Fundamentals of Horticulture (Hort. 1.1)

INTRODUCTION

The term Horticulture first appeared in written language in the seventeenth century. The word horticulture is derived from the Latin words, hortus means garden and cultura means to cultivate. Horticulture means garden cultivation Thus, Horticulture is a part of plant agriculture which is concerned with cultivation of “garden crops”. Garden crops traditionally include fruits, vegetables and all the plants grown for ornamental purposes as well as spices, plantation, medicinal and aromatic purposes. The cultivation of garden plant is in contrast to the cultivation of field crops which is practiced in an extensive manner. Horticulture relies on growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner. The horticulture crops require very intense care in planting, carrying out cultural operation, manipulating growth, harvesting, packing, marketing, storage and processing. Many horticulture products are highly perishable, their constituent water is essential to their quality and hence mostly utilized in living stage. In contrast, the products of agronomy and forestry are often utilized in the non-living state and are usually high in dry matter. Taking these things into account precisely Horticulture can be defined as the branch of agriculture concerned with intensively cultured plants directly used by people for food, for medicinal purpose or for aesthetic gratification.

Definition of Horticulture:

Horticulture can be very broadly defined as culture of fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamental plants, garden and study of fruits an vegetables preservation.

Objectives:-

To find out way by which horticulture crops can be made to yield optimum benefits to mankind

This objectives can be achieved through

The knowledge of geographical distribution of horticultural plants.

The source and uses of such plants their structure and manner of growth

The influence of climate and soil on their development

The methods of their propagation

The manner, time and degree of pruning them

Their diseases, pests and their control and

The manner of harvesting, storing, transporting and using the finished products.

Division of Horticulture:-

Pomology :- The term Pomology is derived from the Latin word pomum meaning ‘fruits’ and the Greek term logy meaning ‘science’. Thus, pomology is the science of production of fruit crops. or The science of growing fruit crops.

a) Tree fruits:- Fruits are produced on tree e.g. Mango, Chiku Citrus etc.

b) Small fruits:-Fruits are produced on shrubs or vines g.Phalsa, Raspberry, Mulberry, Grapes, Gooseberry, Strawberry.

Olericulture:- The term Olericulture is originated from Latin word ‘oleris’ meaning pot herb and the English word culture meaning raising of plants. Thus, olericulture is the science of vegetable crops. OR The cultivation of vegetable crops. e.g. Brinjal, Tomato, Potato, Radish, Carrot, Chilli, Bottle gourd.

Floriculture:- It is a science of cultivation of flowers and ornamental plants for commercial purpose or merely for getting pleasure and as a hobby.

Plantation crops: The science of growing those crops which have long bearing age, cultivated by individual or industries and require some sort of processing before consumption. eg. coconut, coffee, cocoa, arecanut, tea, rubber, oil palm etc.

Landscape gardening:- It is a science of designing and laying out home gardens, public gardens, parks, road-side plantation, avenues etc.

Spices and condiments: The science of growing those crops which add taste and flovour in food stuffs. eg. Spices: cardamom, black pepper, clove, cinnamon etc. Condiments: ginger, turmeric etc.

Preservation of fruits and vegetables:- It is a science of canning of fruits and vegetables. e.g. Fruit juice, Jam, Jelly, marmalade, Candy, dehydration etc.

Apiculture: The science of honeybee rearing is called as apiculture.

Silviculture:- Cultivation and management of forest tree. e.g. Teak wood, Neem, Ficus, Eucalyptus etc.

Mushroom: Growing or cultivating mushrooms.

IMPORTANCE OF HORTICULTURE

Fruits and vegetables play an importance role in the balance diet of human being by providing energy rich food and vital protective nutrients.

They not only adorn the table but also enrich health from the most nutritive menu and tone up the energy and vigour of man.

Fruits and vegetables have a key role in neutralizing the acid produced during digestion of proteinous and fatty foods.

They provide valuable roughages which promotes digestion and helps in preventing constipation.

From unit are of land more income is obtained by growing fruits and vegetables crops.

From energy point of view the fruit crops give very high amount of calories per acre e.g. wheat 1034880 calories/acre. Banana 15252800 calories/acre. Hence in the present situation of food shortage and land scarcity, we can produce more food in limited area by growing fruits and vegetables.

Horticulture farming is mother of several industries like canning, essential oil, dehydration, refrigeration, wine, cashew nut, transport etc. Which provide work for many people.

Farmers and his labours can keep themselves engaged busy throughout year.

Growing of horticultural crops is an art as well as science which helps in mental development of farmers.

The fruits and vegetables are chief source of vitamins and minerals which help in proper health and resistant to disease.

The flowers, ornamental plants and gardens play a very important role in refreshing the minds of people and reducing air pollution.

The growing of horticultural crops also contribute to the aesthetic side of rural and home life of community.

SCOPE OF HORTICULTURE

There is tremendous scope of developing horticultural industry in our country. With the renewed research and development strategy, it can be expected that the tropical and subtropical horticultural crops would play a greater role in future in meeting the consumption requirements of the people and catering to a number of international market. During the recent past there have been some advancements in the field of research and development of horticultural crops.

The majority of Indian population is vegetarian and the production per unit area is less. There is a great demand from all the classes of people for fresh fruits and vegetables and also for canned products because fruits and vegetables are the rich source of minerals and vitamins. The climatic conditions of India is quite suitable for growing various types of fruits and vegetables in various zones, throughout the year. Certain fruits and vegetable crops are well adopted to varied edaphic and climatic condition e.g. Date palm, Ber, Pomegranate, Guava, Phalsa, Brinjal, Chilli, Tomato, Cabbage, Cucurbites etc.

Floriculture is an important branch of horticulture, we should not neglect the great aesthetic value of flowers in our daily life, commercially, floriculture can open up great opportunities to our poor farmers.

As far as concerned area and production, India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. However with its growing population it is in the position to meet the recommended per capita consumption norms. There is vast scope of growing fruit crops in India, because the total area under fruit crops is very small about 55.10 lac ha is being cultivated where as 71.60 lac ha area under vegetable cultivation. The production of fruits and vegetables is 587.4 lac tones and 1090.0 lac tones respectively.

However, India’s share in global exports of horticulture production is negligible being only one per cent. But given the volume of world trade in fresh and processed horticulture products and the country’s resources, India has the potential of more than doubling the present level of exports within the next five years. Currently, potential technologies have been largely directed towards higher production with little consideration for quality which has to meet export standards. Thus emphasis is required on export directed production technology. The use of remote sensing technique will play a greater role in

modern fruit growing. There is also a good scope in using rhizobium and mycorrhiza for recycling and promoting the utilization efficiency of nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Annuals:- As the name indicates annuals are plats that live for one year or less, that is the makes its vegetative growth flowers and produces seed within one year from the sowing date and then the plant dies. Actually, in practices we often see that this defination cannot be strictly applied to some plants because they often over live the period of one year. e.g. Brinjal, Tomato, Coleus, Geranium etc. They may behave as perennials and yet horticulturally speaking they are annuals.

Biennials:- Biennial plants are those which require two years or parts of two growing seasons with more or less of a dormant or resting season between to complete their life period. In the first season or year the seed is sown and the plant makes only vegetative growth. In the second season or year the plant produces very little vegetative growth and then flowers, produces seed and dies out e.g. Onion, Beet, Carrot, Cabbage, Radish, Chrysanthemum, Dahlia etc.

Perennials:- These plants do not finish their life cycle in one or two years. They persist from year to year and go on producing crops of seed from year to year. perennials may be herbaceous or woody and perennials may be trees or shrubs or vines e.g. Mango, Chiku.

Deciduous:- Deciduous plants shed their leaves once in an year when they go to rest. This happens during the cold season. When temperature starts falling, the leaves change their colour an become yellow and then fall off. The tree becomes bare and looks dry. All growth processes stop until spring when, temperature again rises, climate become warmer and the trees become active once again rises. e.g. Apple, Plum, Peach, Dhak, Siris, Amaltas.

Evergreens:- Evergreens on the other hand do not have a definite resting season and they do not shed their leaves during a particular season. All physiological activities go on continuously and the tree never become completely devoid of leaves and bare. Old leaves fall of and new leaves grow simultaneously. e.g. Mango, Chiku, Citrus.

Classification of fruit crops

A. Based on nature of growth

1. Herbaceous: Banana, Pineapple

2. Shrubaceous: Karonda, Phalsa, Pomegranate

3. Woody: Mango, Sapota, Ber, Guava, Jamun, Apple

B. Based on climatic requirement

1. Temperate Fruits: Apple, Pear, Peach, Apricot, Almond, Plum, Walnut

2. Sub-tropical fruits: Ber, Loquat, Phalsa, Litchi

3. Tropical fruits: Mango, Banana, Papaya, Pineapple

C. Based on type of fruit1. Pome: Apple, Pear, Quince, Loquat

2. Stone/Drupe: Plum, Apricot, Peaches, Mango, Jamun, Coconut

3. Berry: Grape, Guava, Banana, Papaya, Sapota, Date Palm

4. Hesperidium: Citrus Fruits

5. Psorosis: Pineapple, Jackfruit

6. Syconus: Fig

7. Nut: Litchi, Rambutan

8. Capsule: Carambola

9. Aggregate fruit: Custard apple, Strawberry

10. Multiple fruit: Pineapple, Jackfruit

D. Based on botanical relationship

1. Monocot: Banana, Pineapple, Banana

2. Dicot: Mango, Sapota, Jamun, Custard apple

Classification of vegetables:

(I) Botanical classification: Vegetables are classified according to botanical relationship.

(a) Monocotyledoneae -- One seed leaf.

Sr. No. Family Name of crop Botanical name

1. Amaryllidaceae Onion Allium cepaGarlic Allium sativumLeek Allium porum

2. Araceae Elephant foot (Suran) Amorphophallus paeoniifoliusColocasia (Arvi) Colocasia esculenta

3. Dioscoreaceae Yam Dioscorea alata4. Lilliaceae Asparagus Asparagus officinalis5. Poiaceae (Gramineae) Sweet corn var. rugosa Zea mays

(b) Dicotyledoneae: Two seed leaf

Sr. no Family Name of crop Botanical namei) Aizoaceae New Zealand spinach Tetragonia expansaii) Chenopodiaceae Beetroot

Spinach (palak)Beta vulgarisSpinacia oleracea

iii) Asteraceae (Compositae)

Lettuce Lactuca sativa

Artichoke Cynara scolymusiv) Convolvulaceae Sweet potato Ipomea batatas Lamv) Brasicaceae

(Cruciferae)CabbageCauliflowerKnolkholRadishTurnipBroccoli

Brassica oleracea L. var. CapitataBrassica oleracea L. var. botrytisBrassica caulorapaRaphanus sativumBrassica compestris var. rapa L. Brassica oleracea L. var. italica

vi) Cucurbitaceae Cucumber, kheraBitter gourdSponge gourdsPointed gourd (parwal)Bottle gourdWater melonMusk melonRidge gourdPumpkinLittle gourd

Cucumis sativaMomordica charantia Luffa cylindricaTrichosanthes dioica Lagenaria siceraria Citrullus lanatusCucumis meloLuffa acutangulaCucurbita pepoCoccinia indica

vii) Euphorbiaceae TapiocaCassava

Manihot utilissima Pohl.Manihot esculenta

viii) Leguminosae ( Fabaceae)

Cluster beanCowpeaIndian beanFenugreekPea

Cyamopsis tetragonalobaVigna sinesis SaviDolichos lablabTrigonella foenum graecumPisium sativum

ix) Malvaceae Okra (Ladies finger) Abelmoschus esculentus x) Solanaceae Tomato

Brinjal (egg plant)Chillies Potato.

Lycopersicon esculentum Solanum melongena Capsicum frutenscensSolanum tuberosum

xi) Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)

CarrotCelery

Daucus carota Apium graveolens

xii) Polygonaceae Rhubarb Rheum rhaponticum

(II) Classification based on part used as food: The vegetables could be grouped according to part of plant which is used as vegetable or eaten.

i) Stem Asparagus, potato, onion, garlic, artichoke, yam, turmericii) Leaves Methi, palak, coriander, arvi, amaranthus, cabbage,

spinach, Lettuce, Leekiii) Fruits Tomato, Brinjal, okra, beans, watermelon, chillies. parwal,

sponge gourd Bottle gourd, Snake gourd, Pointed gourd, Pea, Guar

iv) Flower part Cauliflower, broccoli, globe -artichokev) Root Radish, carrot, beetroot, turnip, sweet potato

(III) Based on method of cultivation: This is the most convenient and widely used system of classification of vegetables.

Group 1 Perennial Veg. crops Asparagus, pointed gourd, spine gourd, Rhubarb, Artichoke

Group 2 Greens vegetables Spinach, amaranthus, New Zealand spinach,Group 3 Salad crops Celery, lettuceGroup 4 Cole crops Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels

sprouts, knolkholGroup 5 Root crops Beetroot, carrot, turnip, radish, Sweet potatoGroup 6 Bulb crops Onion, garlic, leek, shallot

Group 7 Tuber crops Potato, yam ,cassavaGroup 8 Peas, pod or legume

veg. cropspea, bean, cluster bean, cowpea,

Group 9 Solanaceous fruit vegetables

Tomato, Brinjal, chillies,

Group 10 Cucurbits Pumpkin, Pointed gourd, Water melon, Musk melon,Cucumber, gourds, melons. etc.

Group 11 Malvaceae fruit crop Okra

(IV) Based on season of growth:

Vegetable crops can be grouped into two broad groups depending on their temperature requirement for growth and development.

Classification of vegetables according to the season of growth:

Vegetable crops can be divided in following groups:

(a) Cool or rabi or winter season vegetables: Cabbage, Cauliflower, Carrot, Onion, Lettuce, Beet, Coriander, Methi, Palak, Radish, Turnip, Garlic, Asparagus, Broccoli, Brussel's sprouts, Knol-khol, Amaranthus, Peas and Beans, Potato, Sweet potato and Celery.

(b) Hot season or summer season Vegetables: Tomato, Okra, Brinjal, Bitter gourd, Bottle gourd, Sponge gourd, Parwal, Little gourd, Cucumber, Cowpea, Cluster bean, French bean, Chillies, Cucurbits etc.

