volcano phe

8/9/2019 Volcano Phe

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Cleveland Volcano in the AleutianIslands of Alaska photographed fromthe International Space Station, May2006

Ash plumes reached a height of 19kilometres (12 mi) during theclimactic explosive eruption at MounPinatubo, Philippines in 1991.

A 2007 eruptive column at MountEtna producing volcanic ash, pumiceand lava bombs

VolcanoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A volcano is a rupture on the crust of a planetary-mass object, suchas Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape froma magma chamber below the surface.

Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major,rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its

mantle.[1] Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found wheretectonic plates are diverging or converging. For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused

by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Firehas volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together.Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's interior plates, e.g., in the East African Rift and the WellsGray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in NorthAmerica. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate

hypothesis" volcanism.[2] Volcanism away from plate boundarieshas also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called"hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise fromupwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created wheretwo tectonic plates slide past one another.

Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards, not only in theimmediate vicinity of the eruption. One such hazard is that volcanicash can be a threat to aircraft, in particular those with jet engineswhere ash particles can be melted by the high operatingtemperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine bladesand alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Largeeruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acidobscur e the sun and cool the Earth's lower atmosphere (or troposphere); however , they also absorb heat radiated up from theEarth, thereby warming the upper atmosphere (or stratosphere).Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophicfamines.

Contents

1 Etymology

2 Plate tectonics

2.1 Divergent plate boundaries

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Ubinas Volcano

Mount Shasta

Santa Ana Volcano, El Salvador, aclose up aerial view of the nestedsummit calderas and craters, alongwith the crater lake as seen from aUnited States Air Force C-130Hercules flying above El Salvador.

2.2 Convergent plate boundaries

2.3 "Hotspots"

3 Volcanic features

3.1 Fissure vents

3.2 Shield volcanoes

3.3 Lava domes

3.4 Cryptodomes

3.5 Volcanic cones (cinder cones)

3.6 Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

3.7 Supervolcanoes

3.8 Submarine volcanoes

3.9 Subglacial volcanoes

3.10 Mud volcanoes

4 Erupted material

4.1 Lava composition

4.2 Lava texture

5 Volcanic activity

5.1 Popular classification of volcanoes

5.1.1 Active

5.1.2 Extinct

5.1.3 Dormant

5.2 Technical classification of volcanoes5.2.1 Volcanic-alert level

5.2.2 Volcano warning schemes of the United

States

6 Decade volcanoes

7 Effects of volcanoes

7.1 Volcanic gases

7.2 Significant consequences

7.3 Acid rain

7.4 Hazards

8 Volcanoes on other planetary bodies

9 Traditional beliefs about volcanoes

10 See also

11 References

12 Further reading

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Map showing the divergent plate boundaries (OSR – OceanicSpreading Ridges) and recent sub-aerial volcanoes

13 External links

Etymology

The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy

whose name in turn originates from Vulcan, the name of a god of fire in Roman mythology. [3] The study ovolcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology.

Plate tectonics

Divergent plate boundaries

At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as newoceanic crust is formed by the cooling and

solidifying of hot molten rock. Because thecrust is very thin at these ridges due to the

pull of the tectonic plates, the release of pressure leads to adiabatic expansion andthe partial melting of the mantle, causingvolcanism and creating new oceanic crust.Most divergent plate boundaries are at the

bottom of the oceans; therefore, mostvolcanic activity is submarine, forming newseafloor. Black smokers (also known as deep sea vents) are an example of this kind of volcanic activity.

Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, Iceland.

Convergent plate boundaries

Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. Inthis case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trenchust offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting

temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating magma. This magma tends to be very viscous due toits high silica content, so often does not reach the surface and cools at depth. When it does reach thesurface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes i

the Pacific Ring of Fire.

