St Augustine’s College

Studies of Religion

2 Unit – HSC Course

Religion & Peace

Resource Book 2014 -2015

Name: ____________________

Teacher: ________________

Religion and Peace

22 indicative hours

The focus of this study is the distinctive response of religious traditions to the issue of peace.

Outcomes

A student:

· H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems

· H2 describes and analyses the influence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society

· H5 evaluates the influence of religious traditions in the life of adherents

· H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information about religion from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias

· H7 conducts effective research about religion and evaluates the findings from the research

· H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts related to religion and belief systems

· H9 coherently and effectively communicates complex information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms.

Content

Students learn about:Students learn to:

The understanding of peace in TWO

religious traditions

1. peace expressed through sacred texts for TWO religious traditions drawn from:

· Buddhism – Sutta Pitaka, Dhammapada

· Christianity – the New Testament

· Hinduism – Bhagavad Gita

· Islam – Qur’an and Hadith

· Judaism – the Prophetic vision of peace on Earth

2. principal teachings about peace in TWO religious traditions

3. the contribution of TWO religious traditions to peace in the context of:

a. the individual – means of achieving inner peace

b. the world – means of achieving world peace

1. investigate the understanding of peace and how it is informed through significant writings within sacred texts for TWO religious traditions drawn from:

· Buddhism – Sutta Pitaka, Dhammapada

· Christianity – the New Testament

· Hinduism – Bhagavad Gita

· Islam – Qur’an and Hadith

· Judaism - the Prophetic vision of peace on Earth

2. outline the principal teachings about peace in TWO religious traditions

3a. demonstrate how TWO religious traditions guide the individual in achieving inner peace

3b. discuss how TWO religious traditions are contributing to world peace

Preamble:

In this course we study two religious responses to peace - from the two traditions of Christianity and Islam (but we never compare the two traditions). We make clear in our writing that there is another response to peace that comes from a non-religious word view such as that of an atheist. The difference is that for a religious tradition, peace is connected to the transcendent- it is centres on spirituality and comes from a right relationship with God and fellow man. It exists not only in this world but the next, but unfortunately, at the present, it’s a model only, as no religious tradition has in fact, created global peace yet.

The syllabus points, as always, are connected and should be understood that way. From the understanding of peace in the sacred texts of two traditions (both explicit and implicit), the traditions have been able to encompasses this and apply it form the time of the founder, and the writing of the sacred texts to their practices and rituals today, with an ever evolving way of understanding and attempting to practice peace. Finally, the last section of the syllabus asks us to evaluate how adherents today in the two traditions can firstly try to attain inner peace in their lives and, once this is done, work towards achieving world peace.

…………….. CHRISTIANITY ………………

(1)THE UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE EXPRESSED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

· Normative text for all Christians

The New Testament is the normative text for all Christians. While there are some differences in the way the New Testament is used and understood among Christian groups, it is, nevertheless, the principal and foundational source of teaching for all Christians.

The New Testament comprises 27 individual books made up of 4 gospels, 21 letters or epistles mostly attributed to the apostle Paul and the Acts of the Apostles and the book of Revelation.

Among the pages of the New Testament, peace is a frequent and all pervasive theme. Peace is mentioned over ninety times in the New Testament literature. It is found in the announcements of the birth of Jesus (Luke 2:14), in the teaching of Jesus (Matthew 5:9), in the life of the early Church communities (Galatians 5:22) and in the vision of the messianic age (Revelation 6:4). Most commonly it is used as a form of greeting and/or blessing. "Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ" (Romans 1:7).

· Underlying value

In addition to the specific uses of the term "peace", there are very many other occasions where peace is clearly an underlying value or principle in the message. Peace is at the heart of Jesus' life and ministry and accordingly it is a foundational element of the Christian communities that seek to follow him.

The New Testament extols peace as a virtue and identifies it as a key element of the reign of God. Jesus himself is known as the prince of peace and is regarded as the source of peace. Christians are encouraged to model their "peacemaking" on his example and to draw strength and inspiration from his spirit. There are, however, few examples of practical instruction relating to the seeking of peace and the avoidance of conflict. The vast majority of references to peace in the New Testament relate to an inner peace and or a state of peace in interpersonal relationships. Only a small number of instances seem to give guidance to Christians in relation to peace at a global level and the involvement or otherwise of Christians in warfare.

