial activity. Therefore, many government agencies, non-governmental
organizations and private bodies throughout the world have offered various types of
microfinance schemes to micro and small business owners. In line with the support, many
previous studies have shown that microfinance helped individual entrepreneurs and family
members improve their socio-economic status and standard of living. However, little
evidence shows the importance of microfinance to small business growth. This literature gap
provides some room for the present study to show how microfinance improves the growth of
small business. Employing a data set collected from microfinance recipients and the
Structural Equation Modeling, this study found that loan criteria, support programmes and
services under the microfinance schemes were associated positively and significantly with
small business growth. This finding consolidates the conviction that the financial access
through microfinance is important to small business growth. It also reminds financial
providers and support agencies, including MARA, that microfinance should be continuously
and extensively offered to small business for further growth.
Keywords: Microfinance, small business, growth, structural equation model.
36
1. Introduction
Formal financial markets are not suitable for the poor people to get access
into financing because this marginalised group has faced a myriad of constraints or
barriers, including higher costs of borrowing, stricter lending procedure, lack of
collateral and bad track records (Hulten, 2012). In Malaysia, business persons have
also faced similar problems, such as the lack of collateral (DOS, 2013), insufficient
loan documentation, lack of financial track record, and poor business proposal. To
make it worse, the small entrepreneurs have to wait for a long time before their
loans are disbursed.
Acknowledging the issues confronting the poor and the small business
sectors, many microfinance schemes were introduced in various parts of the world.
This development has quickly attracted many researchers throughout the globe to
study diverse topics related to the financial schemes. Most of the topics addressed
by previous researchers revolved around the effects of the small credit schemes on
poverty alleviation. Chief among them were Rosenberg (2011), who argues that the
microfinance is able to uplift the standard of living of the poor and bring them out of
poverty through small-scale income generating activities. To Kumar, Bohra, and
Johari (2011), microfinance is the only way to eradicate poverty. Similarly, Rahman
and Ahmad (2011) assert that the microfinance schemes are poverty alleviation
tools, especially to the rural sector, because they generate employment and raise
the income level of the poor. They found that the household income, the productivity
of crops and livestock, expenditure and employment increased significantly with the
increase in the amount of money invested.
Nevertheless, the previous studies have devoted much of their attention to the
impact of microcredit on individual creditors or family members of borrowers. They
have paid little attention to the potential effects of the programme on small business
growth. Thus, acknowledging the gap in the existing literature, this paper attempts to
show how microfinance enhances small business growth. Different from other
studies, which normally see microfinance in terms of loan amount, this study divides
microfinance into three dimensions, namely loan criteria, support programme and
services. Findings from this study are important for scholars and policy makers to
improve explanation for and measures small business growth through microfinance
schemes.
2. Literature Review and Conceptual Framework
2.1 Business Growth
There are a large number of conceptual frameworks, which attempt to explain
business performance. Bonn (2011) contends that outsiders normally evaluate a
firm’s ability by its performance. In summary, performance is the achievement of a
firm’s internal or external objectives or outcomes (Lin, Peng, & Kao, 2011). It has
multidimensional constructs used in the literature, such as profitability, image,
37
customer’s loyalty, product service innovativeness, survival, success,
competitiveness, profit and business growth (Mohd Rosli, 2012). Of the diverse
dimensions, business growth commonly appears in the literature to represent
performance.
At the outset, the Law of Proportionate Effect developed by Gibrat was
frequently used as a benchmark by previous studies to identify business growth.
This law explains that the size of a firm is independently related to a firm’s growth
rate (Luttmer, 2011); likewise, a firm’s past growth cannot be used to predict its
future growth. A few decades later, a firm theory was introduced to explain the
relationship between ideas, experience and knowledge, and various kinds of
resource use (Penrose, 1959, p. 85). This Penrose’s theory has produced the
Resource-Based View (RBV) concept, which was cited in a large number of the
business and management literatures todays.
2.2 Microfinance
Microfinance scheme has got its popularity when Professor Dr. Muhammad
Yusuf introduced this small loan scheme in Bangladesh in 1976, before it was
developed into a Grameen Bank a few years later. He believes that the poor are not
able to improve their quality of life due to the lack of capital. Therefore, when the
poor are injected with certain amount of capital, a significant development will take
place (AIM, 2013). While microcredit is confined merely to credit provision to the
poor group, microfinance involves the provision of financial and non-financial
services, such as savings, insurance, pensions and payment services (Okiocredit,
2013). However, in many cases, microfinance and microcredit are the two terms
used interchangeably in previous literature across countries.
To Robinson (2011), microfinance refers to small-scale financial services and
a development tool, which provides financial services, such as saving, micro
leasing, micro insurance and money transfer to people, who operates micro-
enterprises in developing local and urban economies. In addition, microfinance
according to Otero (2009) is services that provide financial facilities for the low-
income and self-employed groups. Financial services generally include saving and
credit and extend other financial services, such as insurance and payment services
(Ledgerwood, 2013). The Asian Development Bank (2013) also agrees that
microfinance is the provision of financial services, such as deposits, loans, payment
services, money transfers and insurance to poor households for their business.
2.3 Microfinance and Business Growth
Financing is one of the six strategic resources, besides physical, reputational,
organizational, human intellectual and technological resources (Puente & Rabbino,
2011). In line with this, Bulan and Yan (2011) affirm that a growing firm has a
greater need for external financing. In this context, microfinance scheme is one of
the external financial sources that would improve business growth. An empirical
study by George (2011) found that microfinance programmes for women
entrepreneurs expanded their business and increased their monthly income.
38
Moreover, Banerjee, Duflo, Glennerster, and Kinnan (2011) proved that microcredit
approach has important impact on business outcomes such as profits, revenue,
business inputs, and the number of workers employed by the business.
Similarly, Ngehnevu and Nembo (2011) examined whether CamCCUL (the
name of a microfinance institution) helped its members and or customers to develop
business. They confirmed that microfinance with its financial and social
intermediation services had given a positive impact on business development of its
recipients. In Malaysia, the Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (a microcredit institution) also
increased the income of its clients in Peninsular Malaysia (Abdullah-Al-Mamun,
Adaikalam & Mazumder, 2011).
Since loan criteria, support programmes and services provided by
microfinance have positive impact on small business growth, three hypotheses are
stated as follows:
Hypothesis 1:Loan criteria are positively related to small business growth.
Hypothesis 2:Support programmes provided by microfinance are positively related
to small business growth.
Hypothesis 3:Services provided by microfinance are positively related to small
business growth.
3. Research methodology
3.1 The sample
The recipients of microfinance scheme in Kelantan and Terengganu were
sampled in this study. Kelantan had the highest number of microfinance participants
in Malaysia, and it was followed by Terengganu (Buletin Ikhtiar, 2011). Based on the
literature and recommendations from practitioners, the operation of a business must
be at least three years and above to indicate the growth of a business. The owner or
manager of a business was surveyed because he or she was the best person who
knew about the day-to-day business operation. They must also participate in at least
one of the microfinance schemes in Malaysia, so that the direct impact of
microfinance on business growth could be estimated. All of the respondents were
involved in micro and small businesses (with less than 50 full-time employees).
Thus, this study has used the term small business as a reference point.
The data used in this study were obtained from a self-administered
questionnaire distributed to the respondents. As pointed out by Sekaran and Bougie
(2008), questionnaire is a popular data collection method in most studies. This
research instrument was pre-tested with 20 non-respondent samples. Results of the
preliminary reliability tests indicated that the Cronbach’s Alpha for each construct
was more than 0.70 (ranging from 0.949 to 0.979) and can be acceptable. The
39
questionnaire was further revised and made ready for a large-scale data collection
phase.
