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WASTE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT IN GREECE: AN OVERVIEW
AND THE IMPACT OF THE ECONOMIC CRISIS
I. Gkitzeni*a, E. Kyritsisa, D. Podiotisa and T. Charitopouloua
a Hellenic Recycling Agency, 147 Patision Str. 112 51 Athens, Greece, [email protected]
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) constitutes a fast-growing source of waste. The
target set up by the first European Directive on waste EEE (WEEE) for the separate collection of
at least 4 kilograms on average per inhabitant per year of WEEE from private households has
been modest for the Member States with the stronger national economies, but has been
proven to be ambitious for several Member States with weaker economies. The new EU
Directive on WEEΕ target is calculated as a percentage of the amount of EEE placed on the
market in the three preceding years, and is therefore taking into account some of the
particular characteristics of each individual country.
The decline of the economic environment in Greece during the last years has deeply affected
many aspects of life in Greece. One of the main impacts is the rapid decline of the amount of
EEE put on the market, which follows the downtrend of Greek economic indices. As costs for
recycling WEEE are covered exclusively by the producers in proportion to their actual share on
the market, financing the collection, treatment, recovery and environmentally sound disposal
of WEEE has been a challenge, taking into consideration that many producers are struggling to
cope with hostile market conditions.
This paper presents the types of collective EPR schemes in Greece, provides information on
WEEE collection in Greece during the last years, compares these quantities with respect to
data from European countries with higher and lower collection rates and describes the actions
undertaken by the Hellenic Recycling Agency (HRA) to boost WEEE collection performance and
improve WEEE management and procedures.
Keywords: waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), put on the market (POM), WEEE
collection, free-riders, collective EPR schemes
Introduction
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) constitutes a waste stream which grows
alarmingly fast (Ongondo et al., 2011), with more than 41 Mtn generated globally during 2014
and more than 49 Mtn forecast to be generated during 2018 (Baldé et al., 2015). Moreover,
the management of this waste stream, in particular in the field of collection and recycling,
presents many unique and complex challenges, due to the heterogeneity of the devices, the
introduction of new products, the presence of hazardous components and substances in some
devices, the possibility of recovering valuable and/or rare resources, etc. (Huisman, 2013).
In 2002, the first European Directive on WEEE (Directive 2002/96/EU) regulated the framework
for the application of the principles of prevention, recovery and safe disposal of WEEE and set
up collection and recovery targets on WEEE. In 2012, the European Parliament adopted a
recast on the European Directive on WEEE (Directive 2012/19/EU). The new directive
introduced several changes, one of the most important being the redefinition of the collection
target. As demonstrated in several studies (Friege et al., 2015; Huisman, 2010) and as shown in
Figure 1, the amount of collected WEEE from households differs widely throughout Europe.
The target set up by the first WEEE Directive for the separate collection of at least 4 kilograms
on average per inhabitant per year of WEEE from private households has been modest for the
Member States with the stronger national economies, but has been proven to be ambitious for
several Member States with weaker economies.
Figure 1: Collection of household WEEE in EU Member States + Norway &
Liechtenstein for the years 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013 (Eurostat, 2016).
The horizontal line indicates the collection target s et by the first EU Directive.
In the new EU Directive, the collection target changed to a percentage-based approach related
to products put on the market (POM), or alternatively, WEEE generated (WG) (Magalini et al.,
2014).
Over the past 11 years, Greece, along with other European Union (EU) Member States, set up
the legal framework for WEEE management based on the aforementioned directives and has
put effort on meeting the targets specified. However, the decline of the economic
environment in Greece during the last years has deeply affected many aspects of life, including
WEEE management and operations.
In this paper, the performance of Greece with respect to WEEE practices is evaluated and
compared to the performance of other European countries both with high and lower collection
rates. The economic activity of a country and its effect on WEEE management, in particular
with respect to amounts put on the market and amounts collected, which has been
demonstrated in previous studies (Huisman 2010), is further examined. The purpose is to
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identify the steps and initiatives required to correct the problems and improve WEEEE
management and procedures.
Methodology
In order to obtain a clear view of the WEEE field in Greece as well as in other European
Countries, and in particular how it is impacted by the economy, information from several
sources has been investigated and studied:
Statistical data. Data concerning Electric and Electronic Equipment (EEE) and WEEE
amounts (put on market, collection from household and total) in the Member States were
drawn from Eurostat. Statistical economic data (GDP, PPP etc.) were based on the World
Bank.