(c) Rainy or Kharif season Vegetables: Okra, Brinjal, Colocassia, Suran, Chillies, Amaranthus, Yam, Indian bean, Cucurbits except Watermelon and Muskmelon.

Cool season vegetable crops. Hot season vegetable crops.They are frost tolerant They are heat tolerantSeed germinate in low soil temperature Seed germinate in high soil temperatureRoot system is shallow Root system is deep than cool season

vegetablesPlant size smaller Plant size bigger than cool season vegetablese.g. Beetroot, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, celery, garlic, knolkhol, lettuce, methi, onion, palak, pea, potato, radish, spinach.

e.g. Beans, cluster bean, Indian bean, cassava, cowpea, colocasia, cucumber, gourds, melons, pumpkin, okra, chilies, sweet potato, tomato,

CLASIFICATION OF FLOWERS

A. Based on Season of Growing

1. Summer season annual: Zinnia, Kochia, Portulaca, Tithonia, Gaillardia

2. Rainy season annual: balsam, Cock’s Comb, Amaranthus

3. Winter season annual: aster, Larskpur, Phlox, Verbena, Candytuft, Petunia, Dianthus

B. Based on Growth Behavior:

1. Herbs: Phlox, Verbena, Candytuft, Petunia, Dianthus

2. Shrubs: Rose, Jasmine, Tecoma, Nyctanthes

3. Trees: Delonix regia, Cassia fistula, Saraca asoka

C. Based on Growing Condition :

1. Flowers suitable for protected cultivation: Rose, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Carnation, Anthurium

2. Flowers suitable for open field cultivation: Gladiolus, Tuberose, Marigold, Jasmine

D. Based on Utility:

1. Cut flower: Rose, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Carnation, Anthurium, Gladiolus, Tuberose

2. Loose flower: Jasmine, Marigold, Crossandra

CLASIFICATION OF SPICES

I. Botanical classification (family wise)

1. Piperaceae - pepper.

2. Zingiberaceae – Ginger, Cardamom, Turmeric

3. Apiaceae – Coriander, Fennel, Cumin.

4. Myrtaceae – Clove, Nutmeg

5. Fabaceae (Leguminosae) – Fenugreek

6. Lauraceae – Cinnamom, Tejapt

II. Depending upon the plant part useful as spice:

1. Root spice - Angelica, Horse radish.

2. Rhizome spice – Turmeric, Ginger.

3. Bulbous spices – Onion, Garlic.

4. Bark spice – Cinnamon, Cassia

5. Leafy spices – Mints, Tejpat, Coriander, Methi

6. Aril spices – Mace.

7. Seedy spices – Coriander, Celery, Methi

8. Stigma- Saffron (Kesar)

9. Unopened flower bud: Clove

10. Fruit spices –

1. Berries – Pepper, Allspice.

2. Capsules – Cardamom, Chillies.

III. Depending upon the longevity of spice plants.

1. Annual spice – Coriander, Mints, Methi

2. Biennial spices – Onion, Garlic

3. Perennial spices – Clove, Nutmeg, Pepper etc

IV. Depending upon the type of the plant:

1. Tree spices – Clove, Nutmeg, Cinnamon, Cassia

2. Bush spices – Cardamom

3. Herbaceous spices – Coriander, Fenugreek, fennel, Cumin.

4. Climber spices – Pepper, Vanilla.

SOIL AND CLIMATE FOR HORTICULTURAL CROPS

CLIMATE

It denotes average condition of weather prevailing over a large area. Temperature, humidity, rainfall, solar radiation and wind are the principal constituent of climate. A rhythmic change in constituent factors brings about change in the climate. Depending upon the prevalence of various constituents the climate is broadly classified into temperate, tropical and sub-tropical types.

(1) Temperate zone : Kashmir, HP, hills of UP & some high altitude regions of central India. (Nilgiri & Palni Hills.). This climate is characterized by the fall of temperature below freezing point in winter. The plants shed their leaves during winter as a survival mechanism. Consequent to fulfillment of chilling hours, the plants again resume their growth. There is snowfall in this type of climate. The ground remains covered with snow for 3 to 5 months in a year. Temperature falls & plants drop down their leaves and enters into rest. For breaking rest, a definite chilling period is required. During summer the temperature varies between 10°C to 14°C and relative humidity between 80% to 100%. This type of climate is observed at 1800 m to 3500 m height from ground level. Apple, pear, peach, plum, walnut, apricot etc grow in this type of climate.

(2) Tropical zone : Southern regions of MP, & Bengal. States of Gujarat, MS, MP, Orissa, Karnataka, TN, & Kerala. There is no distinct summer and winter in this type of climate. Hot and humid summer and mild winter is hallmark of tropical climate. There is no fluctuation in day and night temperature. This type of climate receives high rainfall and humidity. The temperature ranges from 32°C to 37°C and above. It is experienced at 300 m to 900 m height from ground level. Tropical climate prevails along with coastal belt of the country. Fruits like mango, banana, papaya, pineapple, sapota,cashew, jackfruits grow in this climate.

(3) Sub -Tropical zone : It is in between temperate & tropical zones. Plains of Punjab & UP. Northern regians of Bhihar, MP & W. Bengal & States of Rajasthan & Assam. The temperature occasionally goes below freezing. Climate is hot & comparatively dry. Winter is comparatively less cold. The temperature ranges from 25°C to 30°C and humidity almost 100% during monsoon. It is found at 900 m to 1800 m height from ground level. Fruits are named as subtropical fruits. Lime, lemon, orange, grape, guava, date, fig, pomegranate, phalsa etc. Some tropical fruits like mango, banana, jack fruit, can also be grown in this region.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF HORTICULTURALLY POTENTIAL ZONES OF THE COUNTRY

1. Temperate zone

Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Parts of Uttranchal, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland, Nilgiris and Palni Hills of Tamil Nadu experiencetemperate climate.

2. North-western sub-tropical zone

Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Parts of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Vananchal are counted under this zone.

3.North-eastern sub-tropical zone

Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Parts of Arunachal Pradesh and parts of West Bengal experience this type of climate.

4. Central tropical zone

Parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Kamataka are counted under this zone.

5. Southern tropical zone

Parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are counted under this zone.

6. Coastal tropical zone

Coastal part of Maharashtra. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram, part of Gujarat along sea side, Andaman and Nicobar islands experience such type of climate.

Agro-Climatic zones of Gujarat State :-

I. South Gujarat Heavy Rainfall Zone.II. South Gujarat Zone.III. Central Gujarat Zone.IV. North Gujarat Zone.V. North-West Gujarat Zone.VI. North Saurashtra Zone.VII. South Saurashtra Zone.VIII. Bhal And Coastal Zone.

Climate and soil requirement for horticultural plants

Climate:- Climate is the principal factors controlling plant growth. Climate refers to the average condition of the atmosphere over a long period, where as the term weather is used to describe the current and temporary atmospheric conditions. For successful growing of horticultural plants, various components of climate like temperature, humidity, wind, light, rainfall, hail and frost should be carefully studied.

Man can not control these environmental factors. It is not possible to make any change in it. But the effect of these factors can be altered. For these we can take certain steps to increase or decrease its effects. i.e. effect of high or low temperature can be altered,

additional moisture can be given, high wind velocity can be reduced by growing wind break around the orchard.

Climate of a region is mainly influenced by the factors viz. a) latitude b) altitude c) topography d) position related to continents and oceans e) large scale atmospheric circulation patters.

Almost all components of the climate influence horticultural crops. All are closely interrelated. The effect of each is modified by others. All crops have certain natural threshold limits of the climatic components beyond which they do not grow normally, but breeding and selection are gradually extending the threshold for many crops.

Following is a brief account on important climatic components which are affecting the production of horticultural crops.

2.1.1 TemperatureTemperature is one of the most important components of climate. It plays vital role in

the production of horticultural crops. The different activities of plant like growth and development, respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, uptake of nutrients and water and reproduction (Such as pollen viability, blossom fertilization fruit set etc.), carbohydrate and growth regulators balance, rate of maturation and senescence, and quality, yield and shelf life of the edible products. The above function of the plant should be well when the temperature at the optimum range. During high temperature plant does not perform proper functions of growth, where in low temperature physiological activities of the plant are stopped.

According to different temperature range in the tropics, the specific trees are grown in different location e.g. Apple, Pear, Peach, Almond are successfully grown in the regions of low temperature know as temperate fruits. In warm winter areas, due to insufficient chilling temperature fruit trees fail to complete their physiological rest period or meeting their chilling requirement. As a consequence, buds remain dormant, and leaves and blossoms do not appear on the trees in the following spring. For this reason temperate fruit like apple, apricot, pear and plums are not considered suitable for tropical or sub tropical regions. For tropical and sub tropical fruits the minimum temperature must be within the limit of tolerance of the fruit species. The fruit grown in tropical and subtropical climate is known as tropical fruit and sub tropical fruits. Mango, chiku papaya banana are successfully grown in high temperature regions also known as tropical fruits.

The plant performs well in optimum temperature range. The activities of the plant are affected by very high or very low temperature. The temperature range for plant is Minimum 4.50 to 6.50 c (400 –430 F)Optimum 240 to 270 c (750 –850 F)Maximum 29.50 to 45.40 c (850 –1140 F)

Effect of low temperatureThe low temperature influenced adversely on plant. There are many effects of low

temperature i.e. Desiccation :- Imbalance between absorption rate and transpiration rate Chilling injury :- There is a disturbance in metabolic and physiological process. Freezing injury :- It is termed as under cooling protoplasm coagulation.

2.1.2 Humidity (moisture) and frost The atmospheric humidity plays a vital role in deciding the amount of moisture

needed to produce a fruit crops. In hot, dry weather enormous amount of water is lost through transpiration. If the atmosphere is humid, even though hot, the amount is much smaller and

thus a site in humid belt needs less irrigation. High humidity combined with high temperature also promotes rapid growth, higher yield but increase incidence of pests and diseases.

The water requirement of plant also depends on humidity but generally requirement of water is differed as per different plant species. e.g. to produce 1 kg dry matter pine tree require 25 lit. of water, apple required 250 lit, Lucern required 500 lit of water.

The plant gets water from soil, but there many factors affecting on it. i.e. (a) amount of water in the soil (b) availability of water is also depends on texture and structure of soil (c) water absorbing area of the tree.

The water is lost from the plant through transpiration by leaves. Transpiration depends on humidity, temperature, wind, light etc. it is necessary to maintain the health of plant by maintaining the balance between uptake and loss of water.

2.1.3 LightLight is an electro magnetic radiation, which is a form of kinetic energy. It comes

from the sun to the earth as discrete particles called quanta or photons. Light is one of most important affecting plant life very effectively. It is an integral part of the photosynthetic reaction in that it provides the energy for the combination of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the green cells having chlorophyll for the formation of carbohydrates with release of oxygen. The following equation to explain the oxidation of water in photosynthesis

CO2+2H2O CH3O +H2O+O2

6CO2 +12H2O light, radiation energy C6H12O6+6H2O+6O2

chlorophyll

The performance of crop or growth of plants is influenced by three aspects of light (a) quantity of light (b) intensity of light (c) duration of light.

a) Light intensity:- Light intensity refers to the number of photons falling on a given area or to the total amount of light which plants receive, the intensity of light varies with the day, season, distance from equator, dust particles and water vapour in atmosphere, slope of the land and elevation. Symptoms associated with low light intensity are decrease in rate of photosynthesis with normal rates of respiration, decrease supplies of carbohydrates for growth and yield, leaf tips become discoloured, leaves and bud drop, leaves and flowers become light in colour. Due to high light intensity, the plant wilts and light coloured leaves may become gray in colour due to reduction in chlorophyll, the rate of photosynthesis is lowered down while respiration continues. All above reasons cause low yields.

b) Quality of light:- Refers to the length of the waves. The visible part of spectrum of electromagnetic radiation ranges from wavelength 390 to 730 µm. In general, red and blue light produce a greater dry weight. Green light inhibits plant growth. Red light promotes seed germination, growth and flower bud formation in long day short night plant. Photosynthesis is more in the red region. In apple the blue violet region is more important for the development of red pigments and colour.

c) Duration of light:- Refers to the period for which light is available. Duration of light required is also know as photoperiod.

Photoperiodism:- Response of plant to length daily exposure to the light is known as photoperiodism or relation of the time of flowering formation of tubers, fleshy roots etc. to the daily exposure length of period of light.

The plants are mainly grouped into three according to duration of light required.

1. Long day plant :- Those plants which require 16 hr or more of daily exposure of light and short night 8-10 hr of dark period for induction of flowering e.g. radish, cauliflower, cabbage, carrot, spinach.

2. Short day plant :- Those plants which require 12 hr or less of daily exposure of light and long night 10 to 14 hr dark period for induction of flowering. e.g. strawberry, potato, sweet potato, chrysanthemum, cosmos, poinsettia etc.

3. Day neutral plants:- Day neutral plants are those plants in which flowering is induced irrespective of duration of light. Such plants are also known as photo insensitive plants. e.g. tomato, chilli, okra, carnation, dianthus, african violet.

Intermediate plants:- Those plants which require definite period of daily exposure of light. e.g. wild kidney bean, Indian grass, broom grass.

2.1.4. Rainfall This is a very important factor for horticulture crops, and if a garden or orchard is to

be established in a new area it is essential that the pattern of rainfall in the region be studied before any decision is taken concerning the types of crop to be cultivated. Well-distributed and consistent rainfall is always desirable for and ideal orchard site. Rain at the time of flowering is not suitable, because most of tropical fruit crops are sensitive to rain.

2.1.5 WindThe effect of high wind on crops can be appreciable. Complete physical destruction

may result because little can stand against winds of the order of 100 km/hr, even large trees become uprooted. Some crops have quite low damage even due to high wind speed. In many regions high winds can destroy the flowers, fruits etc. Wind breaks can help reduce this problem. The wind break trees, like saru, eucalyptus, Ingadulsis, are grow around the orchard for protection.