Out of 250 questionnaires distributed, a total of 238 useable samples were
obtained, indicating a relatively high response rate (95.2 per cent). Table 1 shows
some background information of the samples. Of these 238 samples, 205 (86.1 per
cent) samples were in Kelantan and 33 (13.9 per cent) samples were in
Terengganu. The majority of the participants (209 or 87.8 per cent) were females
and their ages were between 41 to 50 years old (108; 45.4 per cent). With respect to
education, many participants finished secondary school (183; 78.5 per cent),
primary school (25 or 10.5 per cent) and tertiary education (18 or 7.6 per cent). The
respondents were mostly involved in Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia’s microfinance
scheme and in the services sector.
Table 1: Some background information of the samples
Variables Frequency Percent (%)
State 238 100.0
Kelantan 205 86.1
Terengganu 33 13.9
Gender 238 100.0
Male 29 12.1
Female 209 87.8
Education 238 100.0
Primary School 25 10.5
Secondary School 187 78.5
Tertiary education 18 7.6
Others+
8 3.4
Age 238 100.0
21- 30 years old 25 10.5
31- 40 years old 49 20.6
41-50 years old 108 45.4
51-60 years old 54 22.7
Above 60 years old 2 0.8
Microfinance Schemes 238 100.0
Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia
(AIM)
204 85.7
TEKUN 14 5.9
Others* 20 8.4
Business Activities 238 100.0
Services 210 88.2
Manufacturing 9 3.8
Construction 13 5.5
Agricultural 6 2.5
Notes: Others+
were non-schooling respondents.
Others*: microfinance schemes, including from MARA, Agrobank and SME bank.
Source: Based on the sample survey.
The mean for firm size was 2.84, indicating that the sample firms were small
in size. In terms of mean age of the firm, the majority of the firms were in operation
40
for more than ten years (mean age, 13.85). Table 2 also shows the absence of a
multicollinearity problem since the value of the correlations between the
independent variables ranged between 0.038 and 0.704) and did not exceed 0.80
(Kennedy, 2008).
Table 2: Mean, standard deviation and correlation
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. Firm age 13.85 9.29 -
2. Firm Size 2.8445 2.82 0.370** -
3.Loan criteria 5.6604 1.23 -0.057 -0.172** -
4.Support
programmes 5.5998 1.45 -0.074 -0.192** 0.704**
-
5. Services 5.7255 1.30 -0.060 -0.173** 0.214** 0.038** -
6.Business
growth 5.9202 1.05
-0.185** -0.191** 0.546** 0.570** 0.610**
Notes: Correlation test used Pearson correlation.
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
Source: Based on the sample survey.
3.2 Measures
Three independent variables for microfinance in this study were loan criteria,
support programme and services identified from Ngehnevu and Nembo (2011). The
loan criteria dimension was represented by six items adapted from several studies (
Nkamnebe & Idemobi, 2011; Ngehnevu & Nembo, 2011). They were interest rate,
period of approval, term and condition, loan size, repayment method and repayment
term. The support programme dimension consisted of four items adapted from AIM
(2013). These four items were self-development programme, training, business
exposure and guidance. Meanwhile, the services dimension involved three items,
namely supervision, cooperation and monitoring. To Hair, Anderson, Tahtam, and
Black (2006, p.752), a construct, which has at least three items is sufficient to
ensure its validity and reliability. All the items for each dimension were measured
using a 7-point scale, which ranging from “1=extremely unsatisfactory” to
“7=extremely satisfactory”.
Firm size and firm age were the control variables in the model since they
normally have a strong influence on firm growth. The firm age, as one of the
properties of an enterprise, is always regarded as a key factor for firm performance.
It represents the differences in relevant operations and the degree of
institutionalization. Likewise, the firm size might induce higher effects on firm
performance because larger firms are likely to seek different types of characteristics
than smaller firms. The firm size was measured by the number of full-time
employees, whilst the firm age was represented by the number of years of business
operation.
Small business growth, as a dependent variable, was measured based on
nine items derived from a number of scholars (Ar & Baki, 2011). The nine items
used were market share, sales, profitability, growth, productivity, quality, number of
41
employees and overall performance. The respondents were asked to compare their
performance for each item against their competitors in the same industry for the last
three years. They were given a 7-point scale ranging from “1=very low” to “7=very
high”. Such assessment method is regarded reliable benchmarks and taken care of
for the possible influence of industrial factor. The performance measures were
summed up and then averaged to obtain a performance index (mean and standard
deviation are shown in Table 2).
3.3 Construct validity of the measurement instrument
This study employed the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique to
analyse data. SEM is a family of statistical models that seek to explain the
relationships among multiple variables. SEM is also known as LISREL or AMOS
model (Hair et al., 2006, p.711). To do the SEM analysis, AMOS 16.0 and the
Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS) 14.0 for Windows software
packages were used in this study. To empirically test the construct validity of the
measurement instrument, this study applied the three steps proposed by Hair et al.
(2006), i.e (1) unidimensionality analysis; (2) validity analysis; and (3) reliability
analysis.
A unidimensionality analysis is applied to assess model fit. There are no
specific rules for the assessment of model fit. However, reporting a variety of indices
is necessary, as different indices reflect a different aspect of model fit. Hair et al.
(2006) suggests the use of goodness-of-fit by including at least one index from each
category, namely: (1) Absolute fit - Chi-square (X2), Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA) and Goodness of Fit Index (GFI); (2) Incremental fit-
Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker Lewis
Index (TLI) and Normed Fit Index (NFI); (3) parsimonious fit- Chisq/df (X2/df). In
order to achieve model fitness, this study dropped 5 items namely: sales, overall
performance, repayment method, repayment term and business exposure from 22
items. Finally, only 17 items were retained (four items for loan criteria, three items
for support programmes, three items for services, and seven items for small
business growth. This resulted in: X2=916.888; df= 210, X2/df=4.366; NFI= 0.907;
TLI= 0.907; CFI= 0.922; RMSEA= 0.087.
After the unidimensionality analysis was satisfactory, but before proceeding
with a structural model, it is necessary to determine the construct validity and
reliability of the model (Hair et al., 2006). The validity test needs to meet the two
convergent validity and discriminant validity. The convergent validity is assumed to
be correct when all items are significant and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) is
greater or equal to 0.50. The AVE means the average percentage of variation
explained by the items (Mueller & Hancock, 2006). Hence, the AVE value for each
construct in this study (ranging from 0.940 to 0.966) reveals that all the constructs
met the convergent validity requirement, which should be higher than or equal to
0.50. Discriminant validity can be done by comparing the AVE percentages for any
two constructs with the square of the correlation estimate between these two
constructs. The AVE estimated should be greater than the squared correlation
42
estimate (Hair et al., 2006, p. 778). According to the results, all the measures
reported a high discriminant validity, whereby AVE percentages were greater than
squared correlation estimates (r2). So, all the constructs achieved the discriminant
validity requirement.
The reliability analysis was performed based on internal consistency and
construct reliability. The internal reliability is measured by Cronbach’s Alpha value of
higher or equal to 0.70 (Hair et al., 2006). The construct reliability requires the
Composite Reliability (CR) value to be higher or equal to 0.60 (Mueller & Hancock,
2006). All the Cronbach’s Alpha values for this study were higher than the threshold
of (0.70); and all the CR values were than required value (0.60), too. The results
confirmed the reliability of the all constructs.
4. Results and Discussion
Upon fulfilling all the CFA requirements, a structural model was estimated and
shown in Table 3. This table shows that the loan criteria had a significant direct
effect (p-value, 0.01) on small business growth, consistent with Hypothesis 1. The
support programmes also had a significant direct effect (p-value, 0.01) on small
business growth; hence confirming Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 was fully supported
when the services provided by the microfinance schemes were significantly related
to small business growth (p-value, 0.05).