Annual reports and Business Plans submitted to Hellenic Recycling Agency (HRA) by the
two collective EPR schemes on WEEE that operate in Greece, from which data on EEE and
WEEE amounts for Greece were drawn. The producers that join the EPR schemes report
in a monthly basis the quantities per category of EEE that they place on the national
market. Moreover, since 2016, the producers report once per year these quantities to the
National Producers Registry (NPR), operated by HRA.
The countries that were more closely looked at and compared to Greece were chosen as
follows:
a) Three countries with WEEE collection from household that exceeds 12 kg inh-1 yr-1 were
selected: Denmark (DNK), Norway (NOR) and Sweden (SWE).
b) Three more countries with WEEE collection from household around 8 kg inh-1 yr-1 were
selected: Germany (DEU), the United Kingdom (GBR) and Ireland (IRL).
c) Along with Greece (GRE), two more countries with WEEE collection around the target of 4
kg inh-1 yr-1 were selected: Portugal (PRT) and Spain (ESP).
d) Finally, one country with WEEE collection from household below 2 kg inh-1 yr-1 was selected:
Romania (ROM).
Studies and papers on waste management operations in these countries served as important
sources (Ciocoiu et al., 2016, Friege et al., 2015, Niza et al. 2014).
WEEE framework in Greece
The Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Principle with regard to electrical and electronic
equipment was introduced in Greece in 2001, when National Law 2939/2001 entered into
force. Directive 2002/96/EU, as amended by subsequent Directives, was transposed into
National Law by Presidential Decree 117/2004, which set the measures, terms and programs
for the collection and transport, temporary storage, reuse, recycling and recovery of waste
electrical and electronic equipment.
The aforementioned Presidential Decree was repealed by Ministerial Decision 23615/2014,
which transposed the new Directive 2012/19/EU on WEEE into national law.
In 2011, the Hellenic Recycling Agency (HRA) was first staffed, as the authority of the Ministry
of Environment and Energy responsible for the design and implementation of the recycling
policy in Greece. It is also responsible for approving the national EPR schemes for each stream
of products and for surveying the progress of recycling within Greece.
During the years following the implementation of Directive 2002/96/EU, two collective EPR
schemes, founded by producers of electrical and electronic equipment and approved by the
Ministry of Environment and Energy, started operating in Greece, namely “Appliances
Recycling” and “Fotokiklosi”. Both schemes organize their own network of collection points for
the return of WEEE from private households, provide services for the return of WEEE from
commercial, industrial, institutional and other sources (B2B), organize the transfer of the
collected WEEE to establishments for the reuse, recycle and recovery of WEEE, and are liable
for the environmentally proper management of the collected WEEE.
The collective ERP schemes are financed by EEE producers, who, in this way, fulfill their
obligations as outlined in the above-mentioned directives. The producers provide a financial
fee to the schemes, calculated according to the quantities and the categories of the EEE that
they place on the national market.
“Appliances Recycling” was founded in 2004, and is the biggest scheme of the two in terms of
producers registered, amounts placed on the market (with more than 95% of the
corresponding amounts) and quantities collected. It is entrusted with the collection and
management of all the categories of EEE of Annex 1A of Directive 2002/96/EU.
“Fotokiklosi” was founded in 2009, at first only for the collection and management of WEEE
belonging to category 5 of Annex 1A of Directive 2002/96/EU (lighting equipment) and later, in
2012, for small-sized equipment of several other categories.
In addition to the collection network organized by the Schemes, WEEE from private
households is also collected from other sources, such as:
Some municipalities: WEEE is collected by own means of municipalities or through
subcontractors from collection points specifically appointed by the municipalities, as well as
from the street, sidewalks etc. The collected WEEE is then transferred to appropriate
treatment facilities, under the guidance of the EPR scheme. Depending on the amount
collected and the scheme involved, there exists a reimbursement for the municipalities,
also in cooperation with the EPR schemes.
Low-income people, who collect WEEE thrown in trash bins or left on sidewalks and streets
in order to sell them to scrap dealers, or illegally export them. These waste pickers often do
not follow the procedures of proper recycling, i.e. they remove valuable parts like copper
tubes or motors / engines and discard the rest of the equipment in landfills.
Phot. 1: Waste pickers collecting WEEE, Thessaloniki 20 15 (from “FOTOKIKLOSI’s”
Business Plan)
Scrap dealers as recipients of WEEE: “Appliances Recycling” has established a cooperation
with many of them, involving reimbursement based on quantities and categories of WEEE
collected, in an effort to control and decrease illegal trading, and keep proper records of
the quantities involved in WEEE collection.
WEEE from non-private households is collected directly from the facilities of the end-users,
through carriers that cooperate with the EPR schemes. All carriers/transporters involved in the
transfer of WEEE are financed by the schemes.