SOIL REQUIREMENT

Soil is a thin outer covering of the earth, directly developed by natural forces acting on natural materials, is a basic medium for plant growth, supplies nutrients for growing plants. Soil is the home of the plant root and the reservoir for essential nutrients and water for its growth and development.

Types of soil:-On the basis of pH, EC and presence of ESP, the soil are group as 1) Saline

2) Alkaline 3) Saline-alkali 4) Acidic On the basis of sand, silt, and clay soils are grouped (Classes).

a) Sandyb) Sandy loamc) Loamyd) Silte) Silt loamf) Sandy clay loamg) Clay loam

h) Sandy clayi) Clay etc.,

Porous aerated and deep soil should be preferred for fruit cultivation. The ideal orchard soil should be at least 1.8 m deep having a uniform texture, well drained, non-saline and fertile. Soils with a poor sub soil stratum should be avoided. Fruit tree will not grow well if there is solid rock or permanent water close to the surface of the soil. Sub soil with a hardpan or pebbles within 120 cm of the surface soil should not be chose. Extreme conditions of top and sub soil, namely very heavy (clayey) and very light (highly sandy) should be avoided. Heavy soils are difficult to handle on account of poor drainage while very light soil are infertile because of leaching of nutrients. Medium textured silt loam or fine sandy loam makes good orchard soil.

Most fruit plants like slightly acidic to neutral soil reaction (pH 6-7). Some fruit species can some times tolerate little more acidic or alkaline medium but too acidic or too alkaline soil should be avoided.Soil with fluctuating water table are not suitable because the water table moves up and reaches the root zone damaging the root hairs. When the water table goes down, the trees with shallow root system struggle for moisture and nutrients causing reduction in growth and vigour of trees. Thus soils having water table depth of less than 3 m are not usually preferred for establishing an orchard. Some fruits, however, such as, Mango, Grape, Lime, Lemon, Ber, Custard apple, Avocado and Cashew do well on for wide range of soil type.

PROPAGATION METHODS OF HORTICULTURAL PLANTS

Propagation:- Plant propagation means multiplication of plants with the aim to achieve increase in number and preserve the essential characteristics of the mother plant. It is of two types: (i) Sexual or seed propagation (ii) Asexual or vegetative propagation

Sexual Propagation :- Reproduction by seed; but seed is under ordinary condition a result of fusion of male and female germ cells or gametes, characters of both parents are inherited by the seed or the new individual and therefore the new individual formed in this way are not true-to-type.

Asexual propagation :- Does not involve the gametes from parents. It is simply a vegetative or somatic extension of one parent and there is no chance of inheriting a mixture of characters.

Seed propagation :-

Seed :- Anatomically, seed is an embryo plant or fertilized, ripened ovule consisting of a rudimentary stem and root, together with a supply of food sufficient for establishing the plant in a new location and enclosed in a protective coat (seed coat).

Viability :- A seed is viable if it is capable of germinating or ability of seed to germinate

Vitality :- The vigour or strength possessed by the seed for growth.

Short viable seeds :- Cashew, Jack fruit, Jamun, Citrus, Mango, Neem etc.

Seed with hard seed coat :- Babul (acasia), Gulmohar, Chiku, Amaltas etc.

Such seed should be given some treatment before growing for quick germination.

A. Mechanical Treatment :-1. Scarifying :- Seed is filled in a scarifier which is a drum with inner surface rough ,

hard and sharp. The hard seed coat is filled and ground out by rotary action.2. Others :- Breaking or cracking with hammer, drilling a hole, rubbing against stone,

filing.B. Chemical treatment :-

- H2SO4 at conc. of 50 % and 25 %

- Potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.

C. Soaking in water :- Seed are soaked in warm water for 24 hr. or 4 to 5 days sometime they are soaked in cow dung paste.

D. Stratification :- Keeping seed in alternate layers with sand or soil and kept constantly moist but not waterlogged.

SEXUAL METHODS

Advantages:

Seedling trees (sexual method) are generally long lived; bear more heavily are comparative more hard.

Propagation from the seed is the only means of reproduction where the method of vegetative propagation is not possible or economical as in papaya, phalsa, mangosteen etc.

Inbreeding for evolution of new varieties, the hybrids are first raised from seed and it is, therefore, essential to employ this method in such cases.

Propagation from seed has been responsible for the production of some chance seedlings of highly superior merits, which has been of great benefit to the fruit industry. It may be mentioned that commercial mango varieties originated from seed and were, later on, perpetuated vegetatively.

Seed like those of some citrus species and some mango varieties are capable of giving out more than one seedling from one seed. They can be carefully detected in the nursery stage.

The rootstocks upon which the fruit varieties are budded or grafted are really obtained by means of sexual propagation.

Seedlings are comparatively cheaper and easy to raise.

Along with advantages, the seedlings trees have some disadvantages too.

Disadvantages

The seedling trees are not uniform in their growth, yielding capacity and fruit quality as compared to the grafted trees.

They make more time to bear the maiden crop as compared to the grafted plants.

The seedling trees become large for economic management i.e. the cost of harvesting, pruning and spraying is more as compared to the grafted trees.

It is not possible to perpetuate the exact characters of any superior selection through seed and so to multiply superior hybrids or chance seedlings, vegetative methods have to be employed.

In case of seedlings, it is not possible to avail of the modifying influence of rootstocks on the scion as in case of vegetatively propagated fruit trees.

Acid lime and papaya

1. Bulb (Garlic, Onion) 1 Simple/Tip layering2. Rhizome (Ginger, Turmeric) 2 Compound layering 1. “T”-Budding (Rose) 1. Approach/Side Grafting

Methods of Plant Propagation

Seed/ Sexual method Asexual method

Rootage Graftage

Plant specialized organ

Cuttings

Budding Grafting

Layering

3. Corm (Gladiolus) 3 Trench layering 2. Inverted “T”-Budding (Mango, Sapota etc.)

4. Sucker (Banana) 4 Mound layering/ 3. “I”-Budding 2. Wedge grafting5.Tuber (Potato) 5 Stooling (Guava) 4. Ring Budding (Ber) (Guava, Mango)6.Off Shoot (Date palm) Bryophyllum Curry leaf Air layering 5. Forket Budding 3. Cleft grafting (Guava)7.Tuberous root (Dahlia) Begonia rex Raspberry (Litchi, Guava) 6. Shield Budding 4. Epicotyl grafting8.Runner (Strawberry) Sansevieria 7. Patch Budding (Aonla) (Mango)

9. Stolon (Grasses) 5. Veneer grafting (Mango)6. Tongue grafting (Peach)7. Saddle grafting8. Bridge grafting

(To repair trunk damage)

Duranta Croton PomegranateChrysanthemum China rose Grape

Fig

Leaf cutting

Root cutting

Soft wood/ herbaceous cutting

Semi hardwood cutting

Hardwood cutting

Stem cutting

Asexual or Vegetative Propagation

It is also known as clonal propagation. Vegetative parts such as leaf, stem or root are used instead of seeds.

It is a function of the somatic mechanism of plants. It is therefore essential to have some fundamental knowledge of the basic anatomy of certain parts.

Root and stem structures:-

Root:- An organ for absorption of water and nutrients and serve as an anchor for the plant. Older portions mainly work of transporting water and nutrients and stored food material where as only younger fibrous roots absorbed the water and nutrients.

Stem :- Supports leaves flowers and fruits and acts as a link between roots and leaves. It also acts as a temporary storage place for reserved food materials.

Dicotyledonous plants:- The vascular bundles (xylem ,phloem and cambium) have a regular systematic arrangements so made that they form a circular ring. Mango, Chiku, Guava.

Monocotyledonous plants:- They do not form a ring but are more or less scattered at random through out the thickness of the stem. Banana, Date palm, Coconut.

Xylem:- They are well differentiated thick walled fibers, conducting vessels and wood parenchyma on the outer side of wood, ventral cylinder. Main function of xylem is to transport water and nutrient (salt) absorbed by roots to the upper portion of the plants.

Phloem:- They are well differentiated, fibrous and conducting tissues on the inner side of the bark or cortical layer. Main function of phloem is to transport food material (CH 2O), hormones and co-factor synthesized by leaves.

Cambium:- Between xylem and phloem there is a thin layer of thin walled, undifferentiated meristematic tissues is known as cambium. They occur in a continuous ring. Their main function is to divide and sub-divide giving rise to new cells that may later on became differentiated in to one another of the various tissues of the wood of bark.

Function of cambium necessary for plant propagation:-

Use full in secondary growth of stem and root.

Regeneration and overwalling over is possible for recovery of injury to the plants.

Callus produced by cambium is necessary for budding, grafting and cutting etc.

Adventitious roots on stem mostly arise from cambium

What is callus:- It is a mass of undifferentiated (parenchyma cells) tissues produced by cambium which gradually covers the points or areas originally exposed (arising from the living cells of both scion and stock).

Regeneration:- Recovering the injured surface all over at the same time.

Over walling:- Recovering the injured surface from the outer margins.

Bulbs:- A bud a rudimentary stem or embryo stem when, a bud develop into a branch is known as vegetative bud. But when it develops into a flower is known as flower bud. It is also called fruit bud.

Bud is defined as a growing point of undifferentiated tissues surrounded by embryonic leaves or blossoms.

1) Terminal bud:- A bid formed at the tip of a branch which has stopped growing for the season.

2) Axillary or lateral bud:- This is a regular bud which develops in the leaf axil or the node.

3) Adventitious bud:- This is a bud formed on an unusual part like internode, leaf, or root.

4) Dormant bud:- When its dormancy period is less than one year(season) is known as dormant bud.

5) Latent bud:- If for some reason a dormant bud does not start growing even after one year, it may not grown even for more number of years is known as latent bud.

Suckers:- These are shoots growing from latent adventitious buds on roots.

Water sprouts:- These are shoots growing from latent adventitious buds on stems or branches.

Advantages of vegetative propagation:- Seed propagation is easier method and very widely used for sowing other agricultural crops, vegetative propagation is the practice adopted mostly by horticulturist. Following are the advantages:

True breeding seeds can be ensured only by vegetative method because it is a reproduction of somatic cells. There is no cross-pollination and segregation.

When seed is not formed, vegetative methods is the only way i.e. Banana and some (seedless) varieties of grape and citrus.

Vegetatively propagated plant bear earlier but life period is shorter than seed propagated plants. e.g, mango and chiku graft bear early fruiting.

Some disease or insect resistant scion can be grown on suitable rootstock for the particular soil condition, i.e. Jambhiri is resistant to gummosis and we can successfully grafted citrus on jamburi, in Australia, Northern, spy apple is used as root stock for apple, which is resistant to woody aphis, similarly, European varieties of grapes grafted on the root stock of American varieties to avoid the damage of phyloxera insect.

Dwarfing trees are practiced by budding or grafting on suitable roots orange on wood apple.

Branches of male plant can be grafted on female plants.

Reduction in the size and number of thorns i.e. jamburi root stock for citrus.

Correction of mistakes by budding or crown grafting or side grafting.

In cooler regions trifoliate orange is used as (citrus) rootstock against heavy frost.

More than one variety can be grown on one plant e.g. Roses.

The following are the disadvantages of Asexual method of propagation in fruit plants.

Disadvantages:-

The vegetatively propagated plants, particularly the budded and grafted ones are not generally so vigorous and long-lived as the seedling trees.

No new varieties can be evolved by the vegetative means of propagation.

GRAFTAGE

Graftage is the process of joing a part of a plant with another in such a way that both will unite to work as a unit and the unit will continue growth. Two different methods based on the same principles are included under the term graftage viz., Grafting and budding.

Special terms in connection with grafting and budding:-

Stock:- Stock is that part of a graft which has the root and which supports the growth, made by the other component scion. Root system of the stock and the above ground growth of the scion constitute a graft.

A stock is called” seedling root stock” if it is grown from seed and “clonal roots stock” if it is propagated by vegetative methods of propagation e.g. cutting, layering etc.,

Scion: - Scion is a portion of the stem or branch of the variety that is desired to propagate. It may be a shoot or a branch a few inches long or one feet long and has many dormant buds on it. It may be taken from current or past season’s growth or even older wood, but in most species growth of current or past season makes better scions than does the older wood. The scion for grafting is apiece of a branch while the scion for budding is only a single bud with a little bark.

Matrix: - Matrix is the place on the root stock that is prepared for joining the scion or the bud.

Limitations of graftage:-

For the successful union of the two parts, three conditions must be fulfilled

Close botanical relationship

Continuous contact of cambium layers and tight fitting (closeness of fit)

Compatibility

Compatibility:- The word compatible designates the suitability of the reciprocal influence of stock and scion on each other. If the influences of one on the other are all suitable to each other we say that both are compatible. If some influence are not suitable we say that they are incompatible or incongenial. A union will not be successful union if the stock and scion are not compatible. Incompatibility or incongeniality is indicated by (1) complete failure to unite (2) the union may be short lived (3) The union may be long lived but the joint maybe swollen or the stock may overgrown the scion and vice-a-versa. This will result in an obstruction in the easy flow of sap.

As a rule varieties of the same species will be the most compatible and the distant related ones will be less compatible but there are always exceptions. There is no direct way of telling in advance whether a trial will be successful or not.

Apart from propagation of plants, grafting methods are also used to a save broken limbs, injured trunks, conversion of inferior varieties into superior ones etc.

Budding

The essential qualities of a good root stock for budding are:

It must remain in sap flowing condition for along time so that budding can be done at a suitable time.

It must be fast growing.

It must be straight growing

The bark must be easily separable from the wood.

It must be compatible to the varieties desired to be propagated

It must be resistant to disease and pests.

For citrus crops budding is the universal method of propagation and various root stocks like citron, reshmi orange (Santra), pummelo, mosambi, kagli lime and jamburi have been tried and it is found that for our conditions jamburi is the best root stock, the best season for budding is the spring (end of winter season) or rainy season when growth is vigorous, however, spring is better that rainy season. In case of ber (Zizyphus jujuba) the headed back in February or March leaving about one feet long stump on the ground from below the cut end. New sprouts will arise. Budding will be done on these new shoots by ring method of budding in April or May when they are ready to receive the buds. Buds are selected from one season wood of the choice varieties. If the buds remain green for 10days after budding, the stock shoots can be headed back just above the buds.