Table 3: Path of the model
Path Estimate S.E. C.R. P Standardized
Estimate
Small Business Growth <-
-- Loan criteria 0.589 0.039 9.960 *** 0.659
Small Business Growth <-
-- Support programme 0.527 0.090 0.290 *** 0.642
Small Business Growth <-
-- Services 0.369 0.156 2.368 0.018** 0.578
Small Business Growth <-
-- Age 0.151 0.005 2.027 0.043** 0.318
Small Business Growth <-
-- Size -0.102 0.003 0.083 0.934 0.034
Notes: Significant at: ***p<0.001, **p<0.05.
Source: Output from structural model based on the sample survey.
However, for the control variables, only firm age was significantly associated
with small business growth, whereas firm size was not. Consistent with Djupdal and
Westhead (2013) older firms may have an experience advantage than that of
younger firms, besides having higher capacity to bring in new knowledge. This
finding is sensible since the older firms show quicker growth compared to a new
one. In contrast with prior studies that a large firm experienced more growth
compared to small business is not translated in this study. Growth of the firms may
43
be significantly influenced by the other factors not considered in this study, such as
environmental dynamism, experience and types of industry (Gill & Biger, 2012).
The RBV explains that valuable resources and capabilities owned by a firm
are the sources of effective business growth. Similarly, Verwaal, Bruining, Wright,
Manigart, and Lockett (2011) argue that small firms have a stronger need to gain
access to external complementary resources. It was evident in many previous
studies that finance is one of the external resources important for a firm (Puente &
Rabbino, 2011). Many business surveys also revealed that finance determines the
survival and growth of small business (US Small Business Administration, 2013).
Access to finance allows small enterprises to undertake productive
investment, expand their businesses, and acquire the latest technologies, thus
ensuring their competitiveness and the nation as a whole. In fact, growing firms
have a greater need for external financing (Bulan & Yan, 2011). Empirical evidence
by Padachi, Howorth and Narasimhan (2012) showed that finance would lead to
larger amount of investment and higher business growth. In contrast, the lack of
access to finance can be the cause of persistent income inequality or poverty traps,
as well as lower growth. Because microfinance offers both financial and non-
financial assistance (Okiocredit, 2013), especially to small entrepreneurs (Otero,
2009), it becomes one of the most important external resources needed in
enhancing business growth. This was confirmed by Banerjee et al. (2011) that
microfinance scheme gave a positive impact on business outcomes, such as profit,
revenue, business inputs and the number of workers employed. Similarly, Ngehnevu
and Nembo (2011) also found that the microfinance programmes positively
contributed to small business growth. To Suraya (2011), microcredit significantly
increases not only the household’s income, but also the microenterprise’s revenue
of borrowers.
5. Conclusion
The main purpose of this study is to provide some empirical evidence on the
relationship between microfinance and small business growth. By using a self-
administered questionnaire, 238 samples were collected in Kelantan and
Terengganu and analysed by SEM. The findings from this study confirmed that all
the three dimensions of microfinance were significantly related to small business
growth.
Theoretically, the RBV argues that a business grows when it has internal
valuable resources and capabilities, as a source of sustainable competitive
advantages. On the contrary, this study found that the external and not the internal
factor – microfinance –as a real determinant of small business growth. This does not
mean that the internal factors are not important to small business. However, as a
resource constraint agent, access to finance through microfinance is much more
important to small business to grow. Thus, microfinance should be continuously
44
offered by financial providers and support agencies, including Majlis Amanah Rakyat
(MARA) for further growth of small business.
Despite its strengths, this study also has several limitations. The sample used
in this study was relatively small compared to the total number of population. In
addition, only microfinance was included as an external factor, whereas there are
many other external factors, such as economic factors, business networking and
competition (Rosman and Mohd Rosli, 2013) that would influence small business
growth. Thus, future studies should enlarge the size of the samples and include
some other internal and external variables, so that better analysis could be done.
45
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KAEDAH ‘RIWAYAT HIDUPKU DI MUKA BUKU‘ DALAM PENGAJARAN
DAN PEMBELAJARAN PERAKAUNAN BAGI TOPIK ‘ASET BUKAN
SEMASA’
Nur Syakimah Binti Mohd Subhi
Kolej Mara Kuala Nerang
ABSTRAK
Penggunaan teknik pengajaran ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ bertujuan untuk membantu
menyelesaikan masalah minat dan penguasaan dalam topik Perakaunan Aset Bukan
Semasa yang dihadapi oleh pelajar Perakaunan Kolej MARA Kuala Nerang. ‘Riwayat
Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ ialah kaedah penulisan semua transaksi ‘Aset Bukan Semasa’
sepanjang jangka hayat aset tersebut dimiliki oleh seseorang di dalam sesebuah buku.
Penulisan itu dimulai dengan transaksi pembelian atau pemerolehan pada pertama kali,
diikuti transaksi susutnilai setiap tahun sehinggalah transaksi terakhir apabila aset
berkenaan tidak diperlukan lagi dalam perniagaan (lupus). Setiap transaksi itu dicatat di
dalam sebuah buku kecil yang dibuat sendiri. Lembaran buku kecil 16 muka surat ini dicipta
sendiri oleh pelajar dengan menggunakan seni lipatan origami yang dinamakan sebagai
‘muka buku’. Apabila semua catatan transaksi telah dilengkapkan pelajar, bermakna
lengkaplah satu ‘riwayat hidup’ bagi aset berkenaan. Penulisan transaksi pada lembaran
yang dicipta sendiri dengan penuh kreatif itu bertujuan untuk membantu meningkatkan
minat pelajar. Di samping penghasilan lembaran buku yang menarik, perbincangan
kumpulan tentang ‘riwayat hidup’ aset yang dicipta sendiri itu menjadi lebih menyeronokkan.
Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa minat dan penguasaan pelajar meningkat setelah kaedah ini
digunakan. Purata markah Ujian Topikal meningkat daripada 61 peratus kepada 83 peratus.
Analisis Laporan Kerja Calon turut membuktikan 20 peratus daripada pelajar memilih untuk
menjawab Bab Aset Bukan Semasa dalam Peperiksaan Akhir sesi 2010/11 berbanding
hanya 6 peratus pada sesi sebelumnya. Ini diperkukuhkan lagi dengan peningkatan
peratusan pelajar yang mendapat gred A iaitu 96.5 peratus bagi sesi 2012/2013 berbanding
87 peratus sebelum inovasi dilaksanakan.
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1.0 Latar Belakang Kajian
Unit Perakaunan Kolej MARA Kuala Nerang sentiasa berusaha memperbaiki
pendekatan dan teknik pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P) untuk meningkatkan
kualiti gred yang diperoleh pelajar. Beberapa kajian telah dibuat untuk mengenal
pasti punca yang menyebabkan pelajar tidak mendapat gred yang baik.
Analisis Laporan Kerja Calon Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 pada sesi 2009/2010.
menunjukkan bahawa hanya 6 peratus calon menjawab soalan Bab Aset Bukan
Semasa. Soalan berkaitan bab ini merupakan soalan pilihan yang paling tidak
popular. Perkara yang sama berlaku pada Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 pada
tahun-tahun sebelum itu. Daripada temu bual secara rawak, didapati ramai pelajar
tidak menguasai bab berkenaan. Bab Aset Bukan Semasa juga merupakan bab
yang paling tidak diminati pelajar dalam P&P. Masalah ini akan menjadi lebih serius
apabila bab ini akan dijadikan soalan wajib dalam Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1
bermula pada sesi 2011/2012.