THE PEACE OF GOD

The letter to the Philippians promises that "the peace of God which is beyond all understanding will guard your hearts and minds, in Christ Jesus" (Philippians 4:7). This promise is given to those who devote themselves to God and make God the centre of their attention and the focus of their energies. It is an example of the inner peace that is promised to Christians who live faithfully according to the requirements of the gospel and who place their faith and trust in God.

· More than an absence of conflict and violence

In this sense peace can be understood as a sense of wellbeing, free from anxiety. It is not merely an absence of conflict and violence but a far deeper notion recognising a profound serenity and sense of wellbeing. The peace of God experienced by followers of Jesus is thought to be a foretaste of the peace experienced in eternal life with God.

Throughout the ministry of Jesus, the notion of peace often accompanies the forgiveness of sin or an occasion of healing. (Luke 7:50 & Luke 8:48). Examples such as these confirm the notion that peace is experienced in the presence of God and through God's saving activity.

· Presence of God

In his words to his disciples Jesus promises peace as his parting gift. "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give to you" (John 14:27). Once again peace is clearly associated with God's presence in Jesus and subsequently in the Spirit which is to be given to the disciples.

The early Church communities also reflect the notion of peace being associated with the presence of God through the gift of the Holy Spirit. Peace is seen as one of the fruits of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22) and it is regarded in the communities as a sign of God's activity and the fidelity of the Christians to the gospel. It is contrasted with selfish values which undermine the gospel. "For the mind set on the flesh is death, but the mind set on the Spirit is life and peace" (Romans 8:6).

· Example of Jesus

For Christians to experience the peace of God they must devote themselves to listening to the good news and commit themselves to following the example of Jesus in his life and ministry. This brings with it a requirement of prayer and contemplation, of communal life and celebration and of commitment to the welfare of others and to the wider community.

PEACE IN RELATIONSHIPS

· Peace with others

"If possible, so far as it depends on you, be at peace with all" (Romans 12:18). In this extract from Paul's writings there is a clear understanding of the expectation that Christians live in peace with others. However, this statement is tempered by the qualification "so far as it depends on you". On one hand this is understood as a requirement to do all that is within your power to be at peace with others. On the other hand there is a recognition, due to the actions of others, it may not always be possible for this peaceful relationship to exist.

· Peacemaking

The teaching of the New Testament indicates that Christians have opportunities in relationships to be people of peace and to work towards harmonious dealings with all people. People are regularly confronted with situations of tension and potential conflict. In many of these situations they have a possibility of escalating or diffusing this tension by their response. The notion of peacemaking in relationships is linked to being able to diffuse situations of tension before they escalate and to create cycles of harmony and reconciliation rather than support cycles of conflict and violence.

· Forgiveness and forbearance

Christians are encouraged to forgive one another, to bear with one another, to act with love towards each other and to avoid selfish motives in dealing with each other. These responses in relationships will lead to peace and help avoid the destructive behaviour which often leads to conflict and violence.

One area of apparent concern in the New Testament communities was to live peacefully with other members of the Church. Clearly, it would be a scandal for the ones who preach peace to be unable to live at peace with each other. Accordingly, the writer to the Ephesians calls on Christians to be "diligent to preserve the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace" (Ephesians 4:3).

In the famous sayings of the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3-12) being someone who works for peace is highly praised. The peacemakers are recognised as God's children.

WAR AND PEACE

· Non violence

While there is no doubt that peace is considered as a central value of the Christian life, the New Testament stops short of giving an unequivocal prohibition of warfare.

The strongest statements against engaging in warfare come from the preaching of Jesus himself. Most famously in the injunction to "turn the other cheek" (Matthew 6:39), Christians are told not to retaliate or return violence with violence.

Secondly, the Beatitudes provide another statement against warfare with their praise of the peacemakers. (Matthew 5:9). Other teachings such as the command to love your neighbour as yourself (Matthew 22:39), the requirement to love enemies (Matthew 5:44) and to treat others as you would want to be treated (Luke 6:31) are all indication of the New Testament's support of peace and opposition to warfare.