Stionic effects:- The term stionic is used to designate the relationship between stock and scion. Stionic effects are the reciprocal influences of stock and scion on each other.

Polyembryony:- Some tree seeds contain more than one embryo. Such seeds upon germination produce more than one seedlings. This condition is known as poly embryony. It may result from several causes like :- (1) development of and fertilization of more than one egg cell in the embryosac or (2) occasional successful fertilization of synergids (3) the development of vegetative embryos in the body or nucellus of the ovule.

PROPAGATION STRUCTURES

Propagation structure: The structures which facilitate propagation of plants are called propagation structures. Propagation structures are required for propagating plants by seed, cuttings and grafting. Propagation structures are of two types; i) The first type a structure with temperature control and ample light, such as a green house, modified quonset house, or hot bed-where seeds can be germinated or cuttings are rooted or tissues culture micro-plants are rooted and acclimatized and the ii) The unit is structure into which the younger, tender plants can be moved for hardening, preparatory to transplanting out-of-doors. Cold frames, low polyethylene tunnels or sun tunnels covered by saran cloth and lath-houses are useful for this purpose.

1. Greenhouses

Greenhouse has been used long back by horticulturists as a mean of forcing rapid growth of plants and extending the growing season particularly in colder areas. These are being used for whole sale production and propagation of floricultural plants, nursery stock of fruit crops and vegetable crops. A greenhouse greatly extends the variety and scope of propagation. Many kinds of green houses are used for propagation but the most suitable type is the one that admits the maximum amount of light. This is important, particularly where most of the propagation is done in late winter and early spring. Good light conditions are essential for the study growth of the seedlings. Experiments have shown that a greenhouse that runs from east-to-west is best for better light penetration in winter and early spring, and consequently preferable for raising seedlings at this time of the year. Moreover, it is important that the green houses should be well away from any kind of shade such as a tree of building, including other greenhouse. Some shelter, however, from north to northeast winds is desirable. These glasshouses may be plastic polyethylene covered or made form fiberglass.

Modern greenhouses are well equipped with elaborate structures and have precise control on temperature, light intensity and humidity. The size and type of greenhouses, primarily

depends upon the need of the plant propagator. Glass covered greenhouses are expensive but they have long life. However, for short –term benefits, plastic covered green houses can also be made. Two types of plastics are available for the construction, polyethylene and fiberglass. Both are lightweight and inexpensive as compared to glass. Plastic covered greenhouses are lighter than glass covered ones but there is very high increase in humidity is such houses, especially in winters, which results undesirable water drops on the plants. It can however be overcome by making adequate ventilation. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has also been used in construction of greenhouses but it tends to darken pre-maturely in sunlight. In India, construction of temporarily low-cost poly-houses is in fashion for raising nursery of fruit plant in off season. Such low cost greenhouses are constructed either on wood or metal framework and are covered with polyethylene sheet of 0.10 to 0.15mm thickness, which is resistant to ultra-violet rays. These houses are equipped with thermostat, cooler or an air conditioner or humidifier etc for rigid control on temperature and humidity. Greenhouses made from fibreless sheet are more durable than the polythene houses, but are quite expensive. In greenhouses, two types of beds are used for raisinggoring seedlings. In greenhouses, the beds may either be prepared on ground itself or raised beds or bench type beds are used.

Greenhouse structures vary from elementary home constructed to elaborate commercial installations. Commercial greenhouses are usually independent structures of even span, gable-roof construction, well proportioned so that the space is well utilized for convenient walk ways and propagating benches. On commercial scale several greenhouses units are often attached side-by-side for eliminating the cost of conversing the adjoining walls with glass or polyethylene. The heating and cooling equipment is more economical to install and operate, as large area can be shared by the same equipment. Greenhouse construction begins with a metal framework, to which metal rash bars are fastened to support panels of glass or some type of plastic materials. Now a day’s metal prefabricated green house with pre-bolted trusses are available from several manufacturers. The two most common structural materials for green houses are steel and aluminum. Most greenhouses are made from galvanized steel, which is cheaper, stronger and lighter.

2. Hot frames (Hot beds)

A hotbed is a bed of soil enclosed in a glass or plastic frame. A hotbed is a bed of soil enclosed in a glass or plastic frame. It is heated by manure, electricity, steam, or hotwater pipes. Hotbeds are used for forcing plants or for raising early seedlings. Instead of relying on outside sources of supply for seedlings, you can grow vegetables and flowers best suited to your own garden. Seeds may be started in a heated bed weeks or months before they can be sown out of doors. At the proper time the hotbeds can be converted into a cold frame for hardening. Hot beds are small low structures, used for propagation of nursery plants under controlled conditions. Hot beds can be used throughout the years, except in areas with severe winters, where their use can be restricted to spring, summer and fall. Another form of a hot bed is a heated, low polythene tunnels or sun tunnels that is made from hooped metal tubing or bent PVC pipe, which is covered with polyethylene. The standard size of hot frame is 0.9 by 1.8 m. If polyethylene is used as the covering, any convenient dimensions can be used. Plastic and PVC tubing with recirculation of hot water are quite satisfactory for providing bottom heat in hot beds. Seedlings can be started and leafy cutting rooted in hot beds early in the season. For small propagation operations, hot beds structures are suitable for producing many thousands of nursery plants, without the higher construction expenditure for larger, propagation houses.

3. Cold frames

A cold frame is a bottomless box with a removable top. It is used to protect small plants from wind and low temperatures. No artificial heat or manure is used inside a true cold frame but many gardeners experiment with a variety of soil conditions. They utilize the sun's heat. The soil inside the box is heated during the day and gives off its heat at night to keep the plants warm. The frame may be banked with straw or strawy manure to insulate it from the outside air and to retain heat. Cold frames include not only low polyethylene-covered wood frames or unheated sun tunnels that people cannot walk within, but also low-cost, poly-covered hoop houses. The covered frames should fit tightly in order to retain heat and obtain high humidity. Cold frames should be placed in locations protected from wind. The primary use of cold frames is in conditioning or hardening of rooted cuttings or young seedlings prior to field, nursery row or container planting. Cold frames can be used for starting new plants in late spring. Low-cost cold frame construction is the same as for hot beds, except that no provision is made for supplying bottom heat. In these structures, only the heat of the sun is retained by the transparent or opaque, white polyethylene covering. When young, tender plants are first placed in a cold frame, the coverings are generally kept tightly closed to maintain a high humidity but as the plants become adjusted, the sash frames are gradually raised or ends of the hoop house to permit more ventilation and drier conditions. The installation of mist line or irrigation provision in cold frame is essential to maintain humid conditions. During sunny days, high temperature condition can be controlled by providing ventilation and shading.

4. Lath houses

Lath (lath - thin strip of wood) or shade houses provide outdoor shade and protect container- grown plants from high summer temperature and high light irradiance. They reduce moisture stress and reduce the moisture requirement of plants. Lath houses have many uses in propagation, particularly in conjunction with the hardening off and acclimatization of liner plants prior to transplanting and for maintenance of shade requiring plants. In mild climates, they are used for propagation, along with a mist facility and can be used as overwintering structures for liner plants. However, snow load can cause problems in higher latitude regions. Lath house may be constructed with many kind of materials, although aluminum prefabricated lath house are available, but may be more costly than wooden structure. Most lath houses are covered with high density, woven plastic material such as saran, poly propylene fabric and UV-treated polyethylene shade cloth, which come in varying shade percentage and colors. These materials are available in different densities, thus allowing lower irradiance of light, such as 50 percent sunlight, to the plants. They are light weight and can be fastened to supporting posts.

5. Net house

Net houses are widely used as propagation structures in tropical areas, where artificial heating is not required and artificial cooling is expensive. In these areas, net houses may be constructed with roofs covered with glass or plastic film and its sides are covered with wire net. It provides necessary ventilation and maintains an ideal temperature for germination of seeds and subsequent growth of the seedlings. The roof of net house may be covered with gunny cloth or even with live plant creeper to cut off the solar radiant energy and to keep the house cool. Net house can be constructed as per the need of the propagator and therefore its size varies with the requirements of the nurserymen.

6. Bottom heat box

It is a simple box for promoting rooting of cutting in difficult-to-root fruit plants like mango and guava. It consists of two chambers made from galvanized iron sheets. The outer chamber

has a height of 70cm with 46 cm width and the inner chamber has a height of 68cm and width of 44cm. The space between the two chambers is filled with glass wool for heat insulation.

Another chamber is fitted inside the inner chamber with the height of 35cm fitted with two electric bulbs at the bottom for providing heat to the cutting. The innermost chamber is filled with soil mixture or any other propagation medium and the cuttings are inserted in it. Two electric bulbs of 100 watt capacity are fitted at the bottom of the chamber to provide heat and light to the cuttings. Similarly, the temperature in the box is maintained and controlled automatically by a thermostat fitted at the bottom of the chamber. The most ideal temperature to be maintained in the box is 30± 20C because at this temperature, cuttings of mango, walnut, olive and guava root easily and profusely. The initiation of rooting in cutting varies from species-to-species but in general, it takes 1-2 months for proper development of the roots.

7. Mist propagation unit

The rooting of softwood leafy cutting under spray or mist is a technique now widely used by nurserymen and other plant propagators throughout the world. The aim of misting is to maintain humidity by a continuous film of water on the leaves, thus reducing transpiration and keeping the cutting turgid until rooting take place. In this way, leafy cuttings can be fully exposed to light and air because humidity remains high and prevents damage even from bright sunshine. Mist also prevents disease infection in the cuttings by way of washing off fungus spores before they attack the tissues. While the leaves in this process must be kept continuously moist, it is important that only minimum water should be used. This is because excessive water leaches out nutrients from the compost, which may cause starvation. Moreover, a directly injurious effect on the cutting may occur from over watering. Hence, it is necessary to utilize nozzles capable of producing a very fine mist. A small mist propagating units are mostly used by small farmers, whereas, highly advanced impermanent units are used by the commercial nurserymen in advanced countries. Mist propagation units are used for propagation of “difficult to root, cutting in most advanced countries. Mist beds are constructed within a greenhouse. A fine mist is sprayed intermittently over the cutting at regular intervals during day and night. The mist unit is controlled by a time clock, operating a magnetic solenoid valve and is set in a way to turn on the mist for 3-5 seconds to wet the leaves and turn off for some time and when the leaves are dry. The mist is again turned on.

In general, the mist has 5 control mechanisms. Timer, electronic leaf, thermostat and timer, screen balance and photoelectric cell. The two types of timers are used in a mist unit, one turn on in the morning and off at night and the second operate during day hours to produce an intermittent mist, usually 6 seconds “on” and 90 seconds “off”. In electronic leaf, a plastic with two terminals is placed under the mist along with cuttings, the alternate drying and wetting of the terminal breaks of the current, which in turn control the solenoid valve. A thermostat controls the temperature of the mist. In screen balance control mechanisms, stainless steel screen in attached to a lever with mercury switch. When mist is on, water is collected on the screen and when weight of water is more, it trips the mercury switch. The photoelectric controls are based on the relationship between light intensity and transpirations rate. The mist unit can be set up in a glasshouse or in a polyethylene tunnel. Usually, it is set up on the propagation beds with 1.2 m width. The layout of the jets is very important. While installing mist propagation until, all the jets should be at equal height. For proper functioning of mist, there must be proper supply of water. The water should have good pressure and it must be free from salts. The optimum pH of water to be used in mist unit is 5.5 to 6.5. Hard water or alkaline water may be avoided as it may block the nozzles of the mist chamber and it may accumulate on the young leaves of the cutting and thus inhibit the growth and

development of roots. Further, it is essential that a well-drained rooting media should be is used and there should be provision for removal of excess water. Similarly, development of blue and green algal growth is very common in mist propagation structure which is considered very harmful to the propagating material and thus every care should be taken to keep mist propagating unit free from any type of algae. After rooting in the mist, hardening of the rooted cutting is important for better success in the field. When cuttings are rooted, misting should not cease abruptly as this may help in drying out of the young plants followed by scorching, instead, a weaving off process should be adopted in which misting is continued but the number of sprays/days gradually reduce. The way is to shift the rooted cutting to a greenhouse, fog chamber, and frames, maintained at higher temperature and low relative humidity. After phase-wise hardening only, the rooted cuttings are planted at permanent location or in the nursery.

8. Growing rooms/Hardening unit

A growing room is an insulated building from which natural light is usually excluded. In it, illumination is provided by artificial means. Growing rooms are now widely used commercially for the production of seedlings of bedding plants, tomatoes and cucumbers in most advanced countries. The seedlings are usually grown in trays or pots kept on benches. To save space, the benches are usually installed in tiers being vertically about 2 feet long and 6 inch wide. Each bench is illuminated with 8 feet long 125-watt fluorescent tubes mounted 1 foot 6 inches above the bench. Seven tubes over each bench provide a light intensity of 500 lumens per square feet, which is adequate for bedding plants. However, if plants grown in such houses have higher requirements for light, more fluorescent tubes can be installed over the benches containing the plants. The heat of the tubes usually maintains a temperature of at least 70o F and excessive temperatures are prevented by use of fans installed in building.

PLANNING OF ORCHARD

An orchard, being a capital intensive and long-term venture, deserves careful and well throught-out planning. Fruit trees are perennial, and may be of tropical, subtropical and temperate types, and thus require proper environmental conditions and suitable management practices for their successful growing. Any mistake made initially in planning is likely to put the fruit grower to incur heavy’ losses throughout the life-span of the orchard. On the other hand, with a carefully prepared plan, the grower is able to provide not only the most economic orchard management, but also for the economic layout and location of roads, drains, irrigation channels, fences, wind breaks, etc.It is, therefore, considered important to plan properly before establishing an orchard. The fruit grower must have full knowledge of the growth and bearing habits of fruit trees including their cultivation requirements for better planning.

Principles of Orchard Planning

1. The orchard should be established in the right location and site having suitable climatic and soil conditions and other physical facilities .required for successful growing of fruits and disposal of the produce.