"Hotspots"

"Hotspots" is the name given to volcanic areas believed to be formed by mantle plumes, which arehypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary in a fixed space thatcauses large-volume melting. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormantand is eventually reformed as the plate advances over the postulated plume. The Hawaiian Islands have

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Lakagigar fissure vent in Iceland,

source of the major world climatealteration of 1783–84

Skjaldbreiður, a shield volcano whosname means "broad shield"

been suggested to have been formed in such a manner, as well as the Snake River Plain, with theYellowstone Caldera being the part of the North American plate currently above the hot spot. This theory i

currently under criticism, however.[2]

Volcanic features

The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain,

spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit;however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. Thefeatures of volcanoes are much more complicated and their structureand behavior depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes haverugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus.Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and ash) and gases(mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on thelandform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on aflank of Hawaii's Kīlauea. Other types of volcano include

cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which areformations often not associated with known magmatic activity.Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud volcano isactually a vent of an igneous volcano.

Fissure vents

Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava

emerges.

Shield volcanoes

Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscositlava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continentalsettings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland, as well.

Lava domes

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within thecrater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount Saint Helens, but can also formindependently, as in the case of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosiveeruptions, but their lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent.

Cryptodomes

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Izalco (volcano) located in theCordillera de Apaneca volcanic rangecomplex in El Salvador, only a few

generations old, is the youngest andmost well known cone volcano.Izalco erupted almost continuouslyfrom 1770 (when it formed) to 1958,earning it the nickname of "Lighthouse of the Pacific".

Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The 1980eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward

bulge which slid down the north side of the mountain.

Volcanic cones (cinder cones)

Volcanic cones or cinder cones result from eruptions of mostlysmall pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders,hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent.These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters high. Most cinder cones eruptonly once. Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and SunsetCrater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico,Caja del Rio is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones.

Based on satellite images it was suggested that cinder cones mightoccur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the

surface of Mars and the Moon.[4][5][6][7]

Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountainscomposed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, thestrata that gives rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known ascomposite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions.Strato/composite volcanoes are made of cinders, ash, and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other,

lava flows on top of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then the process repeats. Classic examplesinclude Mt. Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

Throughout recorded history, ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has posed thegreatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. Not only do stratovolcanoes have greater pressure build up fromthe underlying lava flow than shield volcanoes, but their fissure vents and monogenetic volcanic fields(volcanic cones) have more powerful eruptions, as they are many times under extension. They are alsosteeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loos

tephra are material for dangerous lahars.[8] Large pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs.Big bombs ca

measure more than 4 feet(1.2 meters) across and weigh several tons.[9]

Supervolcanoes

A supervolcano usually has a large caldera and can produce devastation on an enormous, sometimescontinental, scale. Such volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after theeruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. They are the mostdangerous type of volcano. Examples include: Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park andValles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupo in New Zealand; Lake Toba inSumatra, Indonesia; Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania; and Krakatoa near Java and Sumatra, Indonesia.Because of the enormous area they may cover, supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries after an

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Cross-section through a stratovolcano (verticalscale is exaggerated):

1. Large magmachamber 2. Bedrock 3. Conduit (pipe)4. Base5. Sill6. Dike7. Layers of ash emitted

by the volcano8. Flank

9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano10. Throat11. Parasitic cone12. Lava flow13. Vent14. Crater 15. Ash cloud

eruption. Similarly, large igneous provinces are alsoconsidered supervolcanoes because of the vast amountof basalt lava erupted (even though the lava flow isnon-explosive).

Submarine volcanoes

Submarine volcanoes are common features of theocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclosetheir presence by blasting steam and rocky debris highabove the ocean's surface. In the ocean's deep, thetremendous weight of the water above prevents theexplosive release of steam and gases; however, they can

be detected by hydrophones and discoloration of water because of volcanic gases. Pillow lava is a commoneruptive product of submarine volcanoes and ischaracterized by thick sequences of discontinuous

pillow-shaped masses which form under water. Evenlarge submarine eruptions may not disturb the oceansurface due to the rapid cooling effect and increased

buoyancy of water (as compared to air) which oftencauses volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the oceanfloor. Hydrothermal vents are common near thesevolcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems basedon dissolved minerals. Over time, the formationscreated by submarine volcanoes may become so largethat they break the ocean surface as new islands or floating pumice rafts.

