vol3 issue2 aug14 international journal of nanoscience and technology

Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014

August, 2014 ISSN: 2319-8796

International Journal Of

NanoScience & Technology

An International Refereed Journal

This Journal is an academic and peer-reviewed publication (Print ISSN 2319-8796 )

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Following types of papers are invited for publication in this Journal :-a) Original Research Papers of Scientific values b) Review Papersc) Short Communications d) Case Reports e) Letters to the Editor f) As you see

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1. Nano-electronics and Systems 2. Nano-imaging and Mo-lecular Manipulation and Devices3. Nano-optics 4. Nanomachining5. Nano-composites 6. Nano Bio-electronics and Molecular Nanotechnology7. Nano-Catalysts 8. Nano-Magnetism9. Nano-Mechanics 10. Nano-Biotechnology11. Nano-toxicology 12. Nano- food technology13. Nano-medicine 14. Nano-Photonics15. Nano-Structured Materials 16. Nano-Functional Mate-rials17. Nano-Electronics 18. Nano- Devices, Sensors and bio-sensors & Novel Materials in the Nano Regime19. Application and Commercial aspects of Nanotechnology

20. Carbon based Nanostructures: fullerenes, nanotubes, grapheme21. Computational Nano-Science Simulation Design and Modeling 22. Different Methods for Growth of Nanostruc-tures23. Nano-manufacturing and nano-engineering 24. Nano-fabrication25. Nanometerlogy and applications 26. Green nanotech-nology27. Morphology, characterisation, properties and behav-iour of Nanomaterials and nanostructures of Organic, Inor-ganic, and Biomedical of Nanomaterials Doped Nanoma-terials Modification of Nanomaterials28. Any other related topics

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF NANOSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY is a biannual an academic and peer-reviewed Journal published by ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS. It was published from year i.e. 2012. The ISSN of the JOURNAL is 2319-8796.

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I J N S TInternational Journal

Of Nanoscience & Technology

Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014

‟ Ŧħis journal is Indexed/abstracted in Indian Science Abstract along with National/or International abstracting /Indexing

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August, 2014

Academic And Research PublicationsH.Office: EC 41, Maya Enclave, New Delhi -110064

An International Refereed Journal

This Journal is an academic and peer-reviewed publication (Print ISSN 2319-8796 )

Volume 3, 2014 Issue 2, 2014Editorial Board

Chief Editor Prof. Dr. techn. Murthy CHAVALI S.S.S. Yadav

M.Sc. Tech., P.G.D.C.A., C. Ger. (Austria), Ph.D. Tech. (Austria), Post-doc. Fellow (USA, Japan, Taiwan), C. Jap. (Japan), M.A.C.S., M.A.I.A.A.,M.I.L.A., M.S.A.E., M.I.S.A.S., M.O.S.A., M.I.F.S.A., M.E.A.C.R.,

PROFESSOR - Analytical Chemistry & Nanotechnology,RESEARCH COORDINATOR (DSH),Div. of Chemistry, Dept. of Sciences and Humanities,VIGNAN

University,Vadlamudi 522 213, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA. E-mail : [email protected]

Coordinating EditorDr. Kavyanjali ShuklaFLAT-E, 5/F, BLOCK - 13,

SOUTH HORIZONS, AP LEI CHAU, HONG KONG

E-mail: shuklakavyanjali@[email protected]

Assistant EditorsDr. Khushwinder Kaur

Department of Chemistry Punjab University, Chandigarh Email :

:[email protected] Dr. Pervinder Kaur ,

Department of Agronomy Punjab Agricultural,University,

Ludhiana, Punjab. Email : [email protected]

Dr. Archna Srivastava, Asso. Prof. Rungta College of

Engg & Tech Bhilai (C.G.)Email:

[email protected]

Dr. Badal Kumar MandalProfessor

Trace Elements Speciation Research Laboratory Environmental and Analytical Chemistry Division

School of Advanced Sciences VIT UniversityVellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]. Mihir Kumar Purkait

Associate Professor Department of Chemical Engineering Indian

Institute of Technology, Guwahati Guwahati - 781039 Assam (INDIA)

Email :[email protected] Prof. Mandava V. Basaveswara Rao

Professor, Department of Chemistry, Krishna University . Machilipatnam -521 001,

Krishna Dist Andhra Pradesh, India.Email; [email protected] ;

[email protected] Dr. Masanori Kikuchi

International Center for Materials NanoArchitectonics (MANA),

National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1, Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044,

Japan Email: [email protected]

© Journal on Nanoscience and Technology. All rights reserved. No portion of material can be reproduced in part or full without the prior permission of the Editor.Note : The views expressed herein are the opinions of contributors and do not reflect the stated policies of the Academic And Re-search Publications.. Correspondence: All enquiries, editorial, business and any other, may be addressed to: The Editor-in-chief, International Journal of Nanoscience and Technology (IJNST), H.Office: EC 41, Maya Enclave, New Delhi -110064.

E-mail : [email protected], www.manishanpp.com.ISSN : 2319-8796

Members of Editorial Board

Associate EditorsProf. Dr. Wu, Ren-jang

Department of Applied Chemistry, Providence ,University, 200 Chung-Chi Rd., Shalu, 43301 Taichung, Taiwan

ROC ,TAIWAN, ROC Email:

[email protected]

Prof. M. SRIDHARAN, Dept. Electronics & Communica-

tion Engn. / SEEE , SASTRA UNIVERSITY

Thanjavur - 613 401, Tamil Nadu.(INDIA)Email:

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Prof. Javier RodriguezViejoNanomaterials and Microsystems Group

Department of Physics Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona 08193 - Bellaterra. Barcelona Spain

E-mail: [email protected] Prof. Fumio Watari

in Hokkaido University, JapanEmail; [email protected]

Prof. Yang-Kyu Choi Department of Electrical Engineering Korea Advanced ,Institute of Science and Technol-ogy 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu ,Daejeon

305-701 Republic of Korea E-mail: [email protected]

Dr.P.Sujata Devi, Nano-Sericulture Materials Diagram, Central Glass ,Research Institute,196 Raja S C Mallik

Roas, Kolkata-700032. Email: [email protected]

Dr. Maqsood Ahmad, Asst.Professor,King Abdullah institute for Nanotechnology,King Saud University, BOX-

2454,Riyadh - 11451,Saudi Arabia.Email ; [email protected] ;

[email protected] Laxmi Upadhya, MNNIT, Allahabad. U P

Email : laxman7mnnit@gmail .com

International Journal of

Nanoscience & TechnologyAugust, 2014

Editor-in-ChiefProf. Manik Sinha

Former Dean, Faculty of Law,Dr R.M.L Awadh University, Faizabad (UP),

Senior Advocate, Govt Of India, High Court, LucknowEmail: [email protected]

Publication Editor

Er. Manisha Verma, B. Sc., B. tech.Publication Editor(Chief Executive)

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Nanoscience & TechnologyVolume No. 3 Issue No. 2, 2014

C o n t e n t sAugust, 2014

Review on Medical Applications of Cyclic Olefin Copolymers (COC)

Aravinthan Gopanna , Mohammed N. Alghamdi and Murthy Chavali

Review on Biogenic Synthesis of Iron Oxide (Fe2o3), Zinc Oxide (Zno) and Copper Oxide (Cuo/Cu2o) Nanoparticles

Kiran Kumar H. A. and Badal Kumar Mandal

A Classical Approach To The Melting of a NanorodHimanshu Kumar Pandey , Sandeep Kumar Singh, Pramendra Ranjan Singh

Application of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Health Care: An Overview

Tabrez Ahmad, Newton Paul and Kavyanjali Shukla

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Int. J. Nano. Sci. & Tech. Vol. 3 (2) 2014, pp. ISSN: 2319-8796


a Aravinthan Gopanna, Yanbu Research Center, Royal Commission - Yanbu Colleges and Institutes, P.O. Box 30436, Yanbu Aisinaiya, SAUDI ARABIA.

b Mohammed N. Alghamdi,, Yanbu Research Center, Royal Commission - Yanbu Colleges and Institutes, P.O. Box 30436, Yanbu Aisinaiya, SAUDI ARABIA.

c Division of Chemistry, Department of Sciences and Humanities, Vignan’s Foundation for Science, Technology and Research University (VFSTRU; Vignan University), Vadlamudi,

Guntur 522 213 Andhra Pradesh, INDIA.

* Email: [email protected] (Date of Receipt : 24-05-2014; Date of Acceptance for Publication : 05-07-2014)

Pages : 8 References : 35

Cyclic olefin copolymers (COC) are co-polymers of ethylene and a ring-shaped norbornene groups, typically derived from dicyclopentadiene. The incorpo-rated ring structure gives the cyclo-ole-fins their stiffness, while its size prevents the molecules from becoming ordered enough to crystallize.

In the 1950s, first literature references

to Cyclic olefin copolymers (COC) ap-peared. In the 1980s, first commercial COC made via Ziegler-Natta catalysis became available. In the 2000s, first commercial metallocene-based COC plant started. Cyclo olefin copolymers (COC) are copolymers of ethylene and a ring-shaped norbornene groups, typi-cally derived from dicyclopentadiene. The content of ethylene is between 30 and 95% and the content of norbornene is between 5 and 70%.

ଁୗhe challenges in medical sector inspire for the invention of new medical grade poly-mers. Polymer provide improved robustness against breakability and better ergonom-ic, while delivering for many product an adequate stability performance level regard-ing water/gas permeability as well as extractible/leachable. Cyclic Olefin Copolymers (COC) provides an impressive array of physical and chemical properties that are at-tractive to medical applications. Cyclic Olefin Copolymers unique characteristics bring a true benefit as well as viable alternative for materials like glass, PVC and PC in medi-cal applications. Cyclic Olefin Copolymers can be used for medical products, diagnos-tic products, medical device packaging, pharmaceutical blister packaging etc .

INTRODUCTION

Key Words : Cyclic Olefin Copolymers, Biocompatibility, Plasma Surface Modifica-tion And Blister Packaging

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The incorporated ring structure gives the cyclo-olefins their stiffness, while its size prevents the molecules from be-coming ordered enough to crystallize; the copolymer becomes amorphous, clear and colorless thermoplastic poly-mers and shows the properties of high glass-transition temperature (Tg). Glass transition temperature of COC can be varied over a wide range (from 65 0C to 178 0C), depending on comonomer ra-tio; the bulky norbornene comonomer stiffens the chain, and thus increasing the norbornene content results in co-polymers with higher glass-transition temperature. Like many other thermo-plastics, COC can be extruded, injection molded, thermoform and machined.