2. The selected site, if uncultivated, should be cleaned by uprooting the existing trees and bushes and leveled properly after deep tillage. In the hills, 1he land should be divided into terraces depending on the topography of the land and then leveled within the terraces.

3. Minimum orchard space should be allotted for roads paths and buildings but in no case it should exceed more than 10 per cent of the total ‘area. ‘Roads and paths should be laid out in such a manner as to occupy the minimum :space, but at the same time it should ensure convenience and economy in orchard transport and supervision. The building should be near the road and in the centre of the orchard, if it is a large one

4. The drainage and irrigation channels should be kept concealed as far as possible from the visitors and laid out in such a way as to serve the needs of every plot or area in a most efficient and economic manner.

5. As far as possible the orchard should present a nice panoramic view at the main entrance with the background in harmony with it.

6. The evergreen fruits should be planted in the front and the deciduous trees or those shed their leaves partially in some season, at the back.

7. The shorter fruit trees should be located in the foreground, while the taller ones at the rear part of the orchard to facilitate supervision.

8. Fruit trees requiring frequent irrigation should be planted nearer to the source of water, while the rain fed ones are kept farther away.

9. Fruit varieties ripening at a time should be located in adjoining plots to facilitate proper orchard operations.

10. Fruits that attract birds and other animal pests and are prone to be damaged by them should be located close to the watchman’s shed.

11. Fertile areas of the orchard should be planted with more paying and gross feeding fruit trees.

12. Self-sterile or self-incompatible fruit trees requiring polleniser should be planted mixed or polleniser varieties are side grafted on the fruit trees themselves to ensure optimum fruit set.

13. The spacing of fruit trees for each species should be the optimum. When intercrops, multiple crops, etc., are to be grown, the spacing of the orchard trees may be kept at its maximum. The vigorous varieties as well as the varieties growing in fertile soil generally require wider spacing.

14. The system of planting of a fruit crop to be adopted in a particular plot should be decided upon much earlier before laying out the orchard.

15. Under dry land horticulture in situ method of planting of rootstocks should be followed and later on the desirable scion variety is side grafted when the rootstock attains desirable size.

16. There should be provision for wind breaks around the orchard to protect the fruit trees from the clutches of strong wind.

17. Fencing of orchard sufficiently ahead of planting should be done.

18. Selection of fruit varieties suitable to the area and procurement of genuine plant materials from reliable sources are essential.

19. Nursery for maintaining the clones and raising of seedlings should be located near the water source.

The important points to be considered for planning an orchard are the following

Selection of site

It is always better to start an orchard in a predominantly fruit-growing area than in a new locality where few or no orchard exists. This will not only help in sharing experience of local fruit growers but also purchasing of plant materials, orchard equipments, transport, marketing, storage of fruits, etc., would be easier through cooperation with other growers. Besides, the site for an orchard should be either as close to a consuming centre/market as possible or on a metal road or connected by rail. Over and above, the orchard site should

have favorable climatic and soil conditions and good source of irrigation.

Climate

The climate of the site where fruits are to be grown on commercial scale must be considered carefully. Factors like day and night temperature, rainfall (frequency, amount and intensity), wind, light, atmospheric humidity, hail storm frost occurrence, etc., are very important for selection of fruits to be grown there. Listed below are the fruits suitable for regions with different climatic conditions

Tropical Climate: Fruits like mango, banana, papaya, pineapple, sapota, ber, breadfruit, cashew, coconut, etc., thrive well in this climate.

Subtropical Climate: In this climate, guava, grape, litchi, citrus, date, phalsa, pomegranate, peach (requiring low-chilling), pear, etc.

Temperate Climate: In this climate fruits like apple, pear, peach, plum, blackberry, strawberry, apricot, walnut, almond, etc., grow well.

Hence, while planning the orchard, the fruits suitable to the particular site should be kept in mind and planting of fruit species can be done accordingly taking into consideration the topography also. .

Soil

Though most of the fruits may be grown on a wide variety of soils such as clay, sand, sandy loam, clay loam, loam, etc., a loam or sandy loam soil is considered to be the best for most fruits. Shallow soils with rocky substrata, soils with very high or low pH, soils having poor drainage and high water table during rainy season should be avoided.

The fruit growers must have at least a fair knowledge of soil type, its depth, reaction, water table and fertility status before selecting a definite variety of fruit trees to be grown there. The orchard site should have uniform soil with at least three to four feet top soil on which the fruit trees will grow. Sandy soil may be suitably utilized for growing cashew nut, coconut, etc., gravelly red’ .late rite for cashew nut, mango, jackfruit, etc., loamy soil for banana, papaya, litchi, sapota, etc. However, the orchard soil of poor fertility can be improved in the course of orchard soil management by green manuring, intercropping, etc.

After selecting the site and before planting fruit trees, it is necessary to prepare the land by carrying out certain preliminary operation such as clearing and leveling of land, making provision for irrigation water, providing of fences, planting of windbreaks, planning of buildings, etc.

Clearing and leveling the land

If the land is already under cultivation, nothing except preliminary preparation is necessary. If uncultivated, it is necessary to put them under deep ploughing and leveling. if the selected site is under forest, the existing trees and bushes should be removed by uprooting. The land then should be thoroughly ploughed, harrowed and leveled. While preparing the land, the subsoil which is usually less fertile than the surface soil, should not be disturbed as far as possible. In the hills, terraces should be made along the contours.

Irrigation source

An orchard flourishes well when put under irrigation particularly during the dry months. So the source of irrigation should be a permanent one assuring supply of requisite quantity of irrigation water throughout the year. Whatever may be the source of irrigation a well, a shallow or a deep tube well, it should be sunk well ahead of planting. In high hills, where the rainfall and snowfall are adequate and evaporation from soil is not very high due to prevailing low temperature, a few tanks may be installed for collection of rain or snow water to tide over the critical periods of the year.

Fencing

To protect the trees of the orchard from frequent visits of wild and stray animals, and to prevent stealing of fruits and other orchard property, some kind of fence is highly necessary. This may be made by erecting mud walls or high brick walls with tops lined with glass pieces, or barbed wire fencing.

The first one though quite effective against big animals, offer very little obstacle to monkeys and thieves. The second one being permanent and very effective from the security point of view is preferred. But it involves a large initial expenditure which is beyond the means of ordinary fruit growers. The third one, the barbed wire fencing which costs moderately, is not only effective against practically all animals and human beings, but it also neither shades the orchard soil nor takes away any plant food from it.

So, the orchard boundary may be fenced with pillars and barbed wires. The pillars may be of wood, angle iron, stone-cement concrete, etc. This fence may be further strengthened by erecting live hedges which will not only help to stop the entry of animals and human beings but also form a thick live-wall around the orchard for privacy and help to safeguard the produce which cannot be seen from outside. The live hedge must have the following qualities (a) It should be quick growing (b) easy to raise by seeds or cuttings of vegetative parts (c) should be drought resistant (d) should have dense foliage (e) should preferably be thorny (f) should stand pruning to develop thick and compact growth.

The plants suitable for live hedge are Inga dulcis, Parkinsonia aculeata L., Prosopis juliflora, Carissa carandas, Casuarina equisetifolia, Duranta plumeri, Sesbania aegyptiaca. Acacia sp., Zizyphus sp.. Lawsonia alba, Gliricidia, Bahunia sp., Polyalthia longifolia, etc.

To establish a live hedge, the soil along the fence is dug 2 feet wide and 2 feet deep at the commencement of the rainy season. After sowing the seeds or planting the cuttings along the boundary of the orchard, the plants are allowed to grow. In the course of time trimming and pruning are done to develop a thick and tall hedge as required. It has also been found very useful when a cattle driven trench of 3 ft. deep and 4 It. wide is dug after the live hedge around the border.

Windbreaks

Fruit orchards usually face heavy losses when a strong wind of high velocity passes through the orchard. Damages like uprooting of trees, breaking of branches, destruction of blooms, dropping of immature fruits, erosion of surface soil, etc. are caused very often by wind. Hence, establishment of a tall-growing windbreak is necessary to protect the orchard.

The planting of windbreaks should precede that of the fruit trees by at least two years, if they are to give effective protection to the orchard. A well-established windbreak reduces the velocity of wind, checks evaporation loss of soil moisture, prevents cold wind and reduces frost damage to a great extent.

The efficiency of a windbreak depends upon the height of the trees and their compactness. Ordinarily it has maximum effectiveness for a distance about 3-4 times as great as its height. The first row of fruit trees should be about away from the windbreak row. To prevent the roots of the windbreak trees from interfering with the normal growth of the fruit trees, a 3-4 ft. deep trench should be dug at a distance of 10 ft. from the windbreak row.

An ideal windbreak should be upright in growth and occupy as little space as possible. It should be tall, mechanically strong, quick growing and sufficiently dense to offer the maximum resistance to the wind. One to two rows of such trees are planted at a close spacing, usually 12-25 ft. apart, for having a tall and close tree-wall which can help to resist the incoming heavy flow of wind. Trees commonly grown as windbreaks are Polyalihia longifolla, Casurina equisdilfolla,Erythrlna indica, Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillia robusta,

Dalbergia sissoo, Putranjiva roxburghii, Syzygium sp., Mangsfera indica, Averrhoa carambola, Bambusa sp., etc.

Buildings

Any building which is to be constructed in the orchard should be planned before planting, though their construction may be done later on. An orchard provides a very pleasant site for a dwelling. Other buildings such as implement shed, bullock shed and labour quarters may also be constructed.

Roads, Paths, Irrigation and Drainage Channels : Planning of roads, paths, irrigation and drainage channels should also be done well in advance. Roads and paths are absolutely necessary for making every portion of the orchard easily approachable and for convenience in operations like manuring, spraying and transportation. The footpaths should be made in between the rows of trees without utilizing any additional space of the orchard. Small non-spreading type of avenue trees may be planted beside the road to enhance the beauty of the orchard.

The permanent irrigation and drainage channels should be dug in straight lines and without interfering the main roads to economize the use of irrigation water by avoiding seepage in the channels during the dry and hot seasons and for efficient drainage of excess water from the individual plot of the orchard during rainy season or flood-affected areas.

Before the actual laying out of the orchard and undertaking the planting work, a detailed plan of the orchard (Fig. 1) should be drawn showing the boundary, main gate, roads and paths, source of irrigation, drainage and irrigation channels and also the individual plots for the fruits to be grown. This will help to establish the orchard correctly and conveniently.

Layout

The layout of the orchard is a very important operation. Under this, the arrangement of fruit plants in the plot is carefully done to put the plants at a suitable distance for proper development and for accommodating the requisite number of plants per unit area in addition to improving the aesthetic look of the orchard. (Hence, the factors which are considered important for proper layout of the orchard are (I) system of planting and (ii) planting distance of individual fruit species which again would provide the following advantages

I. Allow equidistance for each tree for uniform growth.

2. Allow easy orchard operations like cultivation, intercropping, irrigation, spraying of plant protection chemicals and growth regulators, harvesting, etc.

3. Proper utilization of orchard space avoiding wastage of land.

4. Help in proper supervision and management of the orchard.

5.Allow further extension of area from time to time so that subsequent plantings would match with the existing orchard planting

System of Planting

The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land, purpose of utilizing the orchard space, convenience, etc. Generally, six systems of planting are recommended for fruit trees:

1. Square system2. Rectangular system3. Triangular system4. Hexagonal system5. Quincunx system6. Contour systemSpacing of Fruit Trees

Provision of optimum spacing to fruit trees is one of the most important aspects of successful fruit culture. If the spacing is inadequate, the fruit trees will grow poorly, produce small quantity of fruits of inferior quality, and suffer from various diseases and insect pests. The cultural practices of the orchards are also greatly hindered. Weeds and grasses grow in abundance and rob off the vitality of the trees, resulting in their early decline and premature death. On the other hand, if the spacing is too wide, there will be wastage of valuable orchard land without having any direct benefit on ultimate yield of the orchard. The optimum spacing is, therefore, desired so that the fruit trees may grow and bear crops properly. The optimum spacing is one in which the tree on attaining its full size will not touch the branches of the neighbouring ones and the root-system of one tree must not encroach that of the adjoining tree. The spacing given to fruit trees is generally governed by the following factors:

1 Climate and soil 2.Varieties 3. Growth habit 4. Rootstocks 5. Nature of irrigation

6. Pruning

It is very difficult to suggest the exact spacing for fruit trees which will suit every locality or soil. However, the spacing given below for some of the important fruits may be considered as a safe guide for planting fruit orchards both in the hills and plains

Fruits Spacing (metre)1. Pineapple 045—06O x 030-0452. Banana. papaya. grapes 2—3x2—33. Phalsa 3x34. Passion fruit 3-4x3--45. Pomegranate 3—6x3—66. Custard apple 4—5x4-57. Date palm, fig, lemon 5—6x5—68. Pumelo, grapefruit 6-7 x 6—79. ‘Guava, cashew nut, mulberry 6—8x6—810. Persimmon 7—8 x 7—811. Sapota, loquat, avocado, star apple 8—9x8.-912. Mandarin orange, sweet orange 6-9 x 6-913. Aonla. mangosteen 9—11 x9—1l14. Ber,jamun, mango, Jitchi lO—12x 10—12l5. Jackfruit,breadfruit 12x 12

Preparation of Land

Before laying out of plots and digging the pits, the orchard land should be prepared well by repeated ploughing, harrowing and levelling. If possible green manuring crops like sunhemp, cowpea, etc., may be raised and ploughed down during land preparation to enrich the orchard soil and improve its physical condition.