Subglacial volcanoes

Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps.They are made up of flat lava which flows at the top of extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. When theicecap melts, the lava on top collapses, leaving a flat-topped mountain. These volcanoes are also calledtable mountains, tuyas, or (uncommonly) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seein Iceland, however, there are also tuyas in British Columbia. The origin of the term comes from TuyaButte, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern BritishColumbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analyzed and so its name has entered the geologicalliterature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently establishedto protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near the

boundary with the Yukon Territory.

Mud volcanoes

Mud volcanoes or mud domes are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although thereare several processes which may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.

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Pāhoehoe lava flow on Hawaii. The picture shows overflows of a mainlava channel.

The Stromboli stratovolcano off thecoast of Sicily has eruptedcontinuously for thousands of years,giving rise to the term strombolian

eruption.

Erupted material

Lava composition

Another way of classifying volcanoes is by the composition of material erupted (lava), since this affects the shape of the volcano.Lava can be broadly classified into 4 different compositions (Cas &

Wright, 1987):

If the erupted magma contains a high percentage (>63%) of

silica, the lava is called felsic.

Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) tend to be highly

viscous (not very fluid) and are erupted as domes or

short, stubby flows. Viscous lavas tend to form

stratovolcanoes or lava domes. Lassen Peak in

California is an example of a volcano formed fromfelsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.

Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to

trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which cause the

magma to erupt catastrophically, eventually forming

stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows (ignimbrites) are

highly hazardous products of such volcanoes, since they

are composed of molten volcanic ash too heavy to go

up into the atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's slopes

and travel far from their vents during large eruptions.

Temperatures as high as 1,200 °C are known to occur in pyroclastic flows, which will

incinerate everything flammable in their path and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits

can be laid down, often up to many meters thick. Alaska's Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,

formed by the eruption of Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic

flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough to be erupted high into the Earth'

atmosphere may travel many kilometres before it falls back to ground as a tuff.

If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of intermediate composition.

These "andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above subduction zones (e.g. Mount Merapi

in Indonesia).

Andesitic lava is typically formed at convergent boundary margins of tectonic plates, by

several processes:

Hydration melting of peridotite and fractional crystallization

Melting of subducted slab containing sediments

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San Miguel (volcano), El Salvador.On December 29, 2013, San Miguelvolcano, also known asChaparrastique, erupted at 10:30local time, spewing a large column oash and smoke into the sky; theeruption, the first in 11 years, wasseen from space and prompted theevacuation of thousands of people

living in a 3 km radius around thevolcano.

Ash plume from San Miguel(volcano) "Chaparrastique", seenfrom a satellite, as it heads towardsthe Pacific Ocean from the ElSalvador Central America coast,December 29, 2013

Magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic

basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir

prior to emplacement or lava flow.

If the erupted magma contains 45% silica, the

lava is called mafic (because it contains higher percentages of

magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe)) or basaltic. These lavas are

usually much less viscous than rhyolitic lavas, depending on

their eruption temperature; they also tend to be hotter than

felsic lavas. Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings:

At mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates are

pulling apart, basaltic lava erupts as pillows to fill the

gap;

Shield volcanoes (e.g. the Hawaiian Islands, including

Mauna Loa and Kilauea), on both oceanic andcontinental crust;

As continental flood basalts.

Some erupted magmas contain


9/19

Sarychev Peak eruption, MatuaIsland, oblique satellite viewFresco with Mount Vesuvius

behind Bacchus andAgathodaemon, as seen inPompeii's House of the

Centenary

A popular way of classifying magmatic volcanoes is by their frequency of eruption, with those that eruptregularly called active, those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet called dormant or inactive, and those that have not erupted in historical times called extinct. However, these popular classifications—extinct in particular—are practically meaningless to scientists. They use classificationswhich refer to a particular volcano's formative and eruptive processes and resulting shapes, which wasexplained above.