PROPERTIES AND PROCESSING

Cyclic olefin copolymers exhibit unique combination of properties, including very high transparency (92 % in visible range 400-800nm), High purity (Extremely low extractable), Good Moldability (High flowability), Gloss, low specific gravity (1.02 or less), low shrinkage, very low wa-ter absorption, outstanding water-vapor barrier capabilities ( less than 0.01 % per 24 hours), excellent aroma barrier, high heat resistance (100 °C to 160 °C), good electrical insulation, high UV transmis-sion, low auto fluorescence (less than PC or PS), low birefringence (1/3 of PC), good compatibility with most polyolefins, bio-

compatibility and inertness. These prop-erties, together with the unique mechani-cal characteristics, such as dimensionally stable, high rigidity, low creep, Good ten-sile and hardness, and chemically resist hydrolytic degradation, aqueous acids and bases, fragrances, most polar organ-ic chemicals and oxygenated solvents.

MEDICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC PRODUCTS

Cyclic olefin copolymers are suitable for medical and diagnostic products because of their benefits like high break-resistance, consistent break-loose and glide force, silicone-oil free, low exposure to extractables and leachables, low particulate lev-els, minimum adsorption and absorp-tion, Improved drainability, excellent low temperature characteristics, high transparency, clarity, moisture bar-rier and chemical resistance. COC withstand all common sterilization regimes, including gamma radiation, steam, and ethylene oxide. They are exceptionally pure and have excellent biocompatibility.

Tests show that no substances leach from them within the limits of detec-tion during immersion in water or isopropanol after 24 hours at 70°C. Given their better shatter resistance than glass, COC can replace glass in pre- filled syringe bodies, serum vi-als, blood containers, petri dishes, test tubes, and bottles of various siz-es, as well as other diagnostic and biomedical containers. COC cuvettes and multi-well microtiter plates of-

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fer resistance to such common polar organic solvents as dimethyl sulfox-ide, as well as high light transmission through the near UV. These COC de-vices provide low haze and low chro-matic aberration for sensitive and ac-curate spectrophotometer readings. In pharmaceutical bottles, their high moisture barrier can extend drug shelf life longer than commodity plastics, either keeping moisture out or pre-venting moisture loss during storage. COC resins can also lengthen the life of moisture-sensitive medications in other drug-delivery systems such as injector pens and inhalers.

Glass surfaces and materials have been widely used for many years in medical applications due to their many beneficial properties. Like the characteristic of glass and glass like surfaces is their ability to accelerate the blood clotting process. Indeed, the collection of blood in glass con-tainers has to be protected from clotting by the addition of calcium chelators such as citrate or throm-bin inhibitors such as heparin. It is believed that the highly negatively charged silicon dioxide surface re-sembles the exposed vasculature (collagen) following vascular injury and initiates the coagulation cas-cade via the intrinsic pathway. This phenomenon has been widely ex-ploited in many blood coagulation assays where glass or other analo-gous si l icates such as cel i te and kaol in are added to blood samples to accelerate clott ing. However, Glass suffers disadvantages in-cluding the means of processing

and bri t t leness. Surfaces modified with a glass like surface could thus be used to per-form bioassays where the induction of blood coagulation via the intrinsic pathway is required. Cyclo olefin co-polymer with glass like surface prop-erties is an excellent way to create hybrid materials with the beneficial of both. Modified cyclo olefin co-polymers to form silica like surface by plasma enhanced chemical va-por deposition. Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is an inexpensive and completely dry surface engineering technique for the deposition of pinhole free, organic and inorganic coatings. In addition to wettability, hardness, and chemical inertness, biocompat-ibility can also be tailored by such deposition process. In addition, the low deposition temperature allows the coating of thermally sensitive substrates such as polymers. Films generated by PECVD offer several advantages over films produced by conventional chemical and physical vapor deposition techniques. These thin layers are highly coherent and adherent to a variety of substrate films and may be prepared from monomers not polymerizable by conventional means. Organic mono-mer vapors containing silicon alone or in a mixture of other gases such as O2 are used to create such films. Silica-like thin films deposited by PECVD offer several advantages in that they are not only colorless and optically transparent but are also in-soluble and thermally stable.

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Reduction in clotting time (CT) values over polystyrene control, as induced by the SiOx-coated COC substrates after 3 days, 1, 2, 3, and 8 weeks following SiOx modification.

CT on glass is used as a positive control. CT of polystyrene was taken as 100%

The creation of a plasma surface modi-fication of COC substrate, with silica-like characteristics has been successfully demonstrated and extensively character-ized by atomic force microscopy, infrared spectroscopy and contact angle meas-urements. Variations in vapor deposition conditions led to significant differences in terms of film properties with regard to contact angle, stability, and lateral flow properties. An optimized surface modifi-cation resulted in a silica-like surface with a thickness of 44nm and roughness of 1 nm, which showed significantly reduced hydrophobicity (40-500) compared to the unmodified polymer (1000). Contact an-gle measurements showed increase and stabilization of the hydrophobicity of the film after several weeks at 640. These sta-bilized films exhibited reproducible lateral flow of plasma when the substrates pos-

sessed micropillar structures and also showed reduction in plasma clotting time of 54%, compared to 66 % for glass, as evidenced using a thrombin assay. The combination of reproducible and hydro-philic lateral flow and clotting time accel-eration on a polymer-based technology illustrate the potential for this substrate modification to form the basis of a bioas-say device platform.

MEDICAL DEVICE AND PHARMACEUTICAL BLISTER PACKAGING

Cyclic olefin copolymers may be com-bined with polyethylene (PE) in mon-olayer blend films or used in multilayer films in flexible packaging for food, drugs, cosmetics, personal care, and consumer products. In multilayer structures, lami-

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nated and co- extruded films are made with a COC core and outer layers of oth-er resins. COC provide a higher mois-ture barrier than that available with other common film materials. In fact, they have roughly doubled the moisture barrier of high density PE, three times that of low density PE, seven times that of unoriented PP, and ten times that of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). COC coextrud-ed with PE usually needs no tie layer because the two are highly compatible.

Medical-grade blister-packaging films protect prescription and over-the-coun-ter drugs against moisture and other environmental factors. Such films must thermoform easily and be compatible with commercially available lidding ma-terials. Although many thermoformable films are used in pharmaceutical blis-ter packages, those made with polyvi-nyl chloride (PVC) are most common. A drawback of PVC is that some consum-ers perceive it as posing environmental risks. COC are viable alternative to PVC. COC flat films are nearly 10 times less

permeable to water vapor than PVC films. COC absorbs less than 0.01% moisture. They are also less controver-sial environmentally since they are hal-ogen-free. COC creates clear, colorless films that thermoform easily on existing machines at temperatures comparable to those used for PVC. For blister pack-aging, it is thermoformed at relatively low temperatures (110 °C to 130 °C) on existing machinery and with 10 % to20 % shorter cycle times than PVC/PVdC film. The COC-based film forms blisters with more uniform wall thickness than those made of competitive materials, and the improved wall uniformity pro-vides a more effective moisture barrier. These COC-based multilayer films are cost competitive with those made of PVC/PVdC.

PE/COC blends is developed for medi-cal device packaging application and provides good forming properties, ex-cellent dimensional stability, excellent stiffness and cost-effective solution such as down gauging and reclaim.

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CONCLUSION

Cyclic olefin copolymers (COC) materi-als have recently attracted both academ-ic and industrial interest as well as the market for COC is growing every year. Its unique properties make them well-suited to use in the medical, drug-delivery sys-tems, pharmaceutical packaging sec-tors, etc. Engineers have tapped its key characteristics of toughness, rigidity, and strength for critical device applications in which safety and performance are vital.REFERENCES

1. International Journal of Scientific Engineer-ing and Technology, Volume No.1, Issue No.2 Page: 222-228

2. Langmuir 2009, 25(18), 11155–11161

3. Plastics Technology, November 2002

4. Plastics Technology, May 2011

5. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, DOI 10.1002/app.36861, (2012)

6. Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 77, No. 5, pp.

801–814, 2005.

7. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemi-cal 213 (2004) 81–87

8. Polymer Letters Vol.5, No.1 (2011) 23–37

9. Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 202, 2001

10. http://www.topas.com

11. http://www.ticona.com

12. http://www.zeonex.com

13. http://www.pmpnews.com

14. http://www.medicalplasticsindia. com

15. http://www.plastemart.com

16. http://www.sciencedirect.com

17. http://www.wikipedia.com

18. http://www.wiley.com

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Trace Elements Speciation Research Laboratory, Environmental and Analytical Chemistry Division, School of Advanced Sciences, VIT University, Vellore 632014, India

Email: [email protected](Date of Receipt : 16-04-2014; Date of Acceptance for Publication : 27-05-2014)

Pages :14 References : 101

Present research has been widely fo-cused on nanotechnology because of its potential involvement in various sec-tors such as environment, health, ag-riculture and energy. Researchers be-longing to various disciplines such as chemistry, physics, biotechnology, and electronics etc., are in great demand of nano structured materials because of inter disciplinary applications. Syn-thesis of metal and metal based NPs is

gaining great momentum due to its abil-ity to produce materials in nanoscale and their applications in different fields, hence there is a notable research at-tention in the synthesis of various metal and metal oxides NPs. Metal oxide nan-oparticles (MO NPs) have unique physi-cal and chemical properties due to their small size and high surface area which is absent in bulk. Metals at nano scale will have high percentage of surface at-oms when compared to that of bulk. In

¶he synthesis of nano structured materials, especially metal and metal oxide nanopar-ticles (NPs), has accrued utmost interest over the past decade due to their advanced properties which makes them an important tool for various applications in different areas of science and technology. Green synthesis is the best alternative to the con-ventional methods which have been widely employed towards the synthesis of metal oxide NPs which includes both chemical and physical methods with various draw-backs such as toxicity, high energy, cost effective and purity. Synthesis and charac-terization of Fe2O3, ZnO and CuO have been studied extensively due to their advanced applications in various fields. Different naturally available prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms have been used as reducing and stabilizing agents for the bio-fabrication of the above mentioned metal oxide NPs. This review comprises of information from different reports available on the green synthesis of oxide nanoparticles (NPs) of iron, zinc and copper.