Pensyarah-pensyarah perakaunan terpanggil untuk mencari satu kaedah yang
mampu menarik minat dan memudahkan pelajar memahami bab tersebut. Kaedah
yang digunakan seharusnya menyeronokkan dan merupakan suatu simulasi realiti
kehidupan harian yang lebih dekat dengan pelajar. Antara teknik yang dilihat
berkesan ialah teknik ‘Riwayat Hidupku di Muka Buku’ yang mula digunakan dalam
P&P untuk pelajar Matrikulasi Perakaunan Semester 1 Sesi 2010/2011. Analisis
Laporan Kerja Calon Peperiksaan Akhir Semester menunjukkan peningkatan
apabila 20 peratus calon memilih untuk menjawab bab berkenaan, berbanding 6
peratus pada sesi sebelumnya. Untuk mendapatkan kepastian terhadap
keberkesanan teknik berkenaan, maka satu kajian perlu dijalankan.
2.0 Pernyataan Masalah
Peningkatan 16 peratus calon yang memilih soalan bab Aset Bukan Semasa pada
Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 sesi 2010/2011 berbanding sesi sebelumnya cukup
menarik untuk dikaji. Adakah peningkatan itu berlaku secara kebetulan atau ada
faktor lain yang membantu berlakunya peningkatan itu?. Apabila ternyata teknik
‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ digunakan dalam P&P pada sesi berkenaan,
persoalan timbul ‘adakah teknik itu yang menjadi faktor pembantu peningkatan
tersebut’?.
Kajian ini dilakukan atas dorongan yang bertitik tolak daripada persoalan adakah
teknik ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ yang digunakan dalam P&P menjadi faktor
yang membantu meningkatkan penguasaan dan minat pelajar terhadap bab Aset
Bukan Semasa dalam subjek Perakaunan di Kolej MARA Kuala Nerang.
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3.0 Signifikan Kajian
Bermula dari sesi 2011/12, calon tidak lagi diberi pilihan untuk tidak menjawab
soalan yang berkaitan dengan Bab Aset Bukan Semasa. Peperiksaan Akhir
Semester mewajibkan semua soalan dijawab, termasuk soalan bab Aset Bukan
Semasa. Peruntukan markah bagi soalan Aset Bukan Semasa adalah antara 10
hingga 15 markah.
Penguasaan pelajar terhadap bab Aset Bukan Semasa sangat penting
memandangkan bab ini mempunyai kaitan rapat dengan bab-bab lain dan ini
banyak bergantung kepada keberkesanan teknik P&P. Sebagai contoh, besar
kemungkinan pelajar mengalami kesukaran untuk mengira susutnilai aset dalam
Bab Pelarasan atau Bab Rekod Tidak Lengkap, sekiranya mereka tidak menguasai
Bab Aset Bukan Semasa.
Persoalan tentang keberkesanan teknik ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ harus
dijawab untuk mendapatkan kepastian sama ada teknik itu boleh dijadikan pilihan
untuk dilebarkan penggunaannya, dibaiki atau dicari alternatif lain untuk
menggantikannya.
4.0 Objektif Kajian
4.1 Objektif Am
Kajian bertujuan untuk membantu menyelesaikan masalah pelajar dalam topik
Perakaunan Aset Bukan Semasa, melalui kaedah “Riwayat Hidup Ku Di Muka
Buku’.
4.2 Objektif Khusus
i. Memastikan keberkesanan penggunaan teknik ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di
Muka Buku’ dapat membantu calon menguasai bab ‘Aset Bukan
Semasa’ dalam Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1.
ii. Melihat sejauh mana teknik ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’
membantu menarik minat pelajar terhadap bab ‘Aset Bukan Semasa’.
iii. Melihat sejauh mana teknik ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ dapat
membantu meningkatkan peratusan pelajar yang mendapat gred A
dalam Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1.
5.0 Takrif Istilah
5.1 Minat
Minat merujuk kepada reaksi positif pelajar secara berterusan terhadap perkara
yang diajar. Sebagai contoh, reaksi positif pelajar dapat dikesan melalui penyertaan
yang aktif dalam perbincangan atau tumpuan sepenuh yang diberikan terhadap
pengajaran.
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5.2 Model
Reka bentuk tiga dimensi yang mewakili struktur dan rupabentuk sesuatu objek
yang sebenar.
5.3 Aset Bukan Semasa (Aset Tetap)
Harta (aset) bernilai yang dimiliki oleh sesebuah syarikat yang digunakan untuk
menjalankan aktiviti perniagaan, iaitu harta yang dibeli untuk digunakan dalam
urusan perniagaan dan bukan untuk dijual kepada pelanggan. Aset tetap
mempunyai usia guna (jangka hayat penggunaan) melebihi satu tahun. Contoh aset
tetap ialah bangunan, kenderaan, mesin, peralatan, kelengkapan dan sebagainya.
5.4 Susutnilai
Keusangan dan kejatuhan nilai aset tetap yang dikira tiap-tiap tahun disebabkan
oleh penggunaannya.
5.5 ‘Riwayat Hidup’ Aset Bukan Semasa
Transaksi yang terlibat sepanjang jangka hayat aset tersebut bermula dengan
transaksi semasa aset diperolehi (dibeli) dan diikuti dengan susutnilai setiap tahun
sepanjang tempoh aset tersebut digunakan sehinggalah aset berkenaan tidak
diperlukan lagi dalam perniagaan.
5.6 Muka Buku
Buku kecil yang dihasilkan menggunakan seni lipatan kertas origami. Buku ini
digunakan untuk merekod semua transaksi (riwayat hidup) yang berlaku sepanjang
jangka hayat aset tersebut.
6.0 Skop dan Batasan Kajian
Kajian dibataskan kepada perkara-perkara berikut:
i) Kumpulan pelajar Perakaunan Semester 1 Program Matrikulasi Kolej
MARA Kuala Nerang sesi 2010/2011; 2011/2012; dan 2012/2013 .
ii) Bab Aset Bukan Semasa berdasarkan silibus Perakaunan Matrikulasi
2011.
iii) Aspek penguasaan calon dinilai menggunakan Analisis Laporan
Kerja Calon Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 pada sesi 2011/2012.
iv) Aspek minat terhadap Bab Aset Bukan Semasa dinilai berdasarkan
pemerhatian sepanjang proses P&P, hasil kerja pelajar dan
sambutan mereka semasa sesi pembentangan.
v) Peningkatan Gred A dalam Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 dinilai
berdasarkan keputusan Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 Sesi
2011/2012.
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7.0 Kajian Lepas
Bahan bantu mengajar memainkan peranan yang penting dalam sesuatu proses
P&P. Penggunaan Bahan Bantu Mengajar (BBM) merupakan faktor terpenting
dalam menentukan kejayaan program pembelajaran, merangsang keinginan pelajar
untuk mengetahui sesuatu dan untuk menjadikan pembelajaran bertambah baik
dan lebih menarik (Musa Sulaiman, 2000). Selain itu, bahan bantu mengajar juga
ditakrifkan sebagai aktiviti penggunaan alat-alat pengajaran yang moden dalam
proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang sistematik dengan memanipulasikan
media dan kaedah yang sesuai (Musa Sulaiman,2000).
Baharuddin, Manimegalai dan Rio Sumarni (2001) mengaitkan pengajaran dengan
penglibatan guru dalam memilih kaedah dan strategi yang sesuai untuk menyusun
informasi, aktiviti-aktiviti, pendekatan dan merupakan medium yang sesuai untuk
membantu pelajar dalam mencapai objektif yang telah ditetapkan. Pembelajaran
hanya berlaku apabila terdapat perubahan dalam sikap seseorang individu hasil
daripada interaksi dengan persekitarannya. Baharuddin, Manimegalai dan Rio
Sumarni (2001) juga menganggap para guru sepatutnya arif tentang kesesuaian
penggunaan alat bantu mengajar bagi mempelajari sesuatu mata pelajaran atau
kemahiran tertentu.