Active

There is no consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano. The lifespan of avolcano can vary from months toseveral million years, making such adistinction sometimes meaninglesswhen compared to the lifespans of humans or even civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoeshave erupted dozens of times in the

past few thousand years but are notcurrently showing signs of eruption.Given the long lifespan of suchvolcanoes, they are very active. Byhuman lifespans, however, they arenot.

Scientists usually consider a volcanoto be erupting or likely to erupt if itis currently erupting, or showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquakactivity or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists consider a volcanactive if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years (Holocene times) – theSmithsonian Global Volcanism Program uses this definition of active. Mos

volcanoes are situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire.[10] An estimated 500 million people live near active

volcanoes.[10]

Historical time (or recorded history) is another timeframe for active.[11][12] The Catalogue of the ActiveVolcanoes of the World , published by the International Association of Volcanology, uses this definition, by

which there are more than 500 active volcanoes.[11] However, the span of recorded history differs fromregion to region. In China and the Mediterranean, it reaches back nearly 3,000 years, but in the Pacific

Northwest of the United States and Canada, it reaches back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii and NewZealand, only around 200 years.[11]

As of 2013, the following are considered Earth's most active volcanoes:[13]

Kīlauea, the famous Hawaiian volcano, has been in continuous, effusive eruption since 1983, and ha

the longest-observed lava lake.

Mount Etna and nearby Stromboli, two Mediterranean volcanoes in "almost continuous eruption"

since antiquity.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pompeii_-_Casa_del_Centenario_-_MAN.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Volcanism_Programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halemaumau_Crater#Early_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_the_Centenaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Vesuviushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterraneanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matua_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%ABlaueahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarychev_Peakhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strombolihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effusive_eruptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathodaemonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Volcanology_and_Chemistry_of_the_Earth%27s_Interiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Etnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco


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Nyiragongo's lava lake

Kīlauea lava entering the sea.

Lava flows at Holuhraun, Iceland,September 2014

Mount Yasur, in Vanuatu, has been erupting "nearly

continuously" for over 800 years.

The longest currently ongoing (but not necessarily continuous)

volcanic eruptive phases are:[14]

Mount Yasur, 111 years

Mount Etna, 109 years

Stromboli, 108 years

Santa María, 101 years

Sangay, 94 years

Other very active volcanoes include:

Mount Nyiragongo and its neighbor, Nyamuragira, are

Africa's most active volcanoes .Piton de la Fournaise, in Réunion, erupts frequently enough to

be a tourist attraction.

Erta Ale, in the Afar Triangle, has maintained a lava lake

since at least 1906.

Mount Erebus, in Antarctica, has maintained a lava lake since

at least 1972.

Mount Merapi

Whakaari / White Island, has been in continuous state of smoking since its discovery in 1769.

Ol Doinyo Lengai

Ambrym

Arenal Volcano

Pacaya

Klyuchevskaya Sopka

Sheveluch

Extinct

Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again, because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean, Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the Zuidwal volcano in the Netherlands.Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is famously located atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano istruly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive lifespanssometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calderahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_%E2%80%93_Emperor_seamount_chainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_(volcano)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nyiragongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ol_Doinyo_Lengaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Erebushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nyiragongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Yasurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheveluchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holuhraunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whakaari_/_White_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lava_entering_sea_-_Hawaii.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erta_Alehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B%C3%A1r%C3%B0arbunga_Volcano,_September_4_2014_-_15145875322.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuidwal_volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piton_de_la_Fournaisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Merapihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klyuchevskaya_Sopkahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanuatuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrymhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arenal_Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiprockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afar_Trianglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohentwielhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lava_Lake_Nyiragongo_2.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyamuragirahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland#Geology


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Fourpeaked volcano, Alaska, inSeptember 2006 after being thoughtextinct for over 10,000 years

Mount Rinjani eruption in 1994, inLombok, Indonesia

of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct. Some volcanologists refer to extinctvolcanoes as inactive, though the term is now more commonly used for dormant volcanoes once thought to

be extinct.