INTRODUCTION

Key Words : Metal Oxide Nanoparticles, Conventional Methods, Applications, Green Synthesis.

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materials where strong chemical bond-ing is present, delocalization of valence electrons can be extensive. The extent of delocalization can vary with the size of the system, structure also changes with size. The above two changes can lead to different physical and chemical properties such as optical properties, band gap, magnetic property, melt-ing point, specific heat and surface re-activity. For semiconductors such as ZnO the band gap changes with size. For magnetic materials such as Fe3O4 magnetic properties are size dependent and the ‘coercive force’ (or magnetic memory) needed to reverse an inter-nal magnetic field within the particle is size dependent. NPs exhibiting different colors is one of the important property, in bulk state metal won’t exhibit colour due to absence of surface plasmonic resonance (SPR) because on smooth metal surfaces light is totally reflected by the high density of electrons but in small particles light is absorbed, lead-ing to some color. For example, Au and Ag NPs exhibit different colors depend-ing on particle size. Melting point is an-other important property which is de-pendent on size of the material as the size goes to nano melting point is dras-tically decreased. Based on the above mentioned differences in the properties of nano than that of bulk materials, NPs have been used in wide range of appli-cations. MO NPs have recently gained enormous interest in various processes such as electron transistor devices, gas sensors, solar cells, pigments and waste water treatment etc., due to their unique optical, magnetic and electronic prop-erties. Above mentioned properties hold promises for remarkable performance in several important fields of applications

including catalytic, magnetic, mechani-cal and biological applications. Several methodologies have been established to synthesize MO NPs including both physical and chemical methods among which physical methods such as tem-plate assisted synthesis, hydrothermal synthesis and sol–gel process are em-ployed whereas these methods require special equipment, high temperature and templates which encounter difficul-ties with prefabrication and post-remov-al of the templates and usually result in impurities. On the other hand chemical procedures form toxic byproducts due to the uses of harsh reducing agents which are dangerous to the environ-ment. Controlling the size and morphol-ogy of the NPs through conventional process is difficult. Though physical techniques produce well defined na-nomaterials than chemical methods, these methods are expensive and time consuming. Formation of metal nano-particles by chemical methods require short period of time with large quantity of nanoparticles, but this method is con-cerned with stability issues in aqueous solutions and requires additional stabi-lizing agents. Without stabilizing agent nanoparticles aggregation is noticed due to van-der Waal’s forces of attrac-tion. Hence numbers of synthetic stabi-lizing/capping agents, such as polyvi-nylpyrrolidone and sodium polyacrylate have been used, but these stabilizing agents leads to particle deformation and reduced activity growth inhibi-tion of the nanoparticles and also in many cases the reducing agents used for reduction and capping agents for protection leads to production of toxic and non-ecofriendly byproducts. How-ever, environmental contamination is

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a major concern in the chemical syn-thesis of metal and MO NPs. To avoid the environmental contaminations, de-velopment of low cost, non-toxic and eco-friendly processes are needed in synthesizing MO NPs. Biosynthesis of MO NPs using green reducing agents such as prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms are considered as sim-ple, green and cost-effective methods. Green synthesis (synthesis using natu-rally available reducing agents such as microorganisms and plants) of metal and MO NPs is a major breakthrough in the nanoparticle research. Different metal nanoparticles such as Ag, Au, Pt, Pd and Cu have been successfully syn-thesized using green reducing agents. Different green reducing agents (plants, bacteria, fungi and yeast) have been employed for the synthesis of metal na-noparticles among which plant extract-mediated synthesis of nanomaterials is one of the most stable and suitable alternatives in comparison to those pro-duced by physical, chemical and mi-crobial methods. On the other hand MO NPs have gained lot of importance and have been intensively studied because of their potential technological and bio-logical applications. Hence there is a growing need to move towards green protocols. The synthesis of MO NPs us-ing plant extracts has been found to be faster than the microbial synthesis. The green method has been growing sig-nificance due to its simplicity and eco-friendliness. Green synthesis of MO NPs is advantageous over other convention-al methods because of their non toxic and environmental friendly protocols. Present review provides a summary of existing works on the green synthesis of different MO NPs using green chemi-

cals, microorganisms and plants as re-ducing and stabilizing agents and the applications of green synthesized MO NPs in various aspects.

Importance of Fe, Zn and Cu oxide NPs

Metal oxide NPs have found extensive range of application in various disci-plines such as catalysis, water purifica-tion, solar cells, data storage and medi-cine etc. Hence synthesis of oxide NPs with desirable properties are in great demand for selective and high potential applications.

Applications of iron oxide nanoparticles

Iron oxide NPs are widely used as cata-lysts in several oxidation/reduction and acid/base reactions [1]. Recent synthet-ic advances have resulted synthesis of iron oxide NPs and are considerably more effective for the oxidation of car-bon monoxide [2]. Magnetic property of iron oxide NPs have explored their po-tential application as high-density mag-netic data storage and have also play key role in various biomedical applica-tions such as contrast agent in mag-netic resonance imaging [3]. Iron oxide NPs are also used as reducing agents in the removal of toxic waste and in de-composition of various toxic chemicals and compounds [4, 5]. Other applica-tions of iron oxide NPs include biosep-aration [6], waste water treatment [7], magneto optical switches [8], sensors [9], photonic crystals [10], and electron transistor devices [11]. In addition, iron oxide NPs have extensive applications as pigments, catalysts, coatings, lubri-cation, ion exchangers, sorbents, and gas sensors [12–17].

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Applications of zinc oxide nanoparticlesWhen compared to other metal oxide NPs zinc oxide is attracting tremendous attention and also considered as one of the best metal oxide that can be used at a nanoscale due to its interesting prop-erties like wide direct band gap of 3.3 eV at room temperature and high exac-tion binding energy of 60 meV [18] with its unique optical and electrical proper-ties [19]. Zinc oxide NPs have been used in various potential applications such as solar cells, UV light-emitting devices, gas sensors, photo catalysts, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [20-24] because of its high catalytic efficiency, strong adsorption ability, manufacture of sun-screens [25], ceramics and rubber pro-cessing, wastewater treatment, and as a fungicide [26,27]. ZnO NPs is highly toxic to various bacterial strains, but its stability during harsh processing conditions and relatively low toxicity has favored its appli-cations in agricultural and food industries [28-32]. Other applications of ZnO NPs in-clude personal care products, ultraviolet (UV) light emitters, chemical sensors, pie-zoelectric devices, spin electronics, coat-ing and paints [33–35].Applications of copper oxide nanoparticlesRecently, copper oxide (CuO) nanoparti-

cles have gained significant importance in different areas due to their physical and chemical properties. Cu and Cu complex-es have been used in various purposes for centuries, such as water purifiers, algae-cides, fungicides, antibacterial, antifouling agents, coatings, plastics and textiles [36, 37]. Copper exhibits a broad-spectrum of biological activity and effectively inhibits the growth of bacteria, fungi, viruses and algae [38-40]. This transition metal oxide with a narrow band gap (Eg 1.2 eV) has been widely used as giant magneto re-sistance material [41], superconductors [42], gas sensors [43], catalysts [44], bat-tery [45] and solar cells [46]. Copper ox-ide NPs are very important in medicinal field in which they act as antioxidant [47], antibacterial [48] agents. During the last 5 years, nanoscale copper has gained much attention due to its remarkable an-tibacterial activity [49], and products with copper-containing surfaces may be used for sterilization processes in hospitals [50].

Conventional methods used for the synthesis of Fe, Zn and Cu oxide nanoparticlesDifferent methods followed for the synthe-sis of MO NPs have been listed in Figure 1. Both physical and chemical methods have been used for the synthesis of MO NPs.

Figure 1: different conventional methods used to synthesize Cu, Fe and Zn oxide NPs.

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Figure 1: different conventional methods used to synthesize Cu, Fe and Zn oxide NPs.

GREEN SYNTHESISGreen synthesis of metal nanoparticles is advantageous over other conventional synthesis process which includes both chemical and physical methods. Green synthesis mostly involves the use of dif-ferent organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and plants etc., sometimes green chemi-cals which are nontoxic such as gal-lic acid and tannic acid in the synthesis of gold (Au) and silver (Ag) NPs, urea in the synthesis of iron oxide NPs, citric acid mediated synthesis of Ag NPs, starch has been used to synthesis platinum NPs etc. Synthesis of NPs using above mentioned reducing agents such as phytochemi-cals, proteins and vitamins present in mi-crobes and plants makes the synthesis ecofriendly and cost effective, also elimi-nates the need to use harsh chemicals which makes the nanomaterials toxic. Green synthesis has been widely em-ployed in the field of nanotechnology and nanobiotechnology in the past decade by researchers to obtain different metal NPs, among which reports on plant mediated synthesis of metal NPs, are more com-pared to microbial synthesis. Use of plant extracts based synthesis is advantageous over microbial synthesis because of its simplicity and also avoids the lengthy pro-cedures such as maintaining cultures in sterile media to avoid contamination and monitoring the reaction. The reports avail-able on the biological synthesis of metal oxide NPs have been discussed below.Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticlesNotable efforts have been made to syn-thesize iron oxide nanoparticles via green route. Initially Raul et. al., reported the syn-thesis of spherical iron oxide NPs using alfalfa plant extract at room temperature

within 30 min and also studied the effect of pH on the size of the NPs. Based on the results authors found that at neutral pH size of the NPs was small [68]. Further Gao et al. used biopolymer, sodium al-ginate as reducing and stabilizing agent for the synthesis of Fe2O3 NPs. The syn-thesized NPs were spherical with aver-age particle size of 24.5 nm [69]. Similarly, Lu et al. reported the synthesis of highly crystalline and spherical Fe2O3 NPs us-ing α-D-glucose as reducing agent and gluconic acid as stabilizing agent at 60 0C with an average size of synthesized NPs of 12.5 nm [70]. Green synthesis of soya bean sprouts (SBS)-mediated superpara-magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles under am-bient temperature was reported by Cai et al. Synthesized Fe3O4 NPs were spherical shaped with an average diameter of 8 nm formed simultaneously on the epidermal surface and the interior stem wall of SBS. Probable mechanism for the formation of Fe3O4 NPs has been demonstrated [71]. Magnetite NPs with tunable sizes and morphologies was reported by Yang et al. [72]. In this report NPs were synthesiz-ed by heating an aqueous solution of Fe2+/Fe3+ (1:2 molar ratio) in the presence of urea at 85 0C and examined that in ab-sence of other additives such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) the particle size was 300 nm whereas in presence of additive the size decreased to ~100 to ~280 nm. Authors also suggested that size of the NPs can be tuned using PVA [72]. Ahmmad et. al. reports the synthesis of mesoporous he-matite (α-Fe2O3) NPs using camellia sin-ensis leaf extract. Synthesized NPs were almost spherical with the size of 80 nm. Authors also studied the photocatalytic activity of synthesized NPs [73]. Demir et al. reported green synthesis of superpara-magnetic Fe3O4 NPs using maltose as re-