Mok Soon Sang (1996) juga menegaskan bahawa penggunaan Bahan Bantu
Mengajar (BBM) dalam proses pengajaran adalah amat penting kerana ia dapat
membantu guru menyampaikan pengajaran dengan mudah, cepat serta menarik.
Bahan Bantu Mengajar yang disediakan mestilah bersesuaian dengan aktiviti
pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Cara menggunakan BBM hendaklah diuruskan
dengan betul dan cekap supaya pelajar dapat memahami dan mengekalkan konsep
atau fakta dalam ingatan mereka (Musa Daia, 1992). Selain sebagai bahan
tambahan kepada penyampaian pengajaran secara lisan oleh guru, penggunaan
BBM sebenarnya turut memberi peluang kepada pelajar memperolehi pengetahuan
melalui penggunaan pelbagai deria, iaitu deria penglihatan, deria sentuh dan deria
pendengaran (Mok Soon Sang 1996).
BBM juga boleh membantu guru mempelbagaikan teknik pengajaran dan
menyediakan aktiviti pembelajaran (Abdul Rahman, 1997). Selain daripada
menjimatkan masa, penyediaan BBM yang sesuai memudahkan pelajar memahami
isi pengajaran. Pelbagai kaedah atau teknik mengajar amat perlu bagi
meningkatkan motivasi pelajar yang akhirnya memungkinkan lahirnya masyarakat
yang bermaklumat serta berfikiran kritis dan kreatif (Yusup Hashim 1998).
BBM seharusnya mampu memenuhi dua fungsi besar, iaitu meningkatkan
penguasaan kandungan isi pengajaran dan memudahkan guru menyediakan aktiviti
pengajaran yang menarik dan menjimatkan. Kajian berkaitan penggunaan warna
dalam penyediaan BBM telah dijalankan oleh Barry (1976) (dalam Suzita Mohd
Resad, 2002). Kajian Barry berkaitan dengan menguji kepentingan warna dalam
pembelajaran yang menggunakan alat pandang. Hasil kajian beliau mendapati
warna memberi suatu dimensi corak untuk pemahaman yang lebih jelas. Dengan
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adanya warna, pelajar memperoleh sesuatu gambaran yang lebih tepat, selain
memudahkan lagi penyimpanan maklumat. Warna berfungsi sebagai kod yang
memudahkan minda mengingat kembali sesuatu imej.
Hajijah (2008) membuktikan penggunaan warna berjaya membantu menarik minat
pelajar dalam aktiviti P&P. Menurut kajian Hajijah (2008), dengan penggunaan
kaedah Mesra Warna dalam P&P, pelajar begitu menunjukkan minat dan didapati
tidak mengantuk atau bosan lagi di dalam kelas. Tumpuan pelajar dalam aktiviti
P&P berada di tahap cemerlang sehingga pelajar merasakan waktu belajar terlalu
singkat. Kombinasi penggunaan kertas warna yang menarik seiring dengan
pergerakan psikomotor menerusi aktiviti origami dan pembinaan model dengan
mudahnya meningkatkan minat pelajar.
Origami dianggap satu aktiviti permainan oleh kebanyakan pelajar. Walaupun
aktiviti seperti ini bukanlah dianggap satu sistem pembelajaran yang serius tetapi
yang pentingnya aktiviti ini menyeronokkan. Kemahiran dan prosedur mudah
diakses sesuai dengan pelbagai peringkat kebolehan dan gaya belajar pelajar. Ini
ditekankan dalam Origami in Classroom Context: Effective learning and teaching
(Kubinova, 2003). Berdasarkan pengalaman, Kubinova (2003) menyatakan bahawa
origami memberikan maklum balas yang cepat tentang keseronokan pelajar belajar.
Kajian mendedahkan bahawa pelajar menikmati keseronokan dengan hasil lipatan
kertas untuk dikongsi dengan orang lain dan berbangga dengan hasil kerja mereka
sendiri. Dalam kajian yang lain, Cipoletti & Wilson (2004) menyifatkan origami
sebagai alat mengajar pelbagai guna.
Boakes, N. (2006) menyebut tentang Freidrich Froesbel seorang pendidik
berpengaruh di Jerman, menyifatkan seni origami amat sesuai dalam pendidikan
formal. Beliau mendapati bahawa penggunaan origami dapat merangsang proses
pembelajaran pelajar. Terdapat juga penyelidik yang menyatakan bahawa
pemikiran intuitif dan kemahiran pelajar boleh dibangunkan oleh aktiviti motor dan
pergerakan mahir (Carter dan Ferrucci, 2003). Aktiviti motor dan pergerakan ini
termasuklah membuat ’muka buku’ menerusi origami dan membina model aset
tetap.
Seterusnya, Zaiton Zainal (1991) memberi beberapa panduan dalam pemilihan
bahan yang boleh digunakan oleh seseorang guru. Bagi beliau, bahan tersebut
tidak semestinya mahal, boleh dibuat oleh guru sendiri atau bersama pelajar.
Bahan itu perlulah sederhana, mudah dibawa, ringan, mudah disimpan tidak
merbahaya, mudah didapati, mudah diganti dan boleh digunakan lebih dari satu
mata pelajaran.
8.0 Proses Kajian
8.1 Kajian dibahagikan kepada 3 peringkat:
i. Peringkat Sebelum
54
Mendapatkan data atau persepsi umum pensyarah tentang
penguasaan, minat dan pencapaian gred A dalam peperiksaan Akhir
Semester 1 sesi sebelum 2010/2011.
ii. Peringkat Pelaksanaan
Pembentukan kumpulan; Menjalankan aktiviti P&P; penulisan
‘Riwayat Hidupku’; dan Pembentangan
iii. Peringkat Penialian
Membuat penilaian berdasarkan data yang diperoleh atau
pemerhatian yang dilakukan.
8.2 Peringkat Sebelum
Data diperoleh daripada Analisis Laporan Kerja Calon Peperiksaan Akhir Semester
1 sesi 2009/2010, dan 2010/2011 sementara persepsi umum pensyarah didapatkan
melalui temubual dengan rakan pensyarah. Peratusan pelajar yang mendapat gred
A dirujuk pada keputusan Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 sesi 2009/2010, dan
2010/2011.
8.3 Peringkat Pelaksanaan
8.3.1 Pembahagian Kumpulan
Setiap kuliah mempunyai 50 orang pelajar yang dibahagi kepada 5 kelas tutoran
(satu kelas tutoran 10 orang). Untuk tujuan pelaksanaan aktiviti dalam teknik
penulisan ‘riwayat hidup di muka buku’, 10 orang pelajar dalam satu kelas tutoran
ini dibahagikan pula kepada 4 kumpulan kecil yang terdiri daripada 2-3 orang
pelajar dalam satu kumpulan. Keseluruhannya terdapat 20 kumpulan untuk satu
kuliah yang pembahagiannya dibuat di luar waktu kuliah.
Pelajar diberi penerangan tentang keseluruhan aktiviti yang akan dijalankan.
Kesemua 20 kumpulan dikehendaki merancang satu model barangan yang
digunakan, tetapi bukan untuk dijual oleh peniaga. Mereka diminta mengumpul dan
membawa bahan-bahan terbuang seperti penyedut minuman, surat khabar lama,
bekas minuman dan sebagainya ke sesi kuliah berikutnya.