Dormant

It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant

(inactive) one. Volcanoes are often considered to be extinct if thereare no written records of its activity. Nevertheless, volcanoes mayremain dormant for a long period of time. For example, Yellowstonehas a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and Toba of

around 380,000 years.[15] Vesuvius was described by Roman writersas having been covered with gardens and vineyards before itseruption of AD 79, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum andPompeii. Before its catastrophic eruption of 1991, Pinatubo was aninconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surroundingareas. Two other examples are the long-dormant Soufrière Hills

volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to be extinct beforeactivity resumed in 1995 and Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska,which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since

before 8000 BC and had long been thought to be extinct.

Technical classification of volcanoes

Volcanic-alert level

The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be

subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct haveerupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing theyare not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have

adopted new classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity. [16] Some alertsystems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors andwords. Some systems use a combination of both.

Volcano warning schemes of the United States

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has adopted a common system nationwide for characterizingthe level of unrest and eruptive activity at volcanoes. The new volcano alert-level system classifiesvolcanoes now as being in a normal, advisory, watch or warning stage. Additionally, colors are used todenote the amount of ash produced. Details of the US system can be found at Volcano warning schemes ofthe United States.

ecade volcanoes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesuviushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourpeaked_Mountainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rinjani_1994.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fourpeaked-fumaroles-cyrus-read1.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_Calderahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano_warning_schemes_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinjanihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinatubohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soufri%C3%A8re_Hillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourpeaked_Mountainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montserrat


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Koryaksky volcano towering over Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky onKamchatka Peninsula, Far EasternRussia

The Decade Volcanoes are 17 volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology andChemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. Theyare named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as

part of the United Nations-sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The 17 current Decade Volcanoes are

Avachinsky-Koryaksky

(grouped together),

Kamchatka, Russia

Nevado de Colima,

Jalisco and Colima,

Mexico

Mount Etna, Sicily,

ItalyGaleras, Nariño,

Colombia

Mauna Loa, Hawaii,

USA

Mount Merapi, Central

Java, Indonesia

Mount Nyiragongo,

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Mount Rainier,

Washington, USA

Sakurajima, Kagoshima

Prefecture, Japan

Santa

Maria/Santiaguito,

Guatemala

Santorini, Cyclades,

GreeceTaal Volcano, Luzon,

Philippines

Teide, Canary Islands,

Spain

Ulawun, New Britain,

Papua New Guinea

Mount Unzen,

Nagasaki Prefecture,Japan

Vesuvius, Naples, Italy

Effects of volcanoes

There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of low-silicalava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) and carbon dioxide emission. All of these activitiecan pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots and geysers often accompanyvolcanic activity.

Volcanic gases

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Rainierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauna_Loahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasaki_Prefecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreatic_eruptionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaliscohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Koryaksky_volcano_Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky_oct-2005.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galerashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Decade_for_Natural_Disaster_Reductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Merapihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nari%C3%B1ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Britainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Napleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avachinskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taal_Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Volcanology_and_Chemistry_of_the_Earth%27s_Interiorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Etnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colima_(volcano)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nyiragongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Unzenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mud_pothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulawunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesuviushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kagoshima_Prefecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Javahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryakskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakurajimahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumarolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_springhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_(volcano)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryaksky


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Schematic of volcano injection of aerosols and gases

Solar radiation graph 1958–2008,showing how the radiation is reducedafter major volcanic eruptions

Sulfur dioxide concentration over theSierra Negra Volcano, Galapagos

Islands, during an eruption in Octobe2005

The concentrations of different volcanic gases canvary considerably from onevolcano to the next. Water vapor is typically the mostabundant volcanic gas,followed by carbon dioxideand sulfur dioxide. Other

principal volcanic gasesinclude hydrogen sulfide,hydrogen chloride, andhydrogen fluoride. A largenumber of minor and trace

gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen,carbon monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatilemetal chlorides.

Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O),

carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride

(HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10– 20 mi) above the Earth's surface. The most significant impacts fromthese injections come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide tosulfuric acid (H2SO4), which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere

to form fine sulfate aerosols. It is worth mentioning that the SO2emissions alone of two different eruptions are sufficient to compare

their potential climatic impact.

[17]

The aerosols increase the Earth'salbedo—its reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space – and thus cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however,they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warmingthe stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperaturat the Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years – sulfur

dioxide from the eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 1601–1603.[18]

Significant consequences

One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba onSumatra island in Indonesia.[19] According to the Toba catastrophe theory to which some anthropologists

and archeologists subscribe, it had global consequences,[20] killing most humans then alive and creating a

population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[21] The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a Summer"

because of the effect on North American and European weather.[22] Agricultural crops failed and livestock

died in much of the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in one of the worst famines of the 19th century. [23] Thfreezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread famine in northern Europe, may also owe its origins t

a volcanic eruption.[24]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galapagos_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_winterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huaynaputinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Famine_(1740%E2%80%931741)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_bottleneckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vaporhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1601%E2%80%931603http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Tobahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SO2_Galapagos_20051101.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Negra_(Gal%C3%A1pagos)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Volcanic_injection.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Tamborahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halocarbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mauna_Loa_atmospheric_transmission.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer


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Ash plume rising fromEyjafjallajökull on April 17, 2010

It has been suggested that volcanic activity caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian-TriassicLate Devonian mass extinctions, and possibly others. The massive eruptive event which formed theSiberian Traps, one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth's geologicalhistory, continued for a million years and is considered to be the likely cause of the "Great Dying" about

250 million years ago,[25] which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time.[26]

Acid rain

The sulfate aerosols also promote complex chemical reactions ontheir surfaces that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species in thestratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratosphericchlorine levels from chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generateschlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). As the

aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride(HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved in water droplets in

the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as acid rain. Theinjected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it isremoved within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosivevolcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and

thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.[27]

Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity releases about 130 to

230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year.[28] Volcanic eruptionsmay inject aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual effects such as unusuallcolorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit

of adding nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils assist thegrowth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as the magma cools ansolidifies upon contact with the water.

Hazards

Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Dangerous encounters in 1982 after theeruption of Galunggung in Indonesia, and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised

awareness of this phenomenon. Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by the InternationaCivil Aviation Organization to monitor ash clouds and advise pilots accordingly. The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull caused major disruptions to air travel in Europe.

Volcanoes on other planetary bodies

The Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence

suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.[29] However, the Moon does have many volcanicfeatures such as maria (the darker patches seen on the moon), rilles and domes.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovician-Silurian_extinction_eventshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrus_cloudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eyjafjallajokull-April-17.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_Trapshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galunggunghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatheringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Redoubthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yottagramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyjafjallaj%C3%B6kullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haloalkanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_marehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_Ash_Advisory_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rillehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_domehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_geological_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_eruptions_of_Eyjafjallaj%C3%B6kull


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The Tvashtar volcano erupts a plume330 km (205 mi) above the surface of

Jupiter's moon Io.

Olympus Mons (Latin,"Mount Olympus"), locatedon the planet Mars, is thetallest known mountain inour solar system.

The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping

its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, [30] fromwhat scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Lava flows are widespread and

forms of volcanism not present onEarth occur as well. Changes in the

planet's atmosphere and observationsof lightning have been attributed to

ongoing volcanic eruptions, althoughthere is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanicallyactive. However, radar sounding bythe Magellan probe revealedevidence for comparatively recentvolcanic activity at Venus's highestvolcano Maat Mons, in the form of ash flows near the summit and onthe northern flank.

There are several extinct volcanoeson Mars, four of which are vast

shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons,Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. These

volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,[31] but theEuropean Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity

may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.[31]

Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system

because of tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes thaterupt sulfur, sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures exceedin1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the solar system occurred

on Io.[32] Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's Galilean moons, also appears to have an active volcanic system,except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice on the frigid surfaceThis process is known as cryovolcanism, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planetof the solar system.