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ducing and stabilizing agent and the reac-tion was carried out in autoclave at 180 oC for 48 hours. The NPs were spherical with average size of 12.1 ± 2.1 nm. Authors also proposed possible mechanism for the formation of iron oxide NPs [74]. Mahdavi et. al., used aqueous extract of seaweed (Sargassum muticum) for green biosynthesis of magnetic iron oxide (Fe3O4) NPs within 60 min under ambient conditions. Authors also reported that water extract contain-ing sulphated polysaccharides acted as reducing agent and efficient stabilizer. The characterization results revealed that synthesized NPs were crystalline in na-ture with cubic shape and average par-ticle size was found to be 18 ± 4 nm [75]. Bardajee et al synthesized biocompatible superparamagnetic iron oxide NPs/hy-drogel based on salep (Salep is a source of glucomannan obtained from dried tubers of certain natural terrestrial or-chids) at room temperature. The synthe-sized NPs were evaluated for their drug loading and releasing capacity followed by cytotoxicity evaluation [76]. Recently Mohanraj et. al., synthesized anisotropic Fe2O3 NPs with average particle size of 61 nm using Murraya koenigii leaf extract under ambient conditions in short time. Synthesized iron oxide NPs were tested towards fermentative hydrogen produc-tion with respect to C. acetobutylicum [77]. Darroudi et. al. synthesized superpara-magnetic iron oxide NPs where the co-valent binding of starch onto the surface of magnetic Fe3O4 NPs was happened by a green coprecipitation method. Synthe-sized NPs were irregular shaped with the average size of 40 nm. Authors also stud-ied a dose dependent toxicity of Fe3O4 NPs and a non–toxic effect of concentra-tion below 62.5µg/mL was observed in the studies by in vitro cytotoxicity on neuro

2A cells [78]. Hao et. al., have reported additive-free synthesis of irregular spheri-cal shaped iron oxide NPs at 75 oC for 12 hours. Synthesized NPs were used as ef-ficient adsorptive removal of Congo red and Cr (VI) [79].

Green synthesis of z inc oxide nanoparticles

Sangeetha et. al. have reported the green synthesis of zinc oxide NPs (ZnO NPs) by aloe barbadensis miller leaf extract. Effect of extract concentration and time required for the 100 % conversion of metal precur-sor to its nano form was evaluated. On the other hand characterization studies reveled that synthesized NPs were of dif-ferent shapes ranging from spherical to hexagonal with the size ranging from 25-55 nm. Different phytoconstituents such as flavonoids, proteins and other func-tional groups present in the leaf broth of plant extract are responsible for the formation of zinc oxide NPs. Authors also studied the antimicrobial activity of green synthesized ZnO NPs against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Authors have re-ported that size plays major role in the ef-fective antimicrobial activity towards dif-ferent organisms. Smaller sized NPs show better activity due to high surface area [80, 81]. Darroudi et. al. have reported the synthesis of ZnO NPs using gum tragacanth at 80 oC in 12 hours. Synthesized NPs was spherical in shape with the average size of 50 nm. Further the cytotoxicity of ZnO NPs was evaluated using 3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenylte-trazolium bro-mide (MTT) assay [82]. Bio-fabrication of highly crystalline spherical and hexagonal ZnO NPs using different concentrations of Parthenium hysterophorus leaf extract was reported by Rajiv et. al.,The sizes of spheri-

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cal and hexagonal NPs were 27 ± 5 nm and 84 ± 2 nm respectively. The synthe-sized NPs were evaluated for its size-dependent antifungal activity against plant fungal pathogens [83]. Synthesis of ZnO NPs using Poncirus trifoliate fruit extract was studied by P.C. Nagajyothi et. al. Based on FTIR reports authors con-firmed the role of alcohols, phenols, 11 amines, aromatic and aliphatic amines in the synthesis of ZnO NPs. Synthesized NPs were spherical in nature with size ranging from 8.48 - 36.2 nm. Catalytic ef-ficiency of the synthesized ZnO NPs was evaluated in the Claisen Schmidt con-densation of 3, 4-dimethyl benzaldehyde with acetophenone [84]. Nagarajan et. al. reported the synthesis of ZnO NPs using three different sea weeds namely Caul-erpa peltata, Hypnea Valencia and sargassum myriocystum. Synthesized NPs were in dif-ferent shapes (spherical, triangle, radial, hexagonal, rod and rectangle) with the size ranging from 76 - 186 nm. Authors also reported the effect of different pa-rameters such as concentration of sea weed, pH and temperature on the syn-thesis of ZnO NPs. It was observed that at lower concentration of extract formation of ZnO NPs was increased with the in-creasing absorbance at 380 nm, whereas at higher concentration of extract led to the aggregation. Other parameters such as pH and temperature were also studied and maximum conversion of metal salt to its nano form was observed at higher pH (pH - 9) and 80 oC [85]. Shamsuzza-man et. al. used Candida albicans as eco-friendly reducing and capping agent for the synthesis of ZnO NPs. Synthesized ZnO NPs were quasi spherical with par-ticle size ranging from 15-25 nm. Further authors checked the effect of ZnO NPs as a catalyst for the synthesis of steroi-

dal pyrazolines [86]. Gnanasangeetha et. al., have reported the green synthesis of ZnO NPs using Acalypha indica leaf extract in 2 hours under ambient conditions. The synthesized NPs were cube shaped with the size ranging from 100-200 nm. Based on the FTIR results authors tried to sort out various functional groups present in the plant extract that are responsible for the reduction and stabilization of ZnO NPs [87]. Synthesis of spherical ZnO NPs using gelatin was investigated and the formation of NPs was completed in 12 hours at 60 oC. Cytotoxic effects of synthe-sized NPs were also evaluated [88]. Azizi et. al. have reported the synthesis of zinc oxide NPs through green process using the brown marine macro algae Sargassum muticum aqueous extract. FTIR spectra revealed the involvement of sulfate and hydroxyl moieties of polysaccharide in the formation of ZnO NPs. Pure ZnO NPs were obtained after calcination of S. muti-cum formed ZnO at 450 oC. FESEM analy-sis shows that the pure ZnO NPs synthe-sized have hexagonal wurtzite structures and the average size ranged from 30 to 57 nm [89]. Abdul Salam et. al. have reported the synthesis of hexago-nal shaped ZnO NPs using Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens Benth leaf extract and size of synthesized NPs were less than 50 nm [90]. Singh et al have reported the synthesis of spherical shaped ZnO nanoparticles with average size of 80 nm using the cell extract of the cyanobacterium. Additionally, authors also have re-ported the formation of conjugate of ZnO NPs–shinorine which may be useful in the formulation of non-toxic sunscreen agent and also in other photochemically stable prod-ucts [91].

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Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles

Yu et. al. synthesized Cu2O NPs using glu-cose as reducing and protecting agent and the authors observed that addition of external stabilizing agents such as CMC/CTAB results in the decrease in particle size [92]. Usha et. al. reported the syn-thesis of stable CuO and ZnO NPs using Streptomyces Sp under ambient conditions and antimicrobial activity of the synthe-sized NPs were checked on different bac-terial strains by coating the NPs onto the fabric [93]. Synthesis of Cu2O NPs using Lactobacillus and Saccharomyces cultures at 60 oC within 20 min was reported and NPs obtained were spherical in nature with the particle size ranging between 10 – 20 nm [94]. Valodkar et. al., have reported the synthesis of Cu2O NPs at 180 oC in 3 hrs in sealed tube. Synthesized NPs were in the form of dendrites with the size of 50 nm [95]. Gopalakrishnan et. al. have re-ported the synthesis of surface function-alized Cu2O NPs using Tridax procumbens leaf extract and the synthesized NPs were hexagonal and cubic in nature with the particle size of 60 – 80 nm. The obtained NPs were evaluated against E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacterium by using disc-diffusion method [96]. Guna-lan et. al. have reported green synthesis of CuO NPs at 130 oC in 7 hours using Aloe barbadensis Miller extract after centrifuging followed by drying at 120 oC for 12 hours. The synthesized NPs were crystalline and spherical in nature with average particle size ranging from 15 – 30 nm. Based on the FTIR results the authors reported that the stability of the NPs was due to surface capping of free amino and carboxylic groups onto NPs surface [97]. Fabrication of spherical CuO NPs embedded with the

gum matrix by using gum karaya as re-ducing agent was investigated by Vinod et. al., Based on the different concentra-tions used obtained NPs were in the size ranging from 4.8 – 7.8 nm. Synthesized NPs showed potential antimicrobial activ-ity against both gram positive and gram negative bacterial strains [98]. Sankar et. al., reported the synthesis of CuO using Carica papaya leaf extract at room tem-perature and the formation of NPs was confirmed after 48 hrs. The synthesized CuO NPs were in rod shaped and crys-talline in nature with average particle size of 140 nm. Authors also reported that the bioactive molecules present in the C. pa-paya leaves extract reduce precursor and formation of CuO NPs [99]. Recently Si-varaj et. al., reported the synthesis of CuO NPs using Tabernaemontana divaricate leaf extract by stirring the precursor and leaf extract at 100 oC for 7–8 h. NPs obtained were spherical and highly crystalline with average size of 48 ± 4 nm. Synthesized CuO NPs were tested against the urinary tract infection (UTI) causing pathogen [100].