8.3.2 Pembinaan Model Aset Tetap Dan Membuat Muka Buku (1 Jam )
Berdasarkan silibus, peruntukan waktu pengajaran dan pembelajaran untuk Bab
Aset Bukan Semasa adalah 6 jam iaitu 4 jam kuliah 2 jam tutoran. 1 jam kuliah
diperuntukkan kepada pelajar untuk membina model Aset Bukan Semasa dengan
menggunakan bahan-bahan terbuang yang telah dikumpul sebelum ini. Setiap
kumpulan mesti menghasilkan aset yang berbeza. Pelajar perlu berinteraksi
dengan kumpulan lain bagi memastikan aset yang dihasilkan tidak sama. Bagi
membangkitkan semangat persaingan yang sihat antara kumpulan, hadiah
ditawarkan kepada kumpulan yang membuat model aset paling menarik dan kreatif.
Dalam kuliah yang sama, pelajar diberikan sekeping kertas A4 berwarna. Guru
menunjukkan cara membuat lipatan origami untuk membentuk sebuah buku nota
poket yang diberi nama Muka Buku.
55
8.3.3 Kuliah ‘Riwayat Hidupku’ ( 3 Jam )
Kuliah berjalan seperti biasa. Untuk lebih jelas, diperincikan kandungan kuliah dan
catatan yang seharusnya ditulis oleh pelajar pada muka buku (lembaran buku)
masing-masing.
Kandungan Kuliah Muka Buku
KULIAH 1 (1 jam) Pensyarah menerangkan : Konsep Aset
- Definisi, Ciri-ciri & Jenis-jenis Aset B1M2
- Belanja Hasil & Belanja Modal B1M3
Cara merekod PEMBELIAN ASET
- Pengiraan kos aset B1M4
- Jurnal pembelian asset - Lejar B1M5
KULIAH 2 (1 jam)
Pensyarah menerangkan :
- Konsep Susutnilai B2M2
- Susutnilai & Susutnilai Terkumpul B2M3
- Asas Tahunan & Asas Bulanan B2M4M5
Cara merekod SUSUTNILAI ASET
- Pengiraan susutnilai B2M6
- Jurnal susutnilai aset B2M7
- Lejar B1M6
KULIAH 3 (1 jam) Pensyarah menunjukkan: Cara merekod PELUPUSAN ASET
- Pengiraan untung/ rugi pelupusan B1M7
- Jurnal pelupusan asset - Lejar
B2M8
Pensyarah menerangkan petikan Penyata Kewangan
Nota: B untuk Bahagian; M untuk muka/lembaran
Contoh : B2M3 –Bahagian 2 Muka 3
56
Setelah berakhirnya kuliah ketiga, pelajar perlu mengaplikasikan apa yang
dipelajari dan difahami dalam kelas untuk merekod riwayat hidup aset yang telah
dicipta ke dalam ‘Muka Buku’. Pelajar tidak akan dapat merekod riwayat hidup aset
masing-masing sekiranya pelajar tidak memahami kuliah. Jika terdapat masalah,
mereka perlu berbincang sesama sendiri atau bertanya kepada pensyarah.
Akhir sekali, semua pelajar akan berjaya menyiapkan ‘Riwayat Hidupku di Muka
Buku’ seperti ringkasan di bawah:
Bahagian 1 (8 muka surat):
Muka 1 (depan) B1M1 - Tajuk
Muka 2 B1M2 - Definisi, Ciri-ciri & Jenis-jenis Aset
Muka 3 B1M3 - Belanja Hasil & Belanja Modal
Muka 4 B1M4 - Pengiraan Pembelian Aset
Muka 5 B1M5 - Junal Pembelian Aset & Lejar
Muka 6 B1M6 - Pengiraan Pelupusan Aset
Muka 7 B1M7 - Junal Pelupusan Aset & Lejar
Muka 8 (belakang) B1M8 - Disediakan oleh: Senarai Ahli kumpulan
Bahagian 2 (8 muka surat):
Muka 1 (depan) B2M1 - Tajuk, Jumlah Kos, Usiaguna
Muka 2 B2M2 - Definisi Susutnila
Muka 3 B2M3 - Asas Tahunan & Asas Bulanan
Muka 4 B2M4 - Pengiraan Susutnilai Asas Tahunan
Muka 5 B2M5 - Pengiraan Susutnilai Asas Bulanan
Muka 6 B2M6 - Jurnal Susutnilai Aset
Muka 7 B2M7 - Lejar
Muka 8 (belakang) B2M8 - Petikan Penyata Kewangan
57
Pembentangan ( 1 Jam Tutoran)
Muka Buku ini disemak oleh guru sebelum dibentangkan kepada
pelajar lain.
Satu tutoran terdiri daripada 4 kumpulan kecil.
Setiap pelajar akan dibekalkan dengan empat ‘Riwayat’ daripada
kumpulan kecil yang diperbanyakkan salinan.
Pelajar membentangkan Muka Buku aset masing-masing secara
berkumpulan.
Pada akhir sesi pembelajaran, semua pelajar akan mendapati:
o empat ‘muka buku’ boleh dicipta daripada perspektif yang
berbeza
o Setiap muka buku menggunakan empat kaedah susutnilai yang
berbeza; dan
o empat cara pelupusan yang juga berbeza.
9.0 Bahan Dan Alatan
Bahan yang diperlukan dalam inovasi ini termasuk :
Bahan terbuang seperti kotak, kertas terpakai, botol, penyedut minuman
dan sebagainya
Kertas A4 pelbagai warna
Alatan seperti gunting, gam, pisau, warna air dan sebagainya
10.0 Kumpulan Sasaran
Pelajar Matrikulasi Kolej MARA Kuala Nerang Jurusan Perakaunan Semester 1
Sesi 2010/2011; 2011/2012; dan 2012/2013.
58
11.0 Hasil Kajian
L
a
p
o
r
a
n
D
a
p
a
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a
11.1 Laporan Kerja Calon
Dapatan daripada Analisis Laporan Kerja Calon membuktikan adanya peningkatan
peratusan pelajar yang memilih Bab Aset Bukan Semasa apabila 20 peratus
pelajar Sesi 2010/11 menjawab soalan nombor 4 (berkaitan Aset Bukan Semasa)
berbanding hanya 6 peratus pada sesi sebelum inovasi dijalankan. Peningkatan
melebihi 3 kali ganda ini turut membuktikan bahawa pelajar memilih soalan yang
difikirkan lebih mudah untuk dijawab. Ini bermakna peratusan pelajar yang
menguasai bab ini juga meningkat.
Namun, keberkesanan kaedah ini tidak lagi dapat dinilai berdasarkan Laporan Kerja
Calon kerana Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 sesi berikutnya tidak lagi memberi
peluang kepada pelajar memilih soalan. Penilaian keberkesanan beralih kepada
peratusan pencapaian gred A dalam Keputusan Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1.
11.1 Ujian Topikal
Soalan topikal yang sama diberikan kepada pelajar setiap sesi bagi menguji
penguasaan pelajar terhadap Bab Aset Bukan Semasa. Peningkatan purata
markah ujian topikal pada tahun-tahun berikutnya iaitu selepas diadakan inovasi
P&P telah meyakinkan pensyarah-pensyarah perakaunan tentang keberkesanan
kaedah yang dijalankan.