All collected WEEE, both from private households and from other sources (B2B) are
transported to establishments that carry out treatment operations. These establishments are
contracted with the EPR schemes and, depending on the category of WEEE, financed by them.
Results and discussion
EEE put on market
The amount of Electric and Electronic Equipment (EEE) placed on the Greek market during the
years from 2005 to 2015 is presented in Figure 2. To account for free-riders, it has been
estimated that the reported quantities as a percentage of the total amount of EEE put on the
market hover at about 85%, based on the following:
o Estimates from both the industry and the EPR schemes.
o Estimates with regard to distance selling from other countries.
o Surveys on wholesale as well as retail trade.
o Reports regarding the size and financial turnover of the market for specific categories.
In the same figure, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Greece is reported. As expected,
there is a clear correlation between the national Gross Domestic Product and the amount of
EEE put on the market, during the study period.
Figure 2: Electric and Electronic Equipment (EEE) put on the Greek market for the
years 2005 – 2015 (data from annual reports of the two EPR schemes). In the
same figure Greek GDP for the corresponding year s is plotted (World Bank, 2016)
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Total EEE POM (tn)
GDP at market prices (current US$)
The impact of the economy on the amounts of EEE put on the market has been demonstrated
in previous studies (Huisman 2010), where a correlation between the EEE POM and the
economic activity of a country, in terms of the Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) indicator, has
been determined. As explained by Huisman, “purchasing power parity is a theory which states
that exchange rates between currencies are in equilibrium when their purchasing power is the
same in each of the two countries”.
This relationship has been examined again in Figures 3 and 4, taking into consideration data
from several countries, as reported in Eurostat and in the World Bank.
Figure 3: Electric and Electronic Equipment (EEE) put on the market (POM) per
inhabitant for ten countries during the years 2009 – 2013 (Eurostat, 2016) versus
GDP per capita (World Bank, 2016)
y = -1E-09x2 + 0.0005x + 3.3565
R² = 0.9147
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DEU DNK ESP GBR GRC IRL NOR PRT ROM SWE
Figure 4: Electric and Electronic Equipment (EEE) put on the market (POM) per
inhabitant for ten member states during the years 2009 – 2013 (Eurostat, 2016)
versus GDP per capita based on Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) (World Bank,
2016)
Collection Rates
Figure 5 shows the performance of Greece in terms of collection of WEEE from private
households during the last ten years. It can be observed that, during the years from 2005 to
2009, there is a rising trend of the amounts of WEEE collection, as the country is starting to
conform to the first WEEE Directive, with the absolute collection target of 4 kg inh-1 yr-1 being
achieved during the years 2008 and 2009. From 2009, there is a decline in the amounts of
collected household WEEE, which is explained by the economic recession in Greece (as shown
from the downward trend of GDP captured on Figure 2), and the subsequent turnaround of
the social conditions. Crucial factors affecting WEEE management are considered the
following:
There has been a significant decline in the amounts of EEE put on the market, which
resulted in the gradual decrease of the waste produced from these quantities.
y = -9E-10x2 + 0.0007x - 4.7801
R² = 0.8599
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EEE
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GDP per capita, PPP (current international $)
DEU DNK ESP GBR GRC IRL NOR PRT ROM SWE
The lifespan of the already purchased EEE has been extended, either because consumers
choose to repair it, or because they simply choose not to replace it, even when it is of low
efficiency, quality etc.
There has been a diversion from the organized channels of collection – transfer –
treatment, because of illegal trading (collection from low income waste pickers, illegal
export, treatment procedures in illegal establishments) which resulted in the decline of the
amounts of WEEE officially collected and reported.
Certain WEE, containing valuable materials, are destroyed prior to being collected through
the collection channels operated by the EPR schemes, and as a consequence, the final,
collected weight is lower.
The collection target is again achieved in 2014 (however, marginally), as there has been a slight
stabilization of the economy, and in 2015 as well. Furthermore, there has been an effort to
control and properly report quantities, mostly undertaken by the bigger of the two EPR
schemes, through reimbursement policies towards scrap dealers, involving terms regarding the
collection and transfer of whole WEEE.
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WEEE Collection from household (tonnes)
WEEE Collection from household per capita (kg/inhabitant)
WEEE Collection Target
Figure 5: Collection of household WEE in Greece from 2005 to 2015 (data from
annual reports of the two EPR schemes)
Total WEEE collection from several countries, in terms of kilograms per inhabitant, is plotted
versus the GDP per capita and the GDP per capita based on PPP, as shown in Figures 6 and 7
respectively.