Digging of Pits

After deciding the system of planting to be followed and the planting distance to be given to the orchard trees, the selected plot is laid out with the help of a measuring tape, chain, pegs, etc. Then the pits around the pegs so fixed are dug well in advance of planting. To facilitate planting at the right position, a planting board consisting of an wooden plank 152 cm long, 10 cm wide and 3 cm thick having three notches at a distance of 45 cm from each other is used.The central notch is placed over the marking peg and two pegs are then driven in the notches at the ends of the board. The board and the marking peg is then removed leaving the end pegs as guides to dig the pit at the right position. The size of the pit varies according to the nature of soil and the size of the fruit trees to be planted. Generally, larger pits are dug in poor soil and for age sized fruit trees, whereas smaller ones are dug in a richer soil and for dwarf fruit trees. The pit size, in general, varies from 06 m cube to I m cube. While digging pits, the top soil up to a depth of 45 cm and subsoil below this should be placed separately. After complete digging the pits are exposed to the sun for a couple of days for disinfection of the pit soil. The pits are then filled up with top soil mixed with farm-yard-manure or compost or tank silt, bone meal and wood ash, up to at least 10 cm above the ground level. The pit soil should also contain a certain amount of gainmexane (10 per cent) or aldrin (5 per cent) to prevent white ant. Before the planting is taken up, the pits should receive a couple of good showers of rain or water should be applied to them so that the soil settles down properly.

Selection of Planting Materials

Generally, vegetatively propagated materials such as cuttings, layerings, buddings, grafts, suckers, etc., and sometimes seeds and seedlings are used to raise orchard. The selection of suitable and genuine plant material is very important so far as the profitability of the orchard is concerned. It is always safer to collect plant materials at a higher rate from a known and reliable source than purchasing cheaper materials from an unknown source.

The characteristics of good planting materials are—

(i) They should be true to variety and prepared from healthy mother plants with high productivity.

(ii) They should be healthy, stocky and of proper age but not too old.

(iii) They should not have been budded or grafted higher than 20 cm to 30 cm from the ground, and the graft or bud joint should be clean as far as practicable.

(iv) They should have clean trunks, abundant roots and vigorous top growth with uniformly spreading branches all around the trunk.

(v) Their roots should be free from knots and should have sufficient lateral and fibrous roots.

(Vi) The planting material should have no sign of physical damage and of insect and disease attack.

(vii) They should be certified by proper authority.

Planting

The most important factor that influences the time of planting is the rainfall. Where the rainfall is not heavy fruit trees can be planted in the beginning of monsoon but in areas with heavy rainfall planting should be done when the monsoon is over. Planting should be avoided, however, during hot and dry spells of weather. The fruit trees should preferably be planted in the afternoon and on cloudy and humid days rather than in bright sunshine and dry weather.

The points to be taken into consideration during planting are—

(1) Dig out only a small, amount of soil in the Centre of the covered pit to accommodate the ball of earth around the root of the planting material in case of evergreen fruits or the naked root portion in deciduous fruits.

(ii) Place the planting material erect in the hole, determine its exact position with the help of a planting board and see that the roots are in their natural position. Fill the hole with the dug out soil and press gently.

(iii) Apply water immediately after planting just to wet the pit soil without any stagnation.

(iv) Do not bury the bud or graft joint of the planting material in the soil. Plant at the same depth as in the nursery bed or in the pot.

(v) The plants should be staked with a bamboo pole to prevent lodging and damage to bud or graft joints by strong wind. In hilly and dry areas the in situ method of planting of fruit trees is very useful. In this method healthy and mature seeds of suitable rootstocks are sown in the prepared pits. After the seed has germinated, it is trained to a single stem and is allowed to grow for nine months or more, when side or veneer grafting is done using superior scion material. By this system of planting the unaffected tap root of the rootstock can easily go deep into the soil layers for reaching the underground water and thus helps in better survival of the scion plants.

Intercropping

The fruit plants in the orchard take some years to produce the first crop. This period differs from species to species, and among the varieties also. The orchardists do not get any return from the new orchard till this period is over. Hence, it is necessary that intercrops should be grown in the space between the rows of the young fruit trees, following usual package of practices for growing such crops. This will help the orchardists to get some income even in the initial years. Besides, the orchard receives regular cultivation and attention and due to that weeds are checked, pests and diseases are controlled to some extent. The young fruit trees sometimes receive partial shade which is beneficial to them. Sowing of leguminous crops and cover crops adds to the fertility of the soil and conserves the orchard soil, respectively.

In selecting the variety of crops to be sown as intercrops, attention must be given to the requirements of the main crop. The intercrop should not exhaust the orchard soil too much. Usually quick growing and early bearing fruit trees like pineapple, papaya, banana, guava, phalsa, etc., vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, potato, pumpkin, tomato, melon, bean, etc., and spices like chilli, ginger, turmeric, etc., are grown as intercrops. Research studies indicate that coconut growers in Kerala use inter/mixed crops in the coconut plantation to the extent of 78 per cent, and tapioca occupies 20 per cent of such gardens In Andhra Pradesh 34.7 per cent of the coconut gardens have inter/mixed crops with banana, mango, citrus and turmeric. In Tamil Nadu, 65 per cent of the coconut gardens have rice, sugarcane, sorghum, tapioca and vegetables. In Philippines, ginger, groundnut, colocasia and pineapple are widely grown as intercrops.

Thus, it is essentially felt that, while planning an orchard, the spacing of the main fruit crop and the intercrops selected should be planned according to the suitability of such crops, facilities available, environmental conditions prevailing, financial condition of the farmer and demand for such harvest by the consumers. While planning the orchard these should be indicated in the plan beforehand.

High Density Planting

High Density Orcharding (HDP) is one of the technologies for increasing the fruit yield per unit area. High Density Planting can be defined as planting fruit trees at a density in excess of that which suffices to give maximum crop yield at maturity if individual tree grows to its full normal size.

In other words, it is the planting at a closer spacing to accommodate more number of plants per unit area. The concept of HDP has drowned considerable attention of the fruit growers all over the world.

The technology for HDP is based on the principle of maximum utilization of solar energy and other natural resources per unit area.

Benefits

1. Maximum utilization of land and space2. Higher nutrient and water use efficiency3. Higher interception of solar radiation.4. Higher efficiency of fungicidal and pesticidal spray due to greater degree of spray

interception.5. Effective control of weed growth6. Allows mechanization of fruit production

High Density Orcharding is already a success story in fruit crop like apple, banana, pineapple, mango etc. which is evident from the table:

Crop Spacing Yield (tha)Traditional

method HDP Traditionalmethod HDP

Mango 10mX10m 2.5mX2.5m 7.5 19.2Apple 7.5mX7.5m 3mX3m 4.5 15.2Kinnow 5mX4.5m 1.8mX1.8m 8.2 17.75Banana 2.4mX2.4m 1.8mX1.8m 37.9 52.4Pineapple 20000 P/ha 72000 P/ha 59.4 102.4

METHODS OF HDP

The only way to increase the plant density in an orchard is by planting at a closer spacing. But the limit of closeness depends on plant growth habit which in turn, is determined by a complex of integration of factors like cultivar, management level, soil status and economic considerations.

High Density Planting can be achieved by:

(a) Controlling the size of the tree.

(b) Improved planting system.

Tree size control

The size of the tree can be controlled by the following methods.

Planting of genetically dwarf varieties like Amarpali in Mango, Pusa Nanha in Papaya, Dwarf Cavendish in Banana, PKM1 in Sapota etc.

Use of dwarfing rootstocks like M9, M27 for apple, Jhar ber (Zizyphus rotundifolia) for ber; Karna Khatta for Kinnow mandarin; Chinese guava, Aneuploid 82 for guava; Olour, Velloicolumban for mango, etc.

Use of growth retarding chemicals like AMO 1618, CCC, Ancymidol, Paclobutrozol, etc. Paclobutrazol (Cultor) has gained commercial application in mango.

Pruning to remove the apical portion which results in a compact and bushy tree trough stimulation of lateral bud growth. This has been successfully done in grape, apple and mango.

Various training systems like spindle bush, dwarf pyramid, espaliers has been proved to be effective for HDP of apple and other temperate fruit crops.

Controlling root growth for reducing vegetative growth e.g. in peach. Use of viral infection in crops like citrus and apple.

Improved planting system

The various planting systems adopted in fruit crops are square, triangular, quincunx, rectangular, hexagonal, hedgerow and cluster planting. Out of these, triangular and square systems ore followed for HDO of mango, kinnow, banana, papaya and hedge row for apple and pineapple.

Constraints

• Higher incidence of some diseases like leaf-spot and finger tip of banana.

• Poor quality of the fruits eg. skin colour in apple.

•Higher initial cost of orchard establishment.

• Lower longevity of the plants.

PRUNING AND TRAINING

Some of cultivated fruit trees grow wild and do not give sufficient yield unless pruned or trained to a specific form. All types of fruit tree do not require pruning e.g. mango, chiku, etc and some fruit trees can grow well naturally e.g. pineapple, papaya they do not require pruning. While most deciduous tree like apple, pear, almond etc and grapes, ber, fig citrus, pomegranate, guava etc. require pruning to train them for desired shape.

Pruning is done to divert a part of plant energy from one par to another part of plant.

Defination of pruning:

Pruning may be defined as the art and science of cutting away of portion of plant to improve its shape, to influence its growth, flowering and fruitfulness and to improve the quality of the product.

Object of pruning

Training of young trees. Maintenance of grown up trees. i.e. to maintain the health of bearing plant. Bringing vigour in old trees.

The effect of pruning

It increases new vegetative growth. In young trees flowering will be delayed. In old trees there will be new vigorous vegetative growth. Which bear fruit. It reduce bearing surface are as a result tree remain dwarf which is compensated by

accommondating more number of dwarf trees. (Because pruning is a dwarfing process)

Improvement in size, colour and quality of fruits.Principles of pruning

Young tree is pruned to train it to acquire a desired shape. In old trees light heading back is done to stimulate the flowering. In bearing trees light pruning is done to stimulate fresh growth. It bearing

flower buds on fresh growth. In old trees heavy pruning is done to restore vigorous. All the diseased, weak, dead or shading branches must be removed.

System of pruning

Heading back:- Only tops of branches are headed back or cut off (light pruning) Thinning out :- Complete removal of a branches or a part. Dehorning :- Cutting away the main limbs or thick major branches Bulk pruning :- Heavy pruning all over the tree.

For good fruit production only judicious heading back or thinning out should be done.

Rules of pruning

Never leave a stub as far as possible. Minimum cut surface. Start cutting from the lower end first, leave half way or even less and then cut

from the top. Keep the cut surface clean and smooth. Protect the wound with Bordeaux paste.

TRAINING:- Training means developing a desired shape of the tree with a particular objectives by controlling habit of growth. Training is start from nursery stage of plant.

Some fruit crops like grape vines, ber, fig, guava etc require training.

Object of training

To admit more light and air to the center of the tree to expose maximum leaf surface to the sun

To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations such as spraying, ploughing, harvesting can be performed easily and at lower cost.

To protect the tree from sun burn and wind damage. To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts of the tree.

Principles of training

1. Formation of the mainframe work must be strong the branches must be suitable spaced apart and the tree must be balanced on all the sides.

2. Never allow several branches to grow at one place or very near each other.3. Careful training of main branches is very essential.4. Another important point about training is that if two branches are growing at

the same point try to train them to grow at a wider angle. Narrow angle is always weak.

System of training

Central leader system :- In this system the central leader branches are allowed to grow indefinitely, so that

it will grow more rapidly and vigorously than the side branches and tree became tall. Such a tree bears fruit more near the top. The lower branches are less vigorous and less fruitful.

Open center or vase system The main stem is allowed to grow only up to a certain height about 1.5 to 1.8

m and then it cut for development of lateral branches. It allows full sunshine to reach each branch.

Delayed open center or modified leader systemIt is intermediate between the above systems. It is developed by first training

the tree to the leader type by allowing the central axil to grow un pruned for the first four or five years. Then central stem is headed back and lateral branches are allowed to grow as in the open center system.

Bush system An un pruned tree multi stem and dwarf growing habit.

Trellis system Some times vines are trained on one, two or three wires.

Over head trellis or Bower system When vines are trained on mandap.

Modified bower or Telephone systemSimilar to bower system except that after every two meter as space is kept to walk and carry out cultural operations.

BAHAR TREATMENTS/CROP REGULATION IN FRUIT CROPS

Introduction

The main objective of crop regulation practice is to force the tree for rest and produce profuse blossoms and fruits during any one of the two or three flushes.

This aims to regulate uniform and good quality fruits and maximize production as well as profit to the grower.

Fruit crops like, citrus, pomegranate and guava flowers and fruit three times in a year.

A good harvest is possible only if crop is regulated to single season (bahar).

The selection of bahar at a location is mainly determined by availability of water, occurrence of disease and pests and market position.

Method of Bahar or Resting Treatment:

1. To regulate fruiting, water is withhold for about 2 months in advance of normal flowering season.

2. When the tree starts showing wilting symptoms (34 weeks), the soil around the tree to a distance of 120 cm is dug a depth of 10 cm and the recommended manure is added to the soil and the trees are irrigated.

3. Use of plant growth regulators: Ethephon at present used in bahar treatment

Type of flowering (bahar period) Time of flowering Time of harvesting

Ambe Bahar January-February June-AugustMrig Bahar June-July November-JanuaryHasta Bahar September-October February-April

JUVENILITY AND FLOWER BUD DIFFERENTIATION

Juvenility: Juvenility is defined strictly in terms of ability of seedlings to form flowers. The juvenile phase ends with the attainment of the ability to flower. The appearance of the first flowers on the seedling is the first evidence that the plant is in the adult phase.

Synthesis of growth regulators which can accelerate development of seedlings in the juvenile phase and other regulators which can induce flowers on seedlings after the juvenile phase has ended.

Growth stages

Juvenile phase: The non-flowering period after seed germination.

Morphological differences

Leaf shape and thickness Ability to form adventitious roots Seedling can not be induced to flower by any means

Transition to the adult phase occurs when the tissue reaches a certain stage.

Grafting of mature tissues results in shoots that maintain their flowering .

Increasing the growth rate by any means decreases the juvenile period.

JUVENILE VEGETATIVE FLOWERING

3 major developmental processes occurring during two successive growing seasons .

Initiation: The time when the meristem is committed to form a flower. Usually occurs early during active vegetative growth. There are no visual clues to this development.

Differentiation: Starts the time terminal growth on a tree stops.