SEBELUM INOVASI PELAKSANAAN SELEPAS INOVASI
Laporan Kerja Calon Sesi 2009/2010: Hanya 6 peratus calon memilih soalan Aset Bukan Semasa
1. Pembentukan
Kumpulan 2. Pembinaan Model
Aset 3. Penulisan Riwayat
Hidupku Di Muka Buku 4. Pembentangan
Laporan Kerja Calon Sesi 2010/2011: 20 peratus calon memilih soalan Aset Bukan Semasa
Kuiz Topikal: Purata markah pelajar 61 peratus
Kuiz Topikal: Purata markah pelajar 83 peratus
Tinjauan: Pelajar menjawab soalan Aset Bukan Semasa dengan tidak sempurna semasa ulang kaji
Tinjauan: Pelajar cuba menjawab soalan Aset Bukan Semasa walaupun kelihatan agak sukar semasa ulang kaji
Temu bual: Pelajar tidak meminati Bab Aset Bukan Semasa
Temu bual: Pelajar lebih yakin untuk menjawab Bab Aset Bukan Semasa
Peratusan Gred A: Sesi 2009/2010 – 87.3 peratus
Peratusan Gred A: Sesi 2010/2011 – 89.0 peratus Sesi 2011/2012 – 91.4 peratus Sesi 2012/2013 – 96.5 peratus
59
11.2 Tinjauan
Pemerhatian dibuat oleh semua pensyarah perakaunan ke atas pelajar masing-
masing sepanjang tempoh minggu ulang kaji iaitu semasa pelajar sedang membuat
latihan di bawah bimbingan mereka. Maklum balas daripada pensyarah
menunjukkan bahawa semua pelajar lebih berkeyakinan untuk menjawab soalan 4,
iaitu soalan yang berkaitan dengan Aset Bukan Semasa.
11.3 Temu bual
Temu bual secara tidak langsung dijalankan bagi mendapatkan maklum balas
pelajar mengenai Bab Aset Bukan Semasa. Jawapan yang diberi menunjukkan
ramai pelajar berasa bahawa Bab Aset Bukan Semasa dilihat sama seperti bab-bab
lain yang soalannya kadangkala susah dan kadangkala mudah. Ini menunjukkan
bahawa pelajar tidak lagi meletakkan Bab Aset Bukan Semasa sebagai ‘tembok
yang susah didaki’. Dengan kata lain pelajar telah bersedia untuk menghadapi
soalan berkaitan sama ada soalan itu senang atau susah.
11.4 Keputusan Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1
Keputusan Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1 yang dikeluarkan oleh Bahagian
Matrikulasi menunjukkan peningkatan yang memberangsangkan bagi peratusan
pelajar yang berjaya mendapat gred A setiap tahun. Bagi sesi 2010/11, seramai
89.0 peratus pelajar mendapat Gred A, 91.4 peratus bagi sesi 2011/12 dan 96.5
peratus bagi sesi 2012/13 berbanding 87 peratus bagi sesi 2009/2010 iaitu sebelum
inovasi P&P dilaksanakan. Penguasaan pelajar dalam Bab Aset Bukan Semasa
menjadi penyumbang kepada pencapaian Gred A selepas diperkenalkan format
baru peperiksaan yang mewajibkan semua soalan dijawab.
12.0 Perbincangan dan Kesimpulan
Teknik penulisan ‘Riwayat Hidupku di Muka Buku’ mengadaptasikan semua aktiviti
yang dapat merangsang keberkesanan proses pembelajaran pelajar seperti yang
ditunjukkan dalam gambar rajah piramid pembelajaran di bawah.
60
Kaedah ini membekalkan pengalaman langsung kepada pelajar. Pelajar dapat
belajar daripada ‘pengalaman sendiri’ kerana kaedah ini lebih mirip kepada simulasi
transaksi sebenar. Uniknya kaedah ini berbanding kaedah-kaedah lain seperti
kuliah dan latih tubi ialah, pelajar berpeluang untuk menghayati ‘Riwayat Hidup’
aset hasil kreativiti sendiri. Menghargai satu riwayat hasil ciptaan sendiri adalah
pengalaman yang cukup bermakna. Catatan transaksi dan pengiraan susut nilai
suatu aset yang sama bermula dari dibeli, disusut nilai dan dilupuskan, membawa
pelajar keluar daripada kuliah biasa. Kebanyakan pengajaran dalam kuliah biasa
diakhiri dengan soalan contoh atau latihan yang hanya melibatkan beberapa urus
niaga yang tidak menyeluruh. Selalunya aset yang dirujuk ialah aset yang berbeza
untuk latihan yang berbeza. Pelajar yang belajar menerusi kaedah latih tubi pula
biasanya lebih cenderung untuk menghafal tatacara merekod setiap urus niaga
tanpa memahami konsep dan kepentingannya. Biasanya pelajar sukar membuat
pengiraan berdasarkan hafalan semata-mata.
Sesi pembentangan memberi peluang kepada pelajar menunjukkan apresiasi
terhadap hasil kerja sendiri dan menerima penghargaan daripada orang lain. Ini
dapat meningkatkan keyakinan diri dan membantu membina konsep kendiri yang
lebih utuh.
Inovasi P&P ini diteruskan pada sesi berikutnya walaupun tiada lagi soalan pilihan
dalam Peperiksaan Akhir Semester 1. Hasilnya ternyata amat memberangsangkan
apabila Kolej MARA Kuala Nerang yang sememangnya menjadi kolej terbaik subjek
Perakaunan sejak sekian lama, berjaya melonjakkan peratusan pelajar mendapat
gred A.
Pelaksanaan inovasi ini berjaya menonjolkan bakat dan kreativiti pelajar seterusnya
menghidupkan suasana pembelajaran yang menyeronokkan. Kreativiti pelajar
terpamer menerusi model aset yang dibina oleh pelajar dan kepelbagaian ‘muka
buku’ hasil kerja tangan pelajar sendiri. Aktiviti yang menghilangkan kebosanan
Syarahan guru 5%
Membaca 10%
Mendengar dan melihat 20%
Demonstrasi 30%
Diskusi kumpulan 50%
Membuat sendiri 75%
Mengajar yang lain 90%
PIRAMID PEMBELAJARAN – Kadar Penyimpanan Hasil Pembelajaran
(Disesuaikan daripada NTL Institute of Applied Behavioral Science)
61
belajar ini ternyata menarik minat pelajar selain membantu meningkatkan
pemahaman pelajar dengan lebih cepat dan berkesan. Pelajar mendapat kepuasan
apabila berjaya mencipta sendiri aset dan ‘muka buku’ dengan menggunakan
bahan yang sangat murah dan mudah didapati juga kadangkala daripada bahan
terbuang.
‘Muka Buku’ bersaiz poket yang merangkumkan semua kandungan Bab Aset
Bukan Semasa ini mudah dibawa ke mana-mana dan ini memudahkan proses
mengulang kaji. Kaedah ini mungkin boleh diterapkan penggunaannya oleh semua
pusat matrikulasi di Malaysia memandangkan kesannya yang menggalakkan.
‘Muka Buku’ ini boleh juga menjadi pilihan orang ramai yang ingin merekodkan
setiap perkara yang berlaku ke atas barang milik mereka.
13.0 Cadangan
Inovasi ini boleh diperluaskan ke Kolej-kolej Matrikulasi lain di seluruh Malaysia
memandangkan inovasi ini direka berdasarkan silibus perakaunan peringkat
Matrikulasi. Malah, kaedah atau teknik lipatan sekeping kertas untuk menjadikan
sebuah buku kecil yang menarik boleh dilebarkan penggunaannya di semua
peringkat pendidikan termasuklah tadika, sekolah dan universiti. Ia juga sesuai
untuk semua mata pelajaran dan kandungannya boleh dipelbagaikan.