Figure 6: Total collection of WEEE per inhabitant for ten Member States during
the years 2009 – 2013 (Eurostat, 2016) versus GDP per capita (World Bank, 2016)
y = -7E-10x2 + 0,0003x - 3,2015
R² = 0,859
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EEE
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GDP PER CAPITA (CURRENT US$)
DEU DNK ESP GBR GRC IRL NOR PRT ROM SWE
Figure 7: Total collection of WEEE per inhabitant for ten Member States during
the years 2009 – 2013 (Eurostat, 2016) versus GDP per capita based on
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) (World Bank, 2016)
The collection target set up by the new WEEΕ Directive is calculated on the basis of the total
weight of WEEE collected (as opposed to household WEEE collection) and is estimated as a
percentage of the average weight of EEE placed on the market in the three preceding years. It
is therefore taking into account some of the particular (economic, social etc.) characteristics of
each individual country. The performance of Greece in terms of total WEEE collection, for the
years from 2005 to 2015 is plotted in Figure 8. The total WEEE collection that would be
required if the target was calculated according to the new EU Directive target, i.e. as the 45%
of the average POM weight of the three previous years, is also plotted in the same figure. It is
evident that Greece would be below that target, even for the years that the country achieved
the 4 kg inh-1 year-1 initial target, with a clear trend towards achieving the 45% target at the
following years.
y = 1E-09x2 + 0.0004x - 7.0268
R² = 0.7662
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0 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000 60.000 70.000 80.000TOTA
L W
EEE
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A (
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/IN
HA
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AN
T)
GDP PER CAPITA, PPP (CURRENT INTERNATIONAL $)
DEU DNK ESP GBR GRC IRL NOR PRT ROM SWE
Figure 8: Total actual collection of WEEE in Greece for the years 2005 -2015 and
required total WEEE collection, calculated as the 45% of the average POM
amount of the three previous years (data from annual reports of the two EPR
schemes)
Based on 2013 data on collection and 2010, 2011 and 2012 data on EEE POM amounts
(Eurostat, 2016), the total WEEE collection is calculated throughout the Member States, as a
percentage of the average EEE POM amount in years 2010, 2011 and 2012, and plotted in
Figure 9. Among the 19 countries that achieved the 4 kg inh-1 yr-1 target during 2013, nine
countries would achieve the target of 45%, set by the new EU Directive on WEEE for the
transitional period (up to 14 August 2018), and only three countries would achieve the 65%
target set up for the subsequent open scope period. It is also interesting that one country,
Slovakia, which was marginally below the 4 kg inh-1 yr-1 target during 2013, would achieve the
45% target for that year.
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TOTA
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EEE
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Actual
45% of the weight of EEE POM in the three previous years
Figure 9: Total actual collection of WEEE in EU Member States + Norway &
Liechtenstein for 2013, calculated as a percentage of the average weig ht of EEE
POM in 2010, 2011 and 2012. Data for Liechtenstein and Romania for 2013 was
not available (Eurostat, 2016)
Conclusions
Greece, like other EU countries, has made big efforts during the last years in order to comply
with the first EU Directive on WEEE. From 2004 and onwards, there have been investments in
facilities, equipment, resources and expertise, as well as national campaigns in order to
promote environmental awareness to the public.
However, the economic recession of the last years in Greece has affected many aspects of
everyday life and has changed many of the consumer habits. One of the main impacts of the
economic crisis regarding WEEE management has been the rapid decline of the amount of
electric and electronic equipment put on the market, which followed the downtrend of Greek
economic indices. As costs for recycling WEEE are covered exclusively by the producers in
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Countries that achieved the 4 kg per inhabitant per year target during 2013
Countries that did not achieve the 4 kg per inhabitant per year target during 2013
45% of the average weight of EEE POM in 2010, 2011, 2012
65% of the average weight of EEE POM in 2010, 2011, 2012
proportion to their actual share on the market, financing the collection, treatment, recovery
and environmentally sound disposal of WEEE has been a challenge, taking into consideration
that many producers are struggling to cope with hostile market conditions.
As a result, although the country has been successful in achieving proper treatment and
recovery targets, it has failed to reach the collection target set by the first EU Directive during
2011, 2012 and 2013, years that were in the heart of the economic recession in Greece.