POSSIBLE MECHANISM IN-VOLVED IN THE GREEN SYNTHESIS OF MO NPS USING NATURAL REDUCING AGENTS

Understanding the chemistry involved in formation of stable MO NPs by green synthesis using natural reducing agents such as plant extracts, microorganisms is very important and interesting topic. Various reports are available on the green synthesis of metal NPs such as Au and Ag but till now there is no clear information regarding the reduction and stabilization of NPs by phytochemical. Hence mechanisms involved in reduc-

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tion and stabilization during the synthe-sis of NPs need to be explored. Based on the available literature the synthesis and stabilization of MO NPs using mi-croorganisms occurs by the proteins secreted by these organisms. The ami-no acid residues in the proteins secret-ed by microorganisms play important role in the synthesis and stabilization of NPs. Plant mediated synthesis has be-come important area for the research-ers in the field of nanoparticle synthesis because of its simplicity, which includes single step reaction to obtain stable NPs. The mechanism involved in this process has been explained by various groups during the synthesis of different metal NPs. General idea involves that the plant phytochemicals such as phe-nols, tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids etc. take part in the reduction of metal ion to its nano form and itself under-goes oxidation. Further oxidized form of the phytochemicals will take part in the stabilization by capping on to the sur-face. The reduction of metal occurs due to the hydroxyl groups present in the polyphenols, but at the same time the polyphenols undergo oxidation to form their respective quinine forms. As a re-sult carbonyl groups present in the oxi-dized polyphenols help in stabilization by coordinating with the NPs via elec-trostatic interaction. Based on HSAB principle it has been reported that when hard ligands come in contact with soft metal, resulting soft metal ion under-goes reduction because complexation is not preferential. Whereas at the same time hard ligands undergoes oxida-tion to form soft ligands, which in turn makes coordination with NPs synthe-sized as soft ligands and makes them stable by preventing aggregation [101].

CONCLUSION

Synthesis of metal oxide NPs using bio-logical substances is an attractive and promising area in the nanotechnology research. Various biological entities have been exploited in the biosynthetic routes for synthesis of metal and metal oxide NPs. Nanomaterials of different metals such as Ag, Au, Cu Pd and Pt have been reported till date using different prokaryotic and eu-karyotic organisms. Among these biologi-cal forms plants are regarded as potential and renewable nanofactories for the syn-thesis of NPs because of their simplicity and eco-friendly nature. Large scale pro-duction of different metal NPs using bio-logical entities is still not under progress though this route eliminates uses of toxic chemicals and also makes the proce-dures simple. Scientists should focus on this particular issue to make biological synthesis as alternative to conventional methods in large scale industrial produc-tions. Metal oxide NPs such as Fe2O3, ZnO and CuO/Cu2O have wide range of appli-cations as mentioned earlier. It is noted that from past decade there has been an increased interest in biological synthesis of metal nanomaterials whereas most of the reports are based on the synthesis of Ag and Au NPs. Fabrication of oxide NPs using natural reducing agents is little hard when compared to individual metal NPs because optimizing the conditions such as pH, incubation temperature, time, con-centration of metal ions, and the amount of biological material required for the syn-thesis of MO NPs is difficult on the other hand synthesis of MO NPs involves pro-longed time and high temperature which effects the size and morphology of the NPs. Considerable efforts have been put forward to synthesis different metal ox-

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ide NPs using both microorganisms and plants, researchers successfully reported the synthesis of ZnO, CuO and Fe2O3 NPs with different sizes, shapes and morphol-ogies followed by their applications in definite areas. Most of the reports con-clude the dual role of reducing agents used in synthesis. Hence understanding the mechanism involved in reduction and stabilization in single step without adding additional reagents would be interesting which has to be studied clearly. Synthe-sis of metal oxide NPs by biocompatible agents with exclusive chemical, optical, electrical and physical properties are of great importance for wider applications in the areas of chemistry, electronics, medi-cine and agriculture. Overall, the green synthesis is an electrifying area in nano-technology which makes momentous im-pact on future advancements in different disciplines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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84. P. Rajiv, S. Rajeshwari and R. Venck-atesh (2013), Spectrochim. Acta. A. 112 384–387.

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86. Shamsuzzaman, A. Mashrai, H. Khanam and R. N. Aljawfi (2013), Arabian J. Chem. DOI- 10.1016/j.arab-jc.2013.05.004.

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Dept. of Physics, Patna Women’s College, Patna- 800001*, Research Scholar, Dept. of Physics, J.P. University, Chapra-841301**

Jagdam College,(J.P. University), Chapra- 841301***

Email: [email protected]

(Date of Receipt : 06-03-2014; Date of Acceptance for Publication : 30-06-2014)


The physical properties of nanopar-ticles are a subject matter of intense contemporary interest. As the size of low-dimensional materials decreases to nanometer size regime, electronic, magnetic, optic, catalytic and thermo-dynamic properties of the materials are significantly altered from those of either the bulk or a single molecule.[1] Ow-ing to the change of the properties, the fabrication of nanostructural materials and devices with unique properties in atomic scale has become an emerging interdisciplinary field involving solid–state physics , chemistry , biology and materials science. Also, this field of re-

search is of special importance for the study of initial stages of thin film growth in the area of microelectronics. Among the above counted special properties of nanocrystals, the melting point of na-nocrystals is one of the important ther-modynamic characteristics which de-termines many properties of materials. Thus, a thorough understanding of the thermal properties of low dimensional materials is of importance due to their potential applications in the field of mi-croelectronics, solar energy utilization and nonlinear optical materials also. This may allow the use of a greater va-riety of substrates or the formation of laminar thin films without thermal dam-

Melting point depression and enhancement of nanomaterials have been found to depend on size, dimension and surface properties of the nanomaterials. Ours is a phenomenological model based on classical considerations regarding melting of na-nomaterials.We have considered a nanorod and using a simple minded approach of cohesive binding energy observed that the melting point of the nanorod gets de-pressed as the size goes down. Further, to illustrate the phenomena, we have adopted a classical thermodynamic approach which is mainly based on Gibbs energy of a nanorod. We have minimized the Gibbs energy for the nanosystem in different phas-es and calculated and analyzed the results for the melting point of the nanorod. The results of our models are consistent with both of experimental results and other ther-modynamic models.

INTRODUCTION

Key Words : Nanomaterials, Nanoparticles , Microelectronics.

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age to the underlying features. The most striking example of the deviation of the corresponding conventional bulk ther-modynamic behavior is probably the depression of the melting point of nano-structures. A relation between the size of nanostructures and melting tempera-ture was first established by Pawlow in 1909 and Takagi in 1954 demonstrated experimentally for the first time that ul-trafine metallic particles melt below their corresponding bulk temperatures.[2,3 ] Further studies revealed that isolat-ed and substrate-supported nanoparti-cles with relatively free surfaces usually exhibit a significant decrease in melting temperature as compared to the corre-sponding conventional bulk materials. The physical origin for this phenom-enon is that the ratio of the number of surface to volume atoms is enormous, and the liquid/vapor interface energy is generally lower than the average solid/vapor interface energy.[4] Therefore as the particle size decreases, its surface to volume atom ratio increases and the melting temperature decreases as a consequence of the improved free en-ergy at the particle surface. Moreover, the metallic and organic nanocrystals can exhibit not only a decrease of the melting point, but also a superheating , depending on their surrounding envi-ronments. [5,6,7] It is widely believed that the melting temperature Tm of nanostructures goes down with decreasing size. The theory for this claim is usually based by considering spherical shaped nanostructures. The methodology used ranges from a variety of classi-cal approaches to the first principle

quantum mechanical calculations. [8,9]

We shall study a novel nanosystem namely a nanorod. We adopt a classical thermodynamics approach in which we shall minimize the Gibbs energy.

Let us first adopt a simple minded ap-proach based on calculating the cohe-sive energy for a nearest neighbour inter-acting nanorod. Figure 1 depicts such a nanorod.

Fig. 1 Schematic nanorod of length l and radius R.

We can write 2TotE NJ Rπ γ= − + …..(1)

Where J represents the energy per bond and γ is a surface energy term. Note that we consider only the curved surface area to be significant. If the total energy per atom be E then we can also write

2

30

TotREa

π= ∈

….(2)

where a0 is the interatomic distance (Note that the volume V is, 2V Rπ= )

Hence, the total number of atoms N is

2

30

π=

RNa

…..(3)

An elementary approach (Weizsaker Model)

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whereby the total energy per atom can be written as

3.02

2TotE RJ aN R

π γπ

∈= = − +

which implies 30

2J aRγ∈= − +

….(4)

It is reasonable to assume that the melt-ing temperature Tm is related to the bind-ing energy per atom. The greater the bind-ing energy the greater the melting point. Hence ∝ −∈mT

which implies 30

2mT J a

Rγ ∝ −

….(5)

The melting temperature Tm is then

30 0 1

2mT T a C

Rγ= −

….(6)

where T0 is the bulk melting point and C1 is a constant.

The above expression indicates that if R goes down the second term on the right hand side of eqn (6) increases thereby de-creasing the melting temperature Tm. We must note that R scales with l. A similar ar-gument has been advanced by C.F. Von Weizsaker to explain the nature of bind-ing in a nucleus. It goes under the name of the famous Weizsaker semi empirical mass formula.

Table-I; Describes the various quantities used in the analysis

Table-I

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Figure 2 depicts a thin nanorod with R its radius of cross section and the length (R<< ). Melting of the rod is considered only on the curved surface. The surface properties especially the surface energies in various phases play significantly be-sides others when the study of melting of a nanorod is undertaken. Surface energy quantifies the disruption of intermolecu-lar bonds that occurs when a surface is created. In the physics of solids, surface must be intrinsically less energetically fa-vorable than the bulk of a material; oth-erwise there would be a driving force for surfaces to be created and surface is all there would be. The surface energy may therefore be defined as the excess energy at the surface of a material compared to the bulk. We can start with equating the mass of the melted cylindrical shell in the solid and liquid phases asMass of the melted shell in solid phase=mass of the melted shell in liquid phase. i.e.