· Advocate of peace

Any fair minded reading of the gospels could not avoid the conclusion that Jesus was a strong advocate of peace and a staunch opponent of violence. It is not surprising, therefore, to learn that until the fourth century Christians on the whole refused to undertake military service and engage in warfare.

· Pacifism

The pacifist stance of the Christian communities came to be one of their identifying features and was one of the reasons that they suffered persecution from Roman authorities.

Despite this clear response of the early Christian Churches there are, nevertheless, some grounds for discussion. The gospels provide accounts of Jesus ministering to the needs of military personnel such as the Centurion's request on behalf of his servant (Matthew 8:5-13). Nowhere in this encounter does Jesus question the Centurion's profession. Nor are there any indications in the New Testament letters that soldiers who convert to Christianity must renounce their military service.

Other issues arise with the account of Jesus expelling the money changers from the temple (Mark 11:15-18) and his statement about his mission bringing division not peace (Matthew 10:34). Whatever the intent of these accounts, it is not legitimate to portray them as an endorsement of the use of force or violence and in the context of the wider teaching of the New Testament they do not take away the strength of the message condoning peace and condemning violence.

NEW TESTAMENT - SOME QUOTATIONS

ON “PEACE”

· And after eight days again his disciples were within, and Thomas with them. Jesus cometh, the doors being shut, and stood in the midst, and said, Peace [be] unto you. John, Chapter 20:26

· And let him turn away from evil, and do good; Let him seek peace, and pursue it. 1 Peter, Chapter 3:11

· And the fruit of righteousness is sown in peace for them that make peace. James, Chapter 3:18

· And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall guard your hearts and your thoughts in Christ Jesus. Philippians, Chapter 4:7

· Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall be called the children of God. (Matthew 5:9)

· But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, Galatians, Chapter 5:22

· Finally, brethren, farewell. Be perfected; be comforted; be of the same mind; live in peace: and the God of love and peace shall be with you. 2 Corinthians, Chapter 13:11

· For he is our peace, who made both one, and brake down the middle wall of partition, Ephesians, Chapter 2:14

· For to be carnally minded is death; but to be spiritually minded is life and peace. (Romans 8:6)

· Glory to God in the highest, And on earth peace among men in whom he is well pleased. Luke, Chapter 2:14

· Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. 2 Corinthians, Chapter 1:2

· Happy are those who strive for peace—they shall be called sons of God. Matthew 5:9,

· I am leaving you with a gift—peace of mind and heart! And the peace I give isn't fragile like the peace the world gives. So don't be troubled or afraid. John 14:27

· Jesus therefore said to them again, Peace [be] unto you: as the Father hath sent me, even so send I you. John, Chapter 20:21

· Let us therefore make every effort to do what leads to peace and to mutual edification. Romans 14:19,

· Mercy unto you and peace and love be multiplied. Jude, Chapter 1:2

· Now let thou thy servant depart, Lord, According to thy word, in peace; Luke, Chapter 2:29

· Now the Lord of peace himself give you peace at all times in all ways. The Lord be with you all. 2 Thessalonians, Chapter 3:16

· Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, give I unto you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be fearful. John, Chapter 14:27

· The word which he sent unto the children of Israel, preaching good tidings of peace by Jesus Christ (He is Lord of all.) Acts, Chapter 10:36

· Therefore being justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ: Romans 5:1

· These things have I spoken unto you, that in me ye may have peace. In the world ye have tribulation: but be of good cheer; I have overcome the world. John, Chapter 16:33

· To shine upon them that sit in darkness and the shadow of death; To guide our feet into the way of peace. Luke, Chapter 1:79

· When therefore it was evening, on that day, the first [day] of the week, and when the doors were shut where the disciples were, for fear of the Jews, Jesus came and stood in the midst, and saith unto them, Peace [be] unto you. John, Chapter 20:19

· Yet if the unbelieving depart, let him depart: the brother or the sister is not under bondage in such [cases]: but God hath called us in peace. 1 Corinthians, Chapter 7:15

(2) PRINCIPAL TEACHINGS ABOUT PEACE IN CHRISTIANITY

· Heart of Jesus' ministry

The teaching of the New Testament affirms the centrality of peace to the Christian message. It was at the heart of the life and ministry of Jesus and accordingly is sought after and taken up by the communities that seek to follow Jesus.