Due to the perennial nature of fruit trees, environmental conditions in one season can have carry-over effects on growth and development during the subsequent season. In seasonally deciduous trees and vines, flowers that emerge each spring were actually initiated during the previous growing season, and conditions prevailing at that time will have influenced the extent and intensity of flower bud differentiation. In temperate horticulture, flower initiation is not a continuous process but may be restricted to several weeks during mid to late summer, followed by several months of continuing development before passing into dormancy over winter. Floral development is then completed during the following spring ahead of flower emergence. In addition to changes in fruit quality of current crops, canopy shade during summer will also reduce flower bud initiation and differentiation.

UNFRUITFULLNESS

To understand the problem of unfruitfulness in orchards a familiarity with following terms is necessary:

1. Fruit setting: It refers to initial growth of ovary and its associated parts after blossoming and taking it to maturity.

2. Fruitfulness: It is the state of plant when it is not only capable of flowering and fruit setting but also takes these fruits to maturity and inability to do so is unfruitfulness or barrenness.

3. Infertility: Ability of a plant not only to produce fruits to develop viable seeds and the inability to do so is referred as sterility. All fertile plants are fruitful but all fruitful plants are not fertile (seedless fruits).

4. Self fruitfulness: Ability of a plant to mature fruits after self pollination.5. Self fertility: Capacity of a plant for the production of viable seeds after self

pollination.

Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties result in huge loss to growers and make fruit cultivation less profitable. Unfruitfulness in fruit crops refers to the state where the plant is not capable of flowering and bearing fruit.

Causes of unfruitfulness:

A. Internal factors:

1. Dichogamy: It prevents self pollination in perfect as well as monoecious flowers

2. Heterostyly: Flowers with variable style length are common in Prunus fruits.

3. Male sterility: Pollen sterility is common in peach cv. J.H. Hale.

4. Ovule sterility: It is found in apricot cv. “Trevatt Blue”.

5. Self incompatibility: In mango, self unfruitfulness is reported in cvs. Dashehari, Chausa and Langra

B. External factors:

1. Temperature: Higher temperature may results in desiccation of stigmatic surface and more rapid deterioration of embryo sac.

2. Humidity: Low atmospheric humidity causes drying of stigmatic secretions.3. Rain: It directly affects fruit setting by distributing the process of pollination and

germination of pollen grains and fertilization.4. Wind: Excessively, speedy winds cause ovary abortion and also make the stigma

dry.

Remedies of unfruitfulness:

1. Planting of pollinizer varieties

2. Introduction of pollinators in orchards

3. Foliar application of boron

4. Application of plant growth regulators

Fruit Crops Growth regulators ResponseLitchi TIBA, KNO3 Increase pollen fertilityApple GA3+NAA at petal fall Increase fruit set and initiation

POLLINATION, POLLINIZER, POLLINATORS, FERTILIZATION

Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or of another flower. Pollination is a prerequisite for fertilization

Pollinizer: A pollenizer is a plant that provides pollen.

Characteristics of a good pollinizer

1) The pollens of pollinizer variety must be compatible with the variety.

2) A pollinizer variety should produce a good amount of pollen.

3) The flowering period of pollinizer should coincide with flowering of main variety.

4) It should also be a long flowering season.

5) The pollinizer variety must produce a good amount of crop.

Pollinators: A pollinator is the biotic agent that moves the pollen, such as bees, moths, bats, and birds.

Fertilization: The fusion of nuclei from the pollen grain with nuclei in the ovule. Fertilization allows the flower to develop seeds.

Parthenocarpy: The term parthenocarpy originates from the Greek words “Parthenos” meaning virgin and “Karpos” meaning fruit. The development of fruits without pollination and fertilization is called parthenocarpy. Parthenocarpic fruits are seedless.

Types of parthenocary:

1. Vegetative parthenocarpy

When seedless fruits develop even without stimulus of pollination. eg. Pear. Plants that do not require pollination or other stimulation to produce parthenocarpic fruit have vegetative parthenocary. Seedless cucumbers, banana, pineapple are the examples of vegetative parthenocarpy.

2. Stimulative parthenocarpy

When pollination is required without the actual process of fertilization. eg. Grapes. In some plants, pollination or other stimulation is required for parthenocarpy. This is termed as stimulative parthenocarpy. Seedless water melon is an example of stenospermocarpy.

Stenospermocarpy may also produce apparently seedlees fruits, but the seeds are actually aborted while still small. Parthenocarpy or stenospermocarpy occationally occurs as a mutation in nature, but if it affacts every flower, then the plant can no longer sexually reproduce but might be able to propagate by vegetative means.

3. Artificial Parthenocarpy

Parthenocarpy induced by spraying plant hormones on flowers is termed as artificial parthenocarpy. Plant growth regulators like gibberellins, auxin and cytokinin can often stimulate the development of parthenocarpic fruit. Plant hormones are seldom used commercially to produce parthenocarpic fruit.

Advantages of Parthenocarpy

1. Novelty- cherry, grape, tomatoes, water melon

2. Improved taste, seeds being source of polyphenol, alkaloids etc. are responsible for astringency and browning. Their removal prevents browing and also improved taste.

3. Greater reliability of crop yield under varying climatic conditions- pollination is not required for fruit set.

4. Cost reductions of greenhouse grown vegetables-pollination is not required, so cost on pollination cut off.

5. Increased profitability in processing industries.

HOME OR KITCHEN GARDENING

Kitchen gardening is the growing of vegetable crops in space around the residential house to meet the requirement of fresh vegetable for the family throughout year.

Types of kitchen garden:

(a) Home garden having fruits and vegetables.

(b) Home garden having only vegetables.

Principles of the kitchen garden:

1) Sufficient knowledge of growing vegetables.

2) Kitchen garden should divide into subplots.

3) Plot should not kept fellow in any time

4) It should be close to house as possible in backyard.

5) Perennial vegetables e.g. pointed gourd, Asparagus etc., may grown.

6) Fruit trees and other trees like drumstick should be planted in garden.

7) Vegetables should grow in lines at lesser spacing.

8) Mixed cropping, relay cropping and crop rotation should be followed.

9) Succession of sowing vegetables should be followed including early, medium and late variety of vegetables.

10) Manuring and irrigation as per the requirement of the crop should be followed.

11) Utilized all space in garden e.g. growing leafy vegetables between two fruit crop and root crop on the ridges.

12) Wine crops should grow on fences or boundaries.

Advantages of kitchen garden:

1) It provides fresh and nutritious vegetables for the family throughout the year and vegetables can be getting during off hours.

2) It reduces the expenses in buying vegetables.

3) Kitchen garden provides good exercise to the body and a healthy recreation to the mind.

4) Better utilization of the bare land, kitchen waste and kitchen water.

5) It provides fresh and non-chemical vegetables.

6) It helps to maintain the home surrounding with healthier atmosphere.

ORNAMENTAL GARDENING

A gardener may think that a landscape garden can be laid out only on a gently undulated land, but it is not so. The goal in landscape gardening is to improve landscape with an idea of developing view or design. The other two familiar terms, which associate landscape gardening, are formal and informal gardens.

Formal gardens: It is laid out in a symmetrical or Geometrical pattern. Everything is planted in straight lines. If there is a plant on the left hand side of a straight road similar plant must be placed on the right hand side also. Flower beds, borders and shrubbery are arranged in

Geometrically designed shapes. Trimmed formal hedges Ashoka trees, Topiaries are the typical features of a Formal garden.

Informal gardens: The whole design looks informal. Features are arranged in a natural way without any hard and fast rules but here also the work has to proceed according to a well set plan. The idea behind this design is to imitate nature.

Wild garden: William Robinson in the last decade of 19th century made the idea of wild garden. His main idea was

i) To naturalize plants in shrubberies.

ii) Grass remains unmoved as in nature and

iii) Few bulbous plants should be grown scattered.

A garden enthusiast has to study the different styles available in the world to gain some knowledge. In India even though we were interested in the gardening since Ancient times there was no style to denote as Indian style of gardening.

Even the famous garden style of India i.e. Moghul garden is a replica of Ancient Persian garden.

The major garden styles of the world are

1. English garden

2. Moghul garden

3. Persian garden

4. Italian garden

5. French garden

6. Japanese garden

The Moghul, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of Formal gardens where as the English and Japanese garden are classified in the informal style of garden.

English garden: Natural ground cover in the English countryside is grass. The main idea of British gardeners is that the gardens should look like countryside.

The main features of English garden that are known in India are:

a. Lawn

b. Herbaceous borders

c. Rockery

Most of the flowering annuals we see today in India with few exceptions of Amaranthus, Balsam, Gomphrena, Marigold etc were brought here by Britishers.

Japanese gardens:

Persian and Japanese gardens were based on the ideas of heaven. Japanese continued the same style of gardening and still remain popular. Japanese gardens were planned with so much of care though appear so casual. Immutability is another strong basis of Japanese gardens. Except some seasonal changes other strong, visible changes are hardly observed in Japanese gardens. They remain beautiful even in winter. The immutability is achieved rather than going for flowers, shrubs etc, more emphasis is placed on natural elements such as

simple rocks, stepping stones, streams, waterfalls, bridges. Stone lantern and so on. Three elements of Japanese gardens are:

1. Water

2. Stone

3. Plants

Features of Japanese gardens: Ponds, Streams, Waterfalls, Fountain, Wells, Islands,

Bridges, Stone Lantern, Stones,Pagodas,Fences and Gates

Mughal Gardens: These were laid out during the rule of Mughal emperors in India. They are similar to the Persian styles. The main features of Mughal gardens are largely borrowed from Persian style.

1. Site and styles of design

2. Walls

3. Gates

4. Terrace

5. Nahars or running waters

6. Baradari

7. Tomb or mosque

8. Trees.

Baradari: It is arbour like structure made up of stone and masonry with pacca roof and raised plat form for sitting. They were provided with 12 or more doors and they were used to watch the dances.

LAWN AND LAWN ESTABLISHMENT

Lawn: Lawn is a piece of land covered with grasses. It is also termed as green carpet of the garden.  It serves to enhance the beauty of the garden. 

Site and Soil

After choosing the site, the next important factor for consideration is the size and shape of the lawn. The preparation of site includes digging, leveling and enriching the soil with organic manures or by amending with fertile soil. If the soil is very heavy, coarse sand may be added by removing subsoil to a depth of 20 cm. The ideal soil pH should be 5.0 to 5.6.  If it is very acidic 500 g/m2 lime should be added and to clayey loam or alkaline soil gypsum of the same quantity may be added. Provision of drainage for excess rain water should be made if the ground is not sloppy.

Leveling The site should be thoroughly leveled with spade, pebbles and weeds are hand picked.  The soil is rolled with a roller.  Weeds especially nut grass should not be allowed to grow and should be removed with roots for at least 2 to 3 times.

Most Popular Lawn making grasses

Sr. No. Common name Botanical name Texture Suitable growing condition

1. Bermuda grass/ Doob Grass

Cynodon dactylon Medium fine

Suitable for open sunny location; drought resistant

2. Korean grass Zoysia japonica Fine Suitable for open sunny location

3. Manila grass Z. matrella Medium -do-4. Korean velvet grass Z. tenuifolia Fine -do-

Methods of lawn establishment

1. Seeding

A lawn from seed is thought of only when grass roots are not available.  About 30 kg of seed is required for planting one hectare.  The soil should be reduced to fine tilth and given a light rolling. The site should be divided into suitable small squares or rectangles, the seeds are mixed with double the quantity of finely sieved soil and should be rolled again and watered liberally with rose can. The seeds take four to five weeks for germination. Care should be taken not to flood the site. The most popular grass suitable for seeding is "Doob" grass (Cynodon dactylon). 

2. Turfing

The turfs are nothing but pieces of earth with compact grasses on them. These turfs should be cut uniformly in squares from a place where the grass is short, compact and free from weeds. These turfs should be placed on the prepared ground site, side by side and beaten down flat with a turf beater. The cavities in between should be filled with fine soil. The entire turfed area should be rolled and watered liberally. This is the most expensive way of lawn making.

3. Turf plastering

In this method lawn grass in large quantities free from weeds are chopped properly into small bits of 5-7 cm long. Two baskets of chopped grass pieces should be mixed well with one basket each of garden soil and fresh cow dung and a shovel full of wood ash with required

quantity of water to form a thick pasty substance. This mixture is then spread uniformly on the surface of a previously wetted perfectly leveled ground to a thickness of at least 2.5cm and watering should be done with a rose can. The next day, ground should be rolled and the grass should be allowed to spread.

4. Dibbling:

This is the cheapest but time consuming method. Small pieces of grass roots should be dibbled 10 – 15 cm apart in a leveled ground when it is wet after rain. The roots spread and grow underground in the course of six months making a fairly compact lawn by frequent mowing

After Care: It includes rolling, mowing, watering and restoration of patchy places, which should be done regularly.

1. Fertilizing the lawn thrice a year is adequate to maintain rich greenness.  Application of urea or ammonium sulphate at the rate of 1 kg / 50 sq. m during February - March,    June - July and October - November is quite beneficial.  At times well decomposed compost at 10 kg / 10 sq. m area will be sufficient as top dressing.

2. Weeds should be removed as soon as they appear, otherwise they spread, seed multiply and overpower the grass. Fill the gaps with grass roots and fine soil. In the absence of rain, watering is done regularly at weekly intervals.

3. A mower should not be employed until a firm green sword has been formed. The grass is first cut with sickle and the surface is then rolled. Heavy roller should be used frequently but not when the ground is either too wet or dry.

4. Mowing should be done at brief intervals and never allow to produce seed stalks. Avoid cutting the grass too short as this can damage the grass, inhibit a deeper root system from setting up and give rise to weeds. Different grasses have different heights at which they can grow best, so make sure you enquire about this from the vendor or your landscaping company. The ideal height of most grasses is 3 to 4 inches. Removing more than one-third of the grass leaf in a single cutting is not recommended. Mow only on dry grass and not when the grass is wet. Make sure you mower's blade is a new and sharp before starting a fresh moving session. To ensure smoothness make sure you change the mower's oil once or twice during mowing season.

5. Once in a year rake the lawn before rain and top dress with rich mixture of decomposed manure and soil. This will accelerate the grass with new vigorous growth.