(The symbols used in the analysis are ex-plained in Table I)

2 2 2 2( ) ( )πρ σ πρ σ − − = − − s S SR R R R

Here our aim is to define Rl in terms of σs

Thereby ( ) ( )2 2 1 1 2α= − − − R R B B ….(7)

Whereby we can further write

[ ]121 ( 1) ( 2)α= − − −eR B B

R

….(8)

Taylor expanding the R.H.S of eqn.(8) and rearranging to order B2 (i.e. ignoring terms of order B3 and higher) we obtain

( ) ( ) ( )2 221 ( 2) 1~1 1 22 8

− −− − − −−

B BR B BR

αα

We thus have

2( 1)1 ( 1)2

R R B Bαα α− + − − �

…..(9)

We now differentiate the above expres-sion to obtain

( 1) ( 1) 22s

dR BRd R R

α α ασ

− − − �

( note

1s

s

dBB and henceR d Rσ

σ= =

)

Therefore [ ]( 1) 1s

dR Bd

α ασ

− − �

….(10)

Differentiating eqn. (7) we have

( ) [ ]2

. 2 ( 1)(1 )6

α= − −

S

d Ri e R B

d …..(11)

The central part of this analysis is to equate Gibbs energy in various phases.Note that the Gibbs energy is

( ) ( ) 2 ( )π γ σ= + − + + − + − s ss

G U PV TS U PV TS R

{ }2 2 22 ( ) ( )π γ σ γ σ + − − + − v s sv sR R R ……(12)

where the symbols have their usual meanings.

We minimize the Gibbs energy with re-

Gibbs energy based analysis of a nanorod

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spect to σS which gives

0σ

=s

dGd

…..(13)

which gives

( )0

1 2 1πρ − −

m

sTL R BT

( )2 4 (1 ) 1 0π γ π γ α γ γ− + − − + − = s v v svR B …..(14)

This lengthy exercise finally is

( )

0

1 21(1 )γ γ α γ

ρ

= − − − −

m sv sv

s

T RT R L B

….(15)

Fig.(6 ) Tm functions of four organic na-norods: Benzene, Chlorobenzene, heptane and nepthaline. The solid lines of theoretical predictions and the symbols ●■▲♦ denote the experimental results of Benzene, Chloroben-zene, heptane and nepthaline respectively.

We can now summarize the above dis-cussion for the melting point of the na-norod. At nanoscales, particles exhibit many thermophysical features distinct from those found at microscales. As the size decreases due to the increase in surface to volume ratio the melting tem-perature deviates from the bulk values and becomes a size-dependent prop-erty. This change in melting point is pri-marily caused besides others because nanoscale materials have a much larg-er surface to volume ratio than bulk ma-terials, drastically altering their thermo-dynamic and thermal properties. This decrease may be of the order of the order of tens to hundreds of degrees for metals with nanometer dimensions. Surface atoms bind in the solid phase with less cohesive energy because they have fewer neighboring atoms in close proximity compared to atoms in the bulk of the solid. Each chemical bond an atom shares with a neighbor-ing atom provides cohesive energy, so

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. (5) Tm function of Al and In nanoparti-cles the solid lines are theoretical predictions. Symbols (●) denote the experimental results of Tm values of Al nanoparticles. Symbols (■) denote the experimental results of Tm values of In nanoparticles.

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atoms with fewer bonds and neighbor-ing atoms have lower cohesive energy. Therefore, the atoms located at or near the surface of the nanoparticle have re-duced cohesive energy due to reduced number of cohesive bond. It is well es-tablished that the melting temperature of Au(1064K) decreases when the par-ticle dimensions are reduced to the na-noscale. Therefore, at 3 nm diameter, Au particles can melt at temperature ~ 500 K. Similarly, the melting temperature of B4C (2450K) lowered to ~ 764 K range with spherical-shaped and ~ 495K rang-es with cylindrical nanorods .Also, GaN (2770 K) nanorods are observed to melt at the temperature ~ 1553 K range. As an elementary approach we observe through eqn.(6) that if R goes down the second term on the right hand side of eqn (6) increases thereby decreasing the melt-ing temperature Tm. We must note that R scales with l. A similar argument has also been advanced by C.F. Von Weizsaker to explain the nature of binding in a nucle-us. It goes under the name of the famous Weizsaker semi empirical mass formula.

The expressions for the melting point of the nanorod as discussed by eqn (15) suggests us that

(i) If the size of the nanorod R and / or L be large, the denominator of the coeffi-cient of the second term on the right hand side of eqn. (15) goes smaller and can be approximated to zero which provides If the density of the solid nanorod is larger than Tm is once again closer to the bulk temperature T0. The undetermined pa-rameter is σs i.e., the melted thickness.

We have 0

β= −mT T

R Where

1βρ

=s

m

Fig. 9

Therefore , we observe that as the size R goes down, Tm goes down. We also note that the coefficient β depends inversely on the latent heat L. Clearly, as the latent heat L decreases, Tm decreases. If β is positive, we obtain the Tm vs 1/R plot as shown in fig.-9, which clearly indicates that Tm decreases as 1/R increases.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

REFERENCES

1. H.Gleiter,Acta Mater.(2000),48,1.

••••••• ••••••••

This work was supported by the National Initiative of Undergraduate Science(NIUS), undertaken by the Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education(TIFR), Mumbai. We thank Prof. Vijay A. Singh for useful discussions.

(iii) We have assumed that β is positive. However, the possibility of β being nega-tive cannot be ruled out. This would im-ply a superheating. Considering the three terms within the box of the second term on the right hand side of eqn. (15) (note β<1), the possibility of superheating can arise.

It should be noted that when the surface atoms of the particles is smaller than that of the interior atoms due to the coherent interfaces between the particles and the matrix , the superheating of the nanorod is evident. Tm decreases as r decreases. Clearly it is observed that the melting tem-perature decreases when the particle size reduces.

2. P.Pawlow, Z. Phys. Chem. 65, 545 (1909).

3. M.Takagi, J Phys. Soc. Jpn. (1954), 9, 359.

4. O. Gulseren, F. Ercolessi, E. Tossati, Phys Rev. (1995), B51, 7377.

5. H.Saka, Y. Nishikawa, and T. Imura, Phil. Mag. A 57, 895 (1988).

6. D.L. Zhang and B. Cantor, Acta Metall. Mater. 39, 1595 (1991).

7. H.W. Sheng. G. Ren. L.M. Peng. Z.Q. Hu, and K.Lu, Philos. Mag. Lett. 73, 179 (1996).

8. V.K. Semenchenko, Surface Phenom-ena in Metals and Allys (Pergamon, Oxford, United Kingdom), (1961)p,281.

9. J.R. Sambles, Proc. R. Soc. A 324, 339 (1971).

10. Ph. Buffat and J.P. Borel, Phys. Rev. A 13, 2287 (1976).

11. P.R. Couchman and W.A. Jesser, Na-ture 269, 481 (1977).

12. G.L. Allen, W.W. Gile, and W.A. Jesser, Acta, Metall. 28, 1695 (1980).

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*Department of Zoology, BSNV PG College, Lucknow** PG Department of Zoology, IT PG College, Lucknow.

Email: [email protected]

(Date of Receipt : 12-06-2014; Date of Acceptance for Publication : 22-07-2014)


Nanomedicine is the medical applica-tion of nanotechnology. Nanomedicine ranges from the medical applications of nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic bio-sensors, and even possible future ap-plications of molecular nanotechnology (Wagner et. al., 2006). Current problems for nanomedicine involve understand-ing the issues related to toxicity and en-vironmental impact of nanoscale mate-rials. One nanometer is one-millionth of a millimeter (Freitas Jr., 1999).

Nanomedicine research is receiving funding from the US National Institute of Health. Of note is the funding in 2005 of a five-year plan to set up four nano-medicine centers. In April 2006, the jour-nal Nature Materials estimated that 130 nanotech-based drugs and delivery sys-tems were being developed worldwide (Ratner&Ratner, 2002).

Nanomedicine is the application of nanobiotechnologies to medicine. This article starts with the basics of nanobiotechnologies, its applications in molecular diagnostics, na-nodiagnostics, and improvements in the discovery, design and delivery of drugs, in-cluding nanopharmaceuticals. It will improve biological therapies such as vaccination, cell therapy, cancer therapy and gene therapy. A nanobiotechnology forms the basis of many new devices being developed for medicine and surgery such as nanorobots. It has applications in practically every branch of medicine and such as cancer (na-nooncology), neurological disorders (nanoneurology), cardiovascular disorders (na-nocardiology), diseases of bones and joints (nanoorthopedics), diseases of the eye (nanoophthalmology), and infectious diseases. Nanobiotechnologies will facilitate the integration of diagnostics with therapeutics and facilitate the development of person-alized medicine, i.e. prescription of specific therapeutics best suited for an individual. Many of the developments have already started and within a decade a definite impact will be felt in the practice of medicine.

INTRODUCTION

Key Words : Nanomedicine, Vaccination, Nanobiotechnology, Nanorobots, Drugdelivery.

OVERVIEW

Nanomedicine seeks to deliver a valu-able set of research tools and clinically

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useful devices in the near future. The National Nanotechnology Initiative ex-pects new commercial applications in the pharmaceutical industry that may include advanced drug delivery systems, new therapies, and in vivo imaging. Neuro-electronic interfaces and other nanoelec-tronic-based sensors are another active goal of research (Mozafari, 2006). Further down the line, the speculative field of mo-lecular nanotechnology believes that cell repair machines could revolutionize med-icine and the medical field.

Nanomedicine is a large industry, with na-nomedicine sales reaching 6.8 billion dol-lars in 2004, and with over 200 companies and 38 products worldwide, a minimum of 3.8 billion dollars in nanotechnology R&D is being invested every year. As the nano-medicine industry continues to grow, it is expected to have a significant impact on the economy (Robinson, 1996).

MEDICAL USE OF NANOMATE-RIALS

Two forms of nanomedicine that have al-ready been tested in mice and are await-ing human trials are using gold nanoshells to help diagnose and treat cancer, and using liposomes as vaccine adjuvants and as vehicles for drug transport. Simi-larly, drug detoxification is also another application for nanomedicine which has shown promising results in rats. A benefit of using nanoscale for medical technolo-gies is that smaller devices are less inva-sive and can possibly be implanted inside the body, plus biochemical reaction times are much shorter. These devices are fast-er and more sensitive than typical drug delivery (Boisseau and Loubaton, 2011).