Potensi pengkomersilan ‘muka buku’ ini sangat tinggi kerana ia hanya
berkonsepkan nota poket yang boleh digunakan oleh semua peringkat usia untuk
pelbagai tujuan. Selain menjadi platform untuk membuat nota ringkas pelbagai
subjek, ‘muka buku’ ini juga boleh dijadikan kalender, buku nota, diari, album
gambar, cenderahati dan sebagainya mengikut kreativiti masing-masing.
Hasil kajian yang mengesahkan keberkesanan Inovasi Pengajaran Perakaunan
Bab Aset Bukan Semasa telah memberikan kepuasan kepada pencetus idea
inovasi. Kepuasan kendiri merupakan sesuatu yang amat bermakna bagi
seseorang kerana pengiktirafan itu adalah ‘genuine’. Oleh itu, dicadangkan agar
format kajian keberkesanan dipermudah dengan menggunakan format yang cukup
ringkas dan menyenangkan pengamal pendidikan di semua peringkat tanpa perlu
mengambil masa yang lama untuk berkongsi maklumat. Perkongsian maklumat
tidak semestinya bermakna seseorang itu ingin diiktiraf kerana pengiktirafan
sebenarnya adalah daripada Yang Maha Esa.
62
RUJUKAN
Abd. Rahman Hj. Husin (1979). Media teknologi dan pendidikan. Jurnal Guru, (1) , 254.
Baharuddin Aris, Rio Sumarni Shariffudin, Manimegalai Subramaniam (2002). “Reka
Bentuk Perisian Multimedia”: Johor .Penerbit Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Boakes, N. (2006). The effects of origami lessons on students' spatial visualization skills
and achievement level. (Doctoral dissertation, Temple University, 2006).
Retrieved January 10, 2009, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database.
(Publication No. AAT 3233416).
Carter, J. A. & Ferrucci. B. J. (2003). A survey of paper cutting, folding and tearing in
mathematics textbooks for prospective elementary school teachers. In Focus on
Learning Problems in Mathematics. Winter, 2003.
Hajijah, H. (2008). Kaedah Mesra Warna (Di Kalangan Murid Tingkatan Lima), Kajian
dibentangkan pada Hari Profesionalisme SMK Majakir Papar.
Kubinova, M. (2003). Origami. In Classroom Context: Effective learning and teaching of
mathematics form primary to secondary school. Bologna: Pitagora Editora.
Mok Soon Sang. (1996). Pengajian Matematik untuk Diploma Perguruan.Kuala Lumpur:
Kumpulan Budiman Sdn.Bhd. pp58,162.
Musa Bin Sulaiman (2000). Fokus Kepada Inovasi Sumber Pengajaran Dan
Pembelajaran, Jabatan Pengajian Melayu.
Rieschild, V.R. (2003). Origami in a Hurricane: Current Challenges to Linguistic
Research. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 23, 1, 71-98.
Yusuf Hashim. (1997) Media pengajaran untuk pendidikan dan latihan. Petaling Jaya.
ii
MARA Innovation Journal
Volume 2 Issue 02, December 2013
Welcome to MARA Innovation Journal
The MARA Innovation Journal (MIJ) is an independent, peer-reviewed journal
devoted to sharing ideas and discussing issues related to innovation. The MIJ is
also a forum for exchange of imaginative ideas readers wish to share.
Invitation to Submit Papers
The editorial board in Innovation and Research Unit, Majlis Amanah Rakyat
invites researchers and writers to contribute articles to MARA Innovation Journal
in the field of research and innovation. Articles should be typed using font Arial
11, spacing 1.15 and APA style referencing. Please email your articles to:
Published by:
Innovation and Research Unit
Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA)
No. 21, Jalan Raja Laut
50609 Kuala Lumpur
Copyright © MARA 2013
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Publisher.
iii
Content Pages
From Editorial Desk iv
DEVELOPING MALAYSIAN MICRO-ENTREPRENEURS THROUGH E-
BUSINESS
Dr. Azahari Jamaludin
Raemah Abdullah Hashim
Yasmin Yahya
KELENTURAN DALAM MENJANA MASALAH STATISTIK MELALUI DATA
SELANJAR
Dr. Faridah binti Salleh
Dr. Effandi bin Zakaria
MICROFINANCE AND SMALL BUSINESS GROWTH IN KELANTAN AND
TERENGGANU
Dr. Mohd Rosli Mohamad
Syamsuriana Sidek
KAEDAH ‘RIWAYAT HIDUPKU DI MUKA BUKU‘ DALAM PENGAJARAN DAN
PEMBELAJARAN PERAKAUNAN BAGI TOPIK ‘ASET BUKAN SEMASA’
Nur Syakimah Mohd Subhi
iv
From Editorial Desk
The MARA Innovation Journal (MIJ) is created to mainly publish research
findings related to innovations in entrepreneurship as well as education so as to
continue to be intellectually challenging, thereby fostering the formation of unique
insights and implications for policy and practice. It is hoped that articles published
in this journal will increase the readers’ awareness to new ideas, products,
services, and practices.
This publication deals with a diverse range of topics. The first article,
‘Developing Malaysian Micro-Entrepreneurs Through E-Business’ is written by
Dr. Azahari Jamaludin, Raemah Abdullah Hashim, and Yasmin Yahya. The
article presents the specific list of potential e-business models. Among the
useful insight about e-business discussed by the authors is the potential of e-
business in Malaysia. Additionally, the article identifies and discusses the
contributing elements for the success of e-business and how it is to be applied by
any new or existing entrepreneurs.
The second article ‘Kelenturan Dalam Menjana Masalah Statistik Melalui Data
Selanjar’ is written by Dr. Faridah binti Salleh from Bahagian Pendidikan
Menengah MARA and Dr. Effandi bin Zakaria from Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia. The article relates the findings of a research that measures MRSM
teachers’ ability in generating problem solving questions on statistical topics. The
article concludes with some implications and suggestions for teachers as well as
for the management of education.
Dr. Mohd Rosli Mohamad and Syamsuriana Sidek wrote the third article,
‘Microfinance and Small Business Growth in Kelantan and Terengganu’. The
article discusses on the influence of three dimensions of microfinance, namely
loan criteria, support programme and services for small business growth, with
firm size and firm age as the control variables. The article further presents the
details of the data analysis which employed the Structural Equation Modelling
(SEM) technique. Finally, the structural model confirmed the three hypotheses
stated earlier.
‘
The last article, entitled “Kaedah ‘Riwayat Hidupku Di Muka Buku’ Dalam
Pengajaran Dan Pembelajaran Perakaunan Bagi ‘Topik Aset Bukan Semasa’ ” is
written by Nur Syakimah Mohd Subhi of Kolej MARA Kuala Nerang. In this article,
the researcher presents the detailed description of the teaching and learning
process using the ‘Riwayat Hidup Ku Di Muka Buku’ technique, based on the
‘The Learning Pyramid’ to accentuate their students’ learning process. In
addition, based on the research findings, the researcher reports on the impact of
this technique on their students’ performance.
All the articles discussed current issues on topics of creativity and innovation. It
also shows how creative thinking can be used to accentuate the practice of
quality management in organisations. In addition, creative thinking stimulates
innovation in products and services.
v
It is hoped that this journal will provide an avenue for scholarly research, as well
as facilitate consultancy and dialog among policy makers, organization leaders,
academics and society as a whole. Additionally, the sharing of latest research
findings, theories and practices will foster the creation of new and innovative
products or services. The editorial board wishes to express our gratitude to all
writers for their contributions to the MARA Innovation Journal. In addition, the
editorial board also would like to thank Prof Madya Dr. Salwani Mohd. Daud, Dr.
Nor Azan Mat Zin and Dr. Jainabee Kassim for reviewing this journal.
Innovation and Research Unit
Majlis Amanah Rakyat
December 2013