However, after the initial “shock” of the deterioration of the economic environment, the
country managed to adjust to the new status and thus be successful in reaching the target in
2014 and 2015, through actions and measures that involved the following:
Actions towards controlling illegal collection and unaccounted treatment: As has been
documented in other studies (Magalini et al., 2015, Huisman et al., 2015), both factors are
important reasons that prevent countries from reaching the collection targets. It is
estimated that a considerable amount of WEEE in Europe, of the order of 67% of the
amount officially reported by Member States, ends up mixed with metal scrap. To combat
this problem, the country established, in 2012, the legal framework for the recording of all
operators, including scrap dealers, through the implementation of a national database, with
the obligation to report all input and output quantities. Furthermore, there has been an
effort to return the illegally collected by waste pickers WEEE to the official collection
network, by offering financial incentives to scrap dealers, to whom these quantities usually
end up. These reimbursement policies involve rewards for whole (as opposed to destroyed)
WEEE collected. This reimbursement is continuously adjusting to market requirements (i.e.
prices of metals etc.).
Actions towards more active involvement of municipalities in waste management
operations: Through the experience of other countries with higher collection rates, it was
understood that municipalities ought to play a more important role in WEEE management.
For this reason, a legal framework was implemented in 2014, which let municipalities sell
out their WEEE, if they wish to, taking thus advantage of the increasing prices of metals.
Furthermore, there exists a reimbursement for municipalities, which depends on the
amount of WEEE per citizen collected, thus giving incentive to Greek cities themselves to
reach and exceed the 4 kg inh-1 yr-1 target.
Campaigns towards educating all parts involved, mainly to municipalities’ employees and
other civil servants involved in WEEE management. Both the EPR schemes, as well as HRA,
has put considerable effort in training the workers involved in WEEE collection, by
organizing seminars and roadshows, which focus on proper handling and transport
methods and enhance environmental awareness.
Moreover, gathered experience of stakeholders involved in WEEE management as well as
sound operation and gradual strengthening of the HRA seem to crucially affect optimization οf
management and are considered to have restrained potential financial crisis’ effects.
The target of the new WEEE Directive, calculated as a percentage of the amount of EEE placed
on the market in the three preceding years, is considered to be taking into account some of
the particular (economic, social etc.) characteristics of each individual country. However,
achieving the new target will require renewed effort, not only for Greece, but for other EU
Member States, even for some of those that had no problem in reaching the 4 kg inh-1 yr-1
target, as was demonstrated here and in other studies (Magalini et al., 2015).
It should be noted that Greece is a country with a total area of 131,957 km2, 80% of which
consisting of mountains or hills; on the other hand, it has around 6.000 islands and islets, of
which 227 are inhabited (GNTO, 2016). Therefore, waste management and operations, in
particular with respect to organization of sustainable collection procedures, present unique
challenges.
The diagrams presented in this study and the empirical relationships developed here may be
used as a tool for predicting future amounts of EEE POM and estimating current and future
amounts of WEEE collection.
Because of the need to further enhance the current collection pace, which was demonstrated
here, the country is focusing on initiatives that will boost amounts of collection through:
The establishment of specially designated areas (recycling/waste collection stations, called
“Green Points”) with proper infrastructure and equipment, operated by the municipalities,
where city residents will deposit separately recyclable waste and used equipment, including
electric and electronic equipment. The WEEE or UEEE (Used EEE) collected from these
stations will be transferred to proper establishments for recycling or reuse (HRA 2015).
The implementation of new business plans for the operation of the EPR schemes, where
new sets of priorities are determined, based on the new EU Directive’s provisions and
targets.
Moreover, since the new target is directly depended on POM, efforts are undertaken in order
to more accurately define it and search for free-riders, with a valuable tool being the National
Extended Producer Responsibility Register (NEPRR) (Podiotis et al., 2016). The web-based
platform of NEPRR for EEE was released to the public in January 2016 and by the end of May
2016, more than 1000 producers of EEE had already registered their products. A study has
been initiated, that will a) link the results of the registered EEE (as well as other waste
streams’) producers with national identification codes, and b) exchange information with the
General Electronic Commercial Registry, the database of all the commercial enterprises in
Greece, in order to monitor the compliance with EPR legal framework.
Finally, a central issue that pertains to illegal collection chains is the “grey area” (Huisman et
al.,
2015) of used EEE (UEEE) of various types and age which, mixed with WEEE and repairable
parts, end in reuse centers with questionable practices in certain cases. Given the turnaround
of the consumers’ behavior during the last years, which is expected to lead to an increase of
the demand for reuse market, and taking into account the requirements of the WEEE Directive
related to preparation for reuse, reuse activities are seen as complementary to collection
activities in general. For this reason, HRA participates to the European LIFE ReWeee project
(LIFE14 ENV/GR/000858: Development and demonstration of Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE) prevention and reuse paradigms (REWEEE, 2016)), with the aim to
harmonize reuse standards and guidelines, develop specifications and technical requirements
for the overall management of preparation for reuse of WEEE and take actions for their
implementation to appropriate legislative provisions.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.
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