DRUG DELIVERY

Nanomedical approaches to drug delivery center on developing nanoscale particles or molecules to improve drug bioavailabil-ity. Bioavailability refers to the presence of drug molecules where they are needed in the body and where they will do the most good. Drug delivery focuses on maximiz-ing bioavailability both at specific places in the body and over a period of time. This can potentially be achieved by molecular targeting by nanoengineered devices. It is all about targeting the molecules and delivering drugs with cell precision. More than $65 billion are wasted each year due to poor bioavailability. In vivo imaging is another area where tools and devices are being developed. Using nanoparticle con-trast agents, images such as ultrasound and MRI have a favorable distribution and improved contrast. The new methods of nanoengineered materials that are being developed might be effective in treating illnesses and diseases such as cancer. This might be accomplished by self as-sembled biocompatible nanodevices that will detect, evaluate, treat and report to the clinical doctor automatically.

Drug delivery systems, lipid- or polymer-based nanoparticles, can be designed to improve the pharmacological and thera-peutic properties of drugs(Allen and Cul-lis, 2004).The strength of drug delivery systems is their ability to alter the pharma-cokinetics and biodistribution of the drug. When designed to avoid the body’s de-fence mechanisms, nanoparticles have beneficial properties that can be used to improve drug delivery. Where larger par-ticles would have been cleared from the body, cells take up these nanoparticles

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because of their size. Complex drug de-livery mechanisms are being developed, including the ability to get drugs through cell membranes and into cell cytoplasm. Efficiency is important because many dis-eases depend upon processes within the cell and can only be impeded by drugs that make their way into the cell. Trig-gered response is one way for drug mol-ecules to be used more efficiently. Drugs are placed in the body and only activate on encountering a particular signal. For example, a drug with poor solubility will be replaced by a drug delivery system where both hydrophilic and hydrophobic environments exist, improving the solubil-ity (Cavalcanti et. al., 2008). Also, a drug may cause tissue damage, but with drug delivery, regulated drug release can elimi-nate the problem. If a drug is cleared too quickly from the body, this could force a patient to use high doses, but with drug delivery systems clearance can be re-duced by altering the pharmacokinetics of the drug (Bertrand and Leroux, 2011). Poor biodistribution is a problem that can affect normal tissues through widespread distribution, but the particulates from drug delivery systems lower the volume of dis-tribution and reduce the effect on non-tar-get tissue. Potential nanodrugs will work by very specific and well-understood mechanisms; one of the major impacts of nanotechnology and nanoscience will be in leading development of completely new drugs with more useful behavior and fewer side effects (Bertrand et. al., 2010).

APPLICATIONS AND REPORTED RESEARCH STUDIES1. Abraxane, approved by Food and Drug Administration to treat breast can-cer, is the nanoparticle albumin bound paclitaxel.

2. In a mice study, scientists from Rice University and University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center reported en-hanced effectiveness and reduced toxic-ity of an existing treatment for head and neck cancer when using the nanoparti-cles to deliver the drug. The hydrophilic carbonic clusters functionalized with pol-yethylene glycol or PEG-HCC are mixed with the chemotherapeutic drug paclitax-el (Taxol) and the epidermal growth fac-tor receptor (EGFR) targeted Cetuximab and injected intravenously(Peiris et. al., 2012). They found the tumors were killed more effectively with radiation and the healthy tissue suffered less toxicity than without the nanotechnology drug deliv-ery. The standard treatment contains Cre-mophor EL which allows the hydrophobic paclitaxel to be delivered intravenously. Replacing the toxic Cremophor with car-bon nanoparticles eliminated its side ef-fect and improved drug targeting which in turn required a lower dose of the toxic paclitaxel (Radovic-Moreno et. al., 2012). 3. Researchers at Case Western Re-serve University reported using nano-particle chain to deliver doxorubicin to breast cancer cells in a mice study (Hol-lmer, 2012). Three magnetic, iron-oxide nanospheres were chemically linked to one doxorubicin-loaded liposome and formed a 100 nm long nanoparticle chain. After the nanochains penetrated the tu-mor, radiofrequency field was generated that caused the magnetic nanoparticles to vibrate and rupture the liposome, dis-persing the drug in its free from through-out the tumor. The result showed that the nano treatment was more effective in halting tumor growth than the standard treatment with doxorubicin. It is also less harmful to healthy cells since only 5% to 10% of the standard doses of doxorubicin

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were used. 4. Nanoparticles made of polyeth-ylene glycol (PEG) carrying payload of antibiotics at its core could swift charge thus allowing them to target bacterial in-fection more precisely inside the body, a group of MIT researchers reported. The nanoparticles, containing a sub-layer of pH sensitive chains of the amino acid histidine, carry a slightly negative charge when circulating in the blood stream, can evade detection and clearing by the im-mune system. When they encounter an infection site the particles gain a positive charge provoked by the slightly acidic en-vironment at the infection sites, allowing them to bind to the negatively charged bacterial cell walls and release antibiotics at locally high concentration. This nano delivery system can potentially destroy bacteria even it has developed resistance to antibiotics because of the targeted high dose and prolonged release of the drug (Haque et al., 2012). Although a lot of work is still needed, the researchers believe that it points to a new direction of using nanotechnology to treat infectious disease. 5. Using the biomimetic strategy, re-searchers in the Harvard University Wyss Institute demonstrated in a mouse model that the drug coated nanoparticles can dissolve blood clots by selectively bind-ing to the narrowed regions in the blood vessels – just like the platelets do. Ag-gregates of biodegradable nanoparticles coated with tissue plasminogen activa-tor (tPA), each about the size of a plate-let, were injected intravenously. In the re-gion of vessel narrowing, shear stresses dissociate the aggregates and release the tPA-coated nanoparticles which bind and degrade the blood clots. By précised targeting and concentrating drug at the

location of obstruction, the dose used is less than 1/50th of the normal dose. The nanotherapeutics will greatly reduce the severe side effect of bleeding, commonly found in standard treatment of thrombo-sis. 6. The X-shaped RNA nanoparticles capable of carrying four functional mod-ules were created by researchers in the University of Kentucky. These RNA mole-cules are chemically and thermodynami-cally stable, able to remain intact in the mouse body for more than 8 hours and to resist degradation by RNase in the blood stream. With its four arms attached with a combination of different active agents, for example, iRNA (for gene silencing), mi-croRNA (for gene expression regulation), aptamer (for targeting) and ribozyme (as catalyst), the X-shaped RNA can achieve therapeutic and diagnostic functions by regulating gene expression and cellu-lar function, and binding to cancer cells with precision, enhanced by its polyva-lent nature and synergistic effects by design(Nesa,2012).

PROTEIN AND PEPTIDE DELIV-ERY

Protein and peptides exert multiple bio-logical actions in human body and they have been identified as showing great promise for treatment of various diseases and disorders. These macromolecules are called biopharmaceuticals. Targeted and/or controlled delivery of these bi-opharmaceuticals using nanomaterials like nanoparticles and Dendrimers is an emerging field called nanobiopharma-ceutics, and these products are called nanobiopharmaceuticals(Nie et. al.,2007).

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CANCER

Fig 1: A schematic illustration showing how nanoparticles or other cancer drugs might be used to treat cancer.

Molecural imaging & therapy

The small size of nanoparticles endows them with properties that can be very useful in oncology, particularly in imag-ing. Quantum dots (nanoparticles with quantum confinement properties, such as size-tunable light emission), when used in conjunction with MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), can produce excep-tional images of tumor sites. These nano-particles are much brighter than organic dyes and only need one light source for excitation. This means that the use of fluorescent quantum dots could produce a higher contrast image and at a lower cost than today’s organic dyes used as contrast media. The downside, however, is that quantum dots are usually made of

quite toxic elements.

Another nanoproperty, high surface area to volume ratio, allows many functional groups to be attached to a nanoparticle, which can seek out and bind to certain tumor cells. Additionally, the small size of nanoparticles (10 to 100 nanometers), al-lows them to preferentially accumulate at tumor sites (because tumors lack an effective lymphatic drainage system). A very exciting research question is how to make these imaging nanoparticles do more things for cancer. For instance, is it possible to manufacture multifunctional nanoparticles that would detect, image, and then proceed to treat a tumor? This

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question is under vigorous investiga-tion; the answer to which could shape the future of cancer treatment. A promis-ing new cancer treatment that may one day replace radiation and chemotherapy is edging closer to human trials. Kanzius RF therapy attaches microscopic nano-particles to cancer cells and then “cooks” tumors inside the body with radio waves that heat only the nanoparticles and the adjacent (cancerous) cells.

Sensor test chips containing thousands of nanowires, able to detect proteins and other biomarkers left behind by cancer cells, could enable the detection and di-agnosis of cancer in the early stages from a few drops of a patient’s blood.

The basic point to use drug delivery is based upon three facts: a) efficient encap-sulation of the drugs, b) successful deliv-ery of said drugs to the targeted region of the body, and c) successful release of that drug there.

The nanoshells can be targeted to bond to cancerous cells by conjugating an-tibodies or peptides to the nanoshells surface. By irradiating the area of the tu-mor with an infrared laser, which passes through flesh without heating it, the gold is heated sufficiently to cause death to the cancer cells.

Nanoparticles of cadmium selenide (quantum dots) glow when exposed to ultraviolet light. When injected, they seep into cancer tumors. The surgeon can see the glowing tumor, and use it as a guide for more accurate tumor removal.

In photodynamic therapy, a particle is placed within the body and is illuminat-

ed with light from the outside. The light gets absorbed by the particle and if the particle is metal, energy from the light will heat the particle and surrounding tis-sue. Light may also be used to produce high energy oxygen molecules which will chemically react with and destroy most organic molecules that are next to them (like tumors). This therapy is appealing for many reasons. It does not leave a “toxic trail” of reactive molecules throughout the body (chemotherapy) because it is di-rected where only the light is shined and the particles exist. Photodynamic therapy has potential for a noninvasive procedure for dealing with diseases, growth and tu-mors.

SURGERY

At Rice University, a flesh welder is used to fuse two pieces of chicken meat into a single piece. The two pieces of chicken are placed together touching. A greenish liquid containing gold-coated nanoshells is dribbled along the seam. An infrared laser is traced along the seam, causing the two sides to weld together. This could solve the difficulties and blood leaks caused when the surgeon tries to rest itch the arteries that have been cut during a kidney or heart transplant. The flesh weld-er could weld the artery perfectly.