6. The best time to water the lawn would be during the early hours of morning. Watering during this time will allow the water to reach the roots without evaporating. Mid afternoons may lead to water getting evaporated soon and watering at night times can give rise to the possibilities of diseases. While watering, care should be taken to spread the water homogeneously across the lawn without over flooding or missing certain areas/spots. If the lawn is placed on heavy slopes make sure that the water does not run-off. Several applications of water would be necessary for such surfaces to ensure adequate penetration.

PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS IN HORTICULTURAL CROPS OR HORMONE IN HORTICULTURE

What are hormones:- hormones are internally synthesized compound in plants bodies and they markedly affect the metabolic activities inside the plant. They required in very minute quantities.

Since plants make them they are organic in nature, however, they can also be prepared synthetically and such synthetic hormones are also as effective as the organic hormones produced naturally by plants.

Effectiveness of hormones:- different hormones have regulatory effects on different activities, further, two derivates of a compound can also have different effects.

Carriers:- The medium in which the hormones are mixed is called carrier. This may be water, alcohol, oil, charcoal powder, talc or flour etc.

Spreaders:- Certain plants have waxy coatings on their bodies. In such cases spreader like soap are mixed with hormones. Spreaders reduce the surface tension and even ensure even spreading of the liquid applied.

Growth Regulators:- Any substances or physical factor, either external or internal, that influences a growth process; in a more restricted sense, a substance that influences growth.

Hormone:- A substance synthesized by an animal organism that is able to influence growth at some point other than the point of synthesis; comparable to an auxin in plants. Sometimes the term is used in a broad sense to include auxins.

Plant Regulators:- Are the organic chemical compounds which modify or regulate physiological processes in an appreciable measure in the plants when used in small concentrations. They are readily absorbed and move rapidly through the tissues when applied to different parts of the plants.

Types of plant growth regulators

(1) Auxin

(2) Gibberellins

(3) Cytokinins

(4) Ethylene

(5) Abscisic acid

1. Auxin : It is generic compounds which induce elongation of shoot cells. e.g. IAA: Indole acetic acid natural auxin IBA: lndole buteric acid NAA: Naptheline acetic acid Function

Cell elongation Growth of stem, root, fruits Promote cell division Promote root initiation Development of callus Promote apical dominance

2.Gibberellins: Stimulating agent of cell division and cell elongation. e.g. GA1, GA3, GA4

etc.

Function of GA Stimulate stem elongation Leaf expansion Breaking seed and bud dormancy Induce parthenocarpy in fruit Delay senescence

3.Cytokinins: Promote cell division. e.g. Zeatin, Kinetin BA benzyladenine ,Coconut milk Function

Stimulate cell division Retard senescence of leafy vegetables

4.Abscisic acid (Growth Inhibitor) Dormant DNA Inhibit RNA

Function Stomatal regulation Seed, bud dormancy increased Abscission of fruit with high level of ABA

5. Ethylene Increase process of ripening Early maturity

Commercial use of PGRs in Horticulture

1) Propagation: Various chemicals compounds are know to be useful in rooting of cutting e.g. sugars, potassium permanganate, manganese, iron, phosphate etc. carbon monoxide can also be useful in root formation but the most successful are indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). Some new promising hormones are trichlorophenoxyacetic acid and trichlorophenoxypropionic acid.

These hormones are effective only when used in low concentrations. In high concentration they inhibit growth.

Mixture of hormones is more effective than single hormone

Advantages:

Percentage of success in rooting increases. Quicker root formation More root and heavier roots Lesser time

Limitation : Plants must have natural capacity. Hormones can only help and proper environmental condition.

2. Seed Germination/Breaking of Dormancy:Gibberelic acid (GA3) significantly accelerates seed germination in many plant

species. Presoaking the seed with GA3 enhances germination of deciduous temperate fruit (Apple, Peach, Plum etc.) trees.

3. Induction of Flowering:Pant growth regulators like NAA at 10 to 50 ppm causes early flowering in

pineapple. 2, 4 D at 6 to 10 ppm has used to induce flowering in pineapple. Flowering

can be delayed by 1 to 2 weeks NAA at 200 to 800 ppm application in apple, cherries, pears, peaches, and plums.

4. Sex Expression:Plant growth regulators can change the sex of the flowers. Male sterility can be

induced in corn by MH 9 malic hydrozide. It is used in plant breeding for induction of male sterility. Application of NAA, IAA and GA at 50 to 100 ppm increases female flowers in pumpkin, cucumber to get more yield.

5. Flower and Fruit Thinning: Many fruit trees produces heavy flowering and fruit in one year and few or one in next year. By using G.R the normal bearing can be maintained NAA at 5 to 10 ppm and NAA at 5 to 7 ppm for thinning of apple, peaches and grapes.

6. Pre Harvest Drop of Fruits: Flower and fruit drop is a problem in many fruit crops. Application of NAA 10- 50 ppm in mango, citrus and chilies reduce fruit drop by preventing formation of abscission layer.

7. Fruit Development: Application of 50-60 ppm GA in grapes increases the berry size.

8. Early Maturity: Early maturity fetches higher prices in the market. In pine apple application of 20 ppm NAA induces early flowering and early maturing at least by two months. Spraying of 50 ppm NAA reduces maturity in grapes, use of 250 – 400 ppm of Ethrel induces early maturity in Ber.

9. Early Ripening and Colour Development: Fruits like mango, banana and papaya ripe after harvest. Dipping of fruits in 20-50 ppm Ethrel solution induces golden yellow colour to fruit induces early maturity and colour.

10. Delayed Maturity: Delay in ripening is required when fruit are to be sent to long distance market. Dipping of fruit in 2,4-D, 2,4- 5- T or MH- 40 extends storage life of fruits.

11. Sprouting of Bud: Ethrel, GA3, IBA and Cytokinin spray induces sprouting of buds. MH (Maleic Hydrazide) is used to retard the sprouting of potato and onion.

12. Weed control: Poisonous chemicals like arenic, boron or petrolieum compounds can kill weeds but they are dangerous to human life.

Synthetic hormones are superior to chemical poisons.

a) Selective in actionb) Harmless to soil, harmless to man and animals.c) Less expensive and non corrosived) Not inflammable e) Synthetic in nature and required in very low concentration.f) Kill the entire system.

e.g. 2-4 Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2-4,D), 2-4-5- Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2-4-5,T), 2-Methyl-4 Chlorophenoxyacetic acid, Isopropyl-N- Phenylcarbamate.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION IN FRUIT ORCHARDS

Irrigation methods:Irrigation is very important in fruit crops as sufficient moisture must be

maintained in the soil for obtaining the optimum yield of good quality fruits. The aim of irrigation a fruit tree should be to wet the entire root zone without allowing any wastage of water beyond the root zone. The irrigation systems have to be properly devised so that the water requirements of the trees are met at the minimum expenditure without any wastage of water.

System of irrigation of fruit plants vary with the age of trees, topography of the land, availability of water. Several methods are employed for the irrigation of fruit trees depending on the age of the tree, the soil topography and the availability of irrigation water. Thus the system of irrigation must be decided in relation to the varying orchard conditions. Different systems of irrigation commonly adopted are as follows:

(i) Flood system: In this system whole of the area is irrigated through one head i.e. without sub-

division of the unit area into small plots. Irrigation water used in this case is excessive as the entire field is to be wetted to meet the need of the excessive root system. It provides fully saturation of root zone. The system is useful where inter- crops or green manuring crops are grown in an orchard. In this system, the wastage of water is more and this also leads to excessive weed growth. There is a risk of bark diseases like collar rot or foot rot because the tree trunks remain in contact with water for long time. This system is suitable for orchards of more than 8-10 years old.

(ii) Furrow system: This system is suitable in areas where the orchards are planted in slopy land. In

this system the water moves slowly in furrows in the area between tree rows. The trees are fed through the lateral movement of water. The consumption of water is less in this system and there is no risk of bark diseases. Saturation of root zone is comparatively less. Intercropping or green manuring is not possible in furrow system. This system is suitable for old orchard.

(iii) Basin system: In this method, a small circular basin is provided around the tree trunk. These

basins are linked directly with one another through straight channel. There is less wastage of water and it checks weed growth. Water passing through the channel touches the tree trunk directly and hence risk of bark diseases is involved. The water flow also draws away the manure from the tree basins and deposits it at the end of the channel. This system is suitable for young fruit plants below I- 2 years of age.

Basin Modified Basin

Sprinkler irrigation Drip irrigation

(iv) Modified basin system: This system is an improvement over the basin system. In this System, main

channel runs in between the tree lines and the basins are linked with it independently through small sub-channels. The only drawback of this system is that this needs more attention to block the sub channels after the basin has received adequate water. The size of the basin is increased with the extension of the leaf drip o each tree every year. Intercropping is not possible in this system. This is a good system of irrigation for the orchard upto 6-8 years of age and also for the arid irrigated areas where there is a shortage of water.

In improved modified basin system, the basins are linked with the channel passing (High along the side of these basins. This system avoids the risk of bark diseases and intercropping is possible.

(v) Sprinkler system: This system is used where water supply is not adequate. The water is pumped

with pressure through the sprinklers attached to pipes and these sprinklers are adjusted in such a manner to overlap upto one fourth area covered by the other sprinkler. These are then moved to the next point after sufficient percolation has taken place. This system is very costly and is suitable in areas where the sub surface water is not fit and the soil is uneven or sloppy and the water supply is not regular from the canals. It is suitable for the full grown orchards.

Advantages1. It is suitable method for undulating land areas/hilly areas.

2. Water saving upto 50 %

3. Improve microclimate

4. Increase productivity

Disadvantages:1. Sprinkling of water during flowering may affect the process of pollination

resulting low fruit setting.

2. It creates congenial/favourable environment for incidence of pest and diseases.

(vi) Drip system: Drip irrigation can be defined as the application of irrigation water drop by

drop directly to the root zone of the plants through a close network of pipe lines and emitters.

Advantages:1. High water use efficiency (up to 70%)2. Fertilizers could be applied through drip irrigation3. Maximize crop yield4. No soil erosion5. Decrease tillage related operations6. Low labour and relatively low operation cost7. Control growth of weeds. 8. Slightly poor quality water could be applied through drip irrigation

Disadvantages:

1. High initial cost2. Sensitivity to clogging3. Moisture distribution problem4. Salinity hazards5. High skill is required for design, install and operation6. Rodents may damage the pipelines7. Cracking of pipelines due to freezing in temperate region

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

In order to get maximum benefit from manures and fertilizers, they should not only be applied in proper time and in right manner but any other aspects should also be given careful consideration. Different soils react differently with fertilizer application. Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different fruit crops are different and even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements are not the same at different stages of growth. The aspects that require consideration in fertilizer application are listed below:

1. Availability of nutrients in soil2. Nutrient requirements of crops at different stages of crop growth3. Time of application

4. Methods of application, placement of fertilizers or foliar application

5. Crop response to fertilizers application and interaction of N, P, and K

6. Residual effect of manures and fertilizers

7. Crop response to different nutrient carrier

8. Unit cost of nutrients and economics of manuring

Fertilizers are applied by different methods mainly for 3 purposes:

1. To make the nutrients easily available to crops2. To reduce fertilizer losses 3. To ease the application

The time and method of fertilizer application vary in relation to

1) The nature of fertilizer

2) Soil type

3) The differences in nutrient requirement and nature of fruit crops

A. Application of fertilizers in solid form: It includes the methods like:

1. Broadcasting: Even and uniform spreading of manure or fertilizers by hand over the entire surface of field while cultivation or after the planting in standing crop, termed as broad casting. Depending upon the time of fertilizer application, there are two types of broadcasting: 

a) Broadcasting at planting  b) Top dressing

a)  Broadcasting at planting: Broadcasting of manure and fertilizers is done at planting or sowing of the crops with the following objectives:

1) To distribute the fertilizer evenly and to incorporate it with part of, or throughout the plough layer

2) To apply larger quantities that can be safely applied at the time of planting/sowing with a seed-cum-fertilizer driller.

b) Top Dressing: Spreading or broadcasting of fertilizers in the standing crop (after emergence of crop) is known as top-dressing. Generally, NO3 – N fertilizers are top dressed to the closely spaced crops like wheat, paddy. E.g.: Sodium Nitrate, Ammonium Nitrate and urea, so as to supply N in readily available from the growing plants.

2. Localized placement: It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the trees. It is usually employed when relatively small quantities of fertilizers are to be applied. It includes methods like:

Advantages: i) The roots of the young plant are assured of an adequate supply of nutrientsii) Promotes a rapid early growthiii) Make early Inter-cultivation possible for better weed controliv) Reduces fixation of P and K

Though there are many methods of localized application of fertilizer to the plants like contact placement, row placement, pellet placement and band placement, in case of fruit trees, fertilizers in standing trees applied in ring methods.

Ring method: In ring method, a ring is formed by digging soil around trunk of the tree and fertilizers are applied in this ring. After application of fertilizer, the ring is filled with uplifted soil. The distance from trunk and depth of ring are depending upon age and tree species to be fertilized. Fertilizers are aimed to apply as close as possible to feeder root of the tree.

B. Application of fertilizer in liquid form:

1. Foliar fertilization: Foliar feeding refers to the application of fertilizers to a plant’s leaves. It is not a substitute for maintaining adequate levels of plant nutrients in the soil but can be beneficial in certain circumstances. Most commonly, it is recommended for alleviating specific micronutrient deficiencies.

A range of other benefits are associated with foliar fertilization. A few points are listed below:

1. Rapid results2. Prolonged blooming3. Improved plant health4. Increased crop yields5. Reduced growth stress

6. Growth during dry spells7. Better cold and heat tolerance8. Improved resistance to disease

2. Fertigation: It is the method of applying fertilizer, soil amendments and other water soluble products required for plant growth and development through drip/sprinkler system.

Advantages of fertigation:1. Increases yield by 25-30 %2. Saving fertilizer by 20-30%3. Precise application and uniform distribution of fertilizer4. Nutrients can be applied as per plant requirements5. Acidic nature helps in avoiding clogging of drippers6. Minimize nutrient losses7. Macro and micro nutrients can be applied in one solution with irrigation8. Fertilizers can be injected as per required concentration9. Saving in time, labour and cost10. Light soils can be brought under cultivation