In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a moon of Neptune,

and in 2005 the Cassini–Huygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles erupting fromEnceladus, a moon of Saturn.[33][34] The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid nitrogen, dust, or methancompounds. Cassini–Huygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian

moon Titan, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. [35] It istheorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.

A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT-7b, which was detected by transit in 2009, studied that tidal heatingfrom the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity

similar to Io.[36]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COROT-7bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryovolcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tvashtarvideo.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsia_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_heatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50000_Quaoarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Io_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Expresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascraeus_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryovolcanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoplanethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Io_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavonis_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecates_Tholushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptunehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus_(moon)#Cryovolcanismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_Belt_Objecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triton_(moon)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvashtar_Pateraehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maat_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Olympus_Mons.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Io_(moon)


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Traditional beliefs about volcanoes

Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to supernatural causes, such as the actions of gods or demigods. To the ancient Greeks, volcanoes' capricious power could only be explained as acts of the gods,while 16th/17th-century German astronomer Johannes Kepler believed they were ducts for the Earth's

tears.[37] One early idea counter to this was proposed by Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), whowitnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his

view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of sulfur, bitumenand coal.

Various explanations were proposed for volcano behavior before the modern understanding of the Earth'smantle structure as a semisolid material was developed. For decades after awareness that compression andradioactive materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically discounted. Volcanic actionwas often attributed to chemical reactions and a thin layer of molten rock near the surface.

See also

References

Global Volcanism Program

List of extraterrestrial volcanoes

Maritime impacts of volcanic eruptions

Prediction of volcanic activity

Timetable of major worldwide volcanic eruptions

Volcanic Explosivity Index

Volcano Number

Volcano observatory

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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Volcano.

Wikivoyage has a travelguide for Volcanoes.

Further reading

External links

Volcanoes

(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology/Volcanoes) at DMOZVolcano (http://www.fema.gov/hazard/volcano/index.shtm), U.S. Federal Emergency Management

Agency FEMA

Volcano World (http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/)

Volcanos (http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/volcano/page.html) (Worsley School)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcano&oldid=654967510"

Categories: Volcanoes Geological hazards Geological processes Plate tectonics Volcanic landformsVolcanic rocks Volcanology

This page was last modified on 4 April 2015, at 21:56.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mayapply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is aregistered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

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web site daily news. National Geographic Society. Retrieved March 11, 2010.

37. Williams, Micheal (November 2007). "Hearts of fire". Morning Calm (Korean Air Lines) (11–2007): 6.

Cas, R.A.F. and J.V. Wright, 1987. Volcanic Successions. Unwin Hyman Inc. 528p. ISBN 0-04-552022-4

Macdonald, Gordon and Agatin T. Abbott. (1970). Volcanoes in the Sea. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.441 p.

Marti, Joan and Ernst, Gerald. (2005). Volcanoes and the Environment . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-

521-59254-2.

Ollier, Cliff. (1988). Volcanoes. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK, ISBN 0-631-15664-X (hardback), ISBN 0-631-

15977-0 (paperback).

Sigurðsson, Haraldur, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-643140-X. This is a

reference aimed at geologists, but many articles are accessible to non-professionals.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Volcanic_landformshttp://www.fema.gov/hazard/volcano/index.shtmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Plate_tectonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Air_Lineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haraldur_Sigur%C3%B0ssonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Categoryhttp://www.wikimediafoundation.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/012643140Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/063115664Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_Licensehttp://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Volcanoeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Volcano&oldid=654967510http://www.worsleyschool.net/science/files/volcano/page.htmlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/02/100205-new-type-planet-corot-7b-io/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Geological_processeshttps://www.dmoz.org/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology/Volcanoeshttp://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ollier,_Cliffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMOZhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-59254-2http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Volcanohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Volcanoeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Volcanic_rockshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0045520224http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0631159770http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Geological_hazardshttp://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Volcanology

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