VISUALIZATION

Tracking movement can help determine how well drugs are being distributed or how substances are metabolized. It is difficult to track a small group of cells throughout the body, so scientists used to dye the cells. These dyes needed to be excited by light of a certain wavelength in order for them to light up. While different color dyes absorb different frequencies of

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light, there was a need for as many light sources as cells. A way around this prob-lem is with luminescent tags. These tags are quantum dots attached to proteins that penetrate cell membranes. The dots can be random in size, can be made of bio-inert material, and they demonstrate the nanoscale property that color is size-dependent. As a result, sizes are selected so that the frequency of light used to make a group of quantum dots fluoresce is an even multiple of the frequency required to make another group incandesce. Then both groups can be lit with a single light source.

NANOPARTICLE TARGETING

It is greatly observed that nanoparticles are promising tools for the advancement of drug delivery, medical imaging, and as diagnostic sensors. However, the bio-distribution of these nanoparticles is still imperfect due to the complex host’s re-actions to nano- and microsized materi-als and the difficulty in targeting specific organs in the body. Nevertheless, a lot of work is still ongoing to optimize and better understand the potential and limitations of nanoparticulate systems. For example, current research in the excretory systems of mice shows the ability of gold compos-ites to selectively target certain organs based on their size and charge. These composites are encapsulated by a den-drimer and assigned a specific charge and size. Positively-charged gold nano-particles were found to enter the kidneys while negatively-charged gold nanopar-ticles remained in the liver and spleen. It is suggested that the positive surface charge of the nanoparticle decreases the rate of opsonization of nanoparticles in the liver, thus affecting the excretory path-

way. Even at a relatively small size of 5 nm, though, these particles can become compartmentalized in the peripheral tis-sues, and will therefore accumulate in the body over time. While advancement of research proves that targeting and distri-bution can be augmented by nanoparti-cles, the dangers of nanotoxicity become an important next step in further under-standing of their medical uses (Minchin, R., 2008).

NEURO-ELECTRONIC INTER-FACES

Neuro-electronic interfacing is a visionary goal dealing with the construction of nan-odevices that will permit computers to be joined and linked to the nervous system. This idea requires the building of a molec-ular structure that will permit control and detection of nerve impulses by an exter-nal computer. The computers will be able to interpret, register, and respond to sig-nals the body gives off when it feels sen-sations. The demand for such structures is huge because many diseases involve the decay of the nervous system (ALS and multiple sclerosis). Also, many injuries and accidents may impair the nervous system resulting in dysfunctional systems and paraplegia. If computers could con-trol the nervous system through neuro-electronic interface, problems that impair the system could be controlled so that effects of diseases and injuries could be overcome. Two considerations must be made when selecting the power source for such applications. They are refuelable and nonrefuelable strategies. A refuelable strategy implies energy is refilled continu-ously or periodically with external sonic, chemical, tethered, magnetic, or electri-cal sources. A nonrefuelable strategy im-

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plies that all power is drawn from internal energy storage which would stop when all energy is drained.

One limitation to this innovation is the fact that electrical interference is a possibil-ity. Electric fields, electromagnetic pulses (EMP), and stray fields from other in vivo electrical devices can all cause interfer-ence. Also, thick insulators are required to prevent electron leakage, and if high conductivity of the in vivo medium occurs there is a risk of sudden power loss and “shorting out.” Finally, thick wires are also needed to conduct substantial power lev-els without overheating. Little practical progress has been made even though research is happening. The wiring of the structure is extremely difficult because they must be positioned precisely in the nervous system so that it is able to moni-tor and respond to nervous signals. The structures that will provide the interface must also be compatible with the body’s immune system so that they will remain unaffected in the body for a long time. In addition, the structures must also sense ionic currents and be able to cause cur-rents to flow backward. While the poten-tial for these structures is amazing, there is no timetable for when they will be avail-able.MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR NANOTECHNOLOGYMolecular nanotechnology is a specula-tive subfield of nanotechnology regarding the possibility of engineering molecular assemblers, machines which could re-or-der matter at a molecular or atomic scale. Molecular nanotechnology is highly theo-retical, seeking to anticipate what inven-tions nanotechnology might yield and to

propose an agenda for future inquiry. The proposed elements of molecular nano-technology, such as molecular assem-blers and nanorobots are far beyond cur-rent capabilities.

NANOROBOTS

The somewhat speculative claims about the possibility of using nanorobots in medicine, advocates say, would totally change the world of medicine once it is realized. Nanomedicine would make use of these nanorobots (e.g., Computational Genes), introduced into the body, to re-pair or detect damages and infections. According to Robert Freitas of the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, a typical blood borne medical nanorobot would be between 0.5-3 micrometres in size, because that is the maximum size possi-ble due to capillary passage requirement. Carbon could be the primary element used to build these nanorobots due to the inherent strength and other characteris-tics of some forms of carbon (diamond/fullerene composites), and nanorobots would be fabricated in desktop nanofac-tories specialized for this purpose (Freitas et. al., 2005).

Nanodevices could be observed at work inside the body using MRI, especially if their components were manufactured using mostly 13C atoms rather than the natural 12C isotope of carbon, since 13C has a nonzero nuclear magnetic moment. Medical nanodevices would first be inject-ed into a human body, and would then go to work in a specific organ or tissue mass. The doctor will monitor the progress, and make certain that the nanodevices have gotten to the correct target treatment re-gion. The doctor will also be able to scan

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a section of the body, and actually see the nanodevices congregated neatly around their target (a tumor mass, etc.) so that he or she can be sure that the procedure was successful.

CELL REPAIR MACHINES

Using drugs and surgery, doctors can only encourage tissues to repair themselves. With molecular machines, there will be more direct repairs. Cell repair will utilize the same tasks that living systems already prove possible. Access to cells is possible because biologists can insert needles into cells without killing them. Thus, mo-lecular machines are capable of entering the cell. Also, all specific biochemical in-teractions show that molecular systems can recognize other molecules by touch, build or rebuild every molecule in a cell, and can disassemble damaged mol-ecules. Finally, cells that replicate prove that molecular systems can assemble every system found in a cell. Therefore, since nature has demonstrated the basic operations needed to perform molecular-level cell repair, in the future, nanoma-chine based systems will be built that are able to enter cells, sense differences from healthy ones and make modifications to the structure(Gobin et. al., 2005).

The healthcare possibilities of these cell repair machines are impressive. Com-parable to the size of viruses or bacteria, their compact parts would allow them to be more complex. The early machines will be specialized. As they open and close cell membranes or travel through tissue and enter cells and viruses, machines will only be able to correct a single molecu-lar disorder like DNA damage or enzyme deficiency. Later, cell repair machines will

be programmed with more abilities with the help of advanced AI systems.

Nanocomputers will be needed to guide these machines. These computers will direct machines to examine, take apart, and rebuild damaged molecular struc-tures. Repair machines will be able to repair whole cells by working structure by structure. Then by working cell by cell and tissue by tissue, whole organs can be repaired. Finally, by working organ by or-gan, health is restored to the body. Cells damaged to the point of inactivity can be repaired because of the ability of molecu-lar machines to build cells from scratch. Therefore, cell repair machines will free medicine from reliance on self repair alone.

NANONEPHROLOGY

Nanonephrology is a branch of nano-medicine and nanotechnology that seeks to use nano-materials and nano-devices for the diagnosis, therapy, and manage-ment of renal diseases. It includes the fol-lowing goals:1. The study of kidney protein struc-tures at the atomic level2. Nano-imaging approaches to study cellular processes in kidney cells3. Nano medical treatments that uti-lize nanoparticles to treat various kidney diseasesAdvances in Nanonephrology are ex-pected to be based on discoveries in the above areas that can provide nano-scale information on the cellular molecu-lar machinery involved in normal kidney processes and in pathological states. By understanding the physical and chemical properties of proteins and other macro-molecules at the atomic level in various

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REFERENCES

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2. Bertrand N, Bouvet C, Moreau P and Leroux JC. (2010). “Transmembrane pH-Gradient Liposomes to Treat Car-diovascular Drug Intoxication”. ACS Nano 4 (12): 7552–7558.

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cells in the kidney, novel therapeutic ap-proaches can be designed to combat major renal diseases. The nano-scale ar-tificial kidney is a goal that many physi-cians dream of. Nano-scale engineering advances will permit programmable and controllable nano-scale robots to execute curative and reconstructive procedures in the human kidney at the cellular and mo-lecular levels. Designing nanostructures compatible with the kidney cells and that can safely operate in vivo is also a future goal. The ability to direct events in a con-trolled fashion at the cellular nano-level has the potential of significantly improv-ing the lives of patients with kidney dis-eases.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanotechnology will radically change the way we diagnose, treat and prevent cancer to help meet the goal of eliminat-ing suffering and death from cancer. Na-notechnology can provide the technical power and tools that will enable those de-veloping new diagnostics, therapeutics, and preventives to keep pace with today’s explosion in knowledge. With nanomedi-cine, we might be able to stop cancer even before it develops.

With such technology, nanomedicine has the potential to increase the life span of human beings.

It will create populations with a large proportion of elderly people – an aging society. The elderly are going to require more health attention and consequently more health expenditures. One scenario that we have to imagine is whether the savings from more efficient cancer na-nomedicine will counterbalance the ex-

pense of an increased aged population. In addition, as nanotechnology improves cancer treatment in terms of efficiency and quality. There waits to see if the costs of health care would rise or fall. In reality, nanomedicine, especially in the diagnos-tic realm should reduce diagnosis charg-es as more cost-efficient diagnostic tools are developed. However, there is always the danger of charging exorbitant prices for this new technology and cause health care to rocket up sky high.

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medicine?”. Nanomedicine: Nanotech. Biol. Med. 1 (1): 2–9.

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Doolittle, Elizabeth; Schmidt, Erik; Hayden, Elliott (2012). “Enhanced De-livery of Chemotherapy to Tumors Us-ing a Multicomponent Nanochain with Radio-Frequency-Tunable Drug Re-lease”. ACS NANO (American Chemical Society).

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26. Trafton, Anne (2012). “Target: Drug-resistant bacteria”. MIT news. Retrieved May 24, 2012.

27. Wagner V, Dullaart A, Bock AK, Zweck A. (2006). “The emerging nanomedicine landscape”. Nat Bio-technol. 24 (10): 1211–1217.

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Review on Medical Applications of Cyclic Olefin Copolymers (COC)

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vol3 issue2 aug14 international journal of nanoscience and technology

Science

nano devices

nano regime19

field of nano science

nano bioelectronics

areas of nano science

nanostructured materials

nano food technology13

nanofunctional materials17