Peace is understood as more than merely an absence of violence and conflict. It refers more fully to an overall sense of wellbeing. Ultimately peace is found in union with God. Christians are taught to live at peace with others, both within their own communities and in the wider human family.

· Christian pacifism

Throughout the first three centuries of the common era Christians adopted a pacifist position and refused to engage in military service or warfare. This was a position that contributed to them being marginalised in the wider community and persecuted by the Roman authorities. Yet despite the hardships, Christians as a whole refused to engage in warfare, believing that to do so would be contrary to their faith.

The conversion of the Emperor Constantine in the fourth century introduced Christians to a new situation where they were now part of the establishment and the empire was their ally rather than a threat to their existence. This new situation led to a rethinking of the position of the Christian Church in relation to its involvement in warfare.

· Philosophical challenges

This new situation created a number of philosophical challenges to the pacifist stance held by the Christians. They now had to consider how they could maintain and guarantee the freedom of people in the society, in particular their religious freedom. They also had to consider how to protect their property from theft or destruction. Another problem related to the protection of innocent people in the light of acts of aggression by others. These and other similar concerns forced the Christian Church to compromise its hard line stance against military involvement and the use of warfare.

THE JUST WAR THEORY

The challenges of this new situation over time led to the development of a just war theory. This theory originated from Augustine, Bishop of Hippo in the fourth century and was modified and refined by various people over the centuries including Thomas Aquinas in the middle ages and Francisco de Vitoria in the 16th century.

Morally acceptable cause

The "Just War" theory sought to establish guidelines under which it was morally acceptable to engage in warfare. The Just War theory is the source of ongoing debate and although it has considerable standing among Christian denominations, it is, nevertheless, problematic in theory as well as in practice.

The Just War theory maintains that nations are morally justified in waging war providing that the circumstances of the conflict and the waging of the war meet the following seven principles.

CRITERIA:

1. War must be aimed at repelling or deterring aggression and safeguarding human rights.

2. It must be authorised by a legitimate authority.

3. The stated objectives for going to war must be the real ones.

4. War must be a last resort; all peaceful alternatives must be exhausted.

5. The probability of success must be sufficiently clear to justify the human and other costs.

6. The damage inflicted by war must be proportionate to its objectives.

7. Non-combatants must not be targeted.

APPLICATION OF JUST WAR THEORY

Some would argue that there has never been a war which meets all seven requirements of the Just War theory and indeed the nature of warfare itself is intrinsically contradictory to many of the elements of the Just War theory.

The difficulty in practice is how to determine the legitimacy of a claim of a "Just War". In the 2003 Gulf War, US President George W Bush used the claim of a "Just War" to refute opposition to his plan to invade Iraq. Various religious authorities had publicly stated their opposition, saying that the planned invasion was not morally justified.

In this case, both parties were appealing to the same seven principles of the Just War theory to support their claims and were arriving at opposite conclusions.

A brief analysis of each of these principles readily highlights some of the difficulties.

· Safeguarding human rights

War must be aimed at repelling or deterring aggression and safeguarding human rights.

The type of chaos and disorder that results from military conflict makes it impossible to monitor or safeguard human rights. The very act of destruction which is integral to combat inevitably destroys much of the infrastructure required to sustain basic rights such as food, water, shelter etc. Usually there is a prolonged period of disorder before basic infrastructure can be restored. In this time human rights violations are inevitable.

· Mandate to decide

It must be authorised by a legitimate authority.

Even in the case of a democratically elected government declaring war, there is still an aspect of debate. The case of Australia's involvement in the 2003 Gulf War saw the Prime Minister commit Australian troops to combat without reference to the Parliament. Additionally, some would suggest that a government does not have the right to engage in warfare unless it was specifically elected with that mandate.

A further aspect of the Gulf War is the fact that Australian troops were committed to war when the United Nations remained opposed to the war and was urging the American led coalition to refrain from conflict until further efforts at peaceful resolution of differences were pursued. The question here is who exactly is the legitimate authority?

· Multiple causes of conflict

The stated objectives for going to war must be the real ones.

There is seldom a single clear reason for engaging in warfare. Frequently the principal catalyst for the beginning of the war is the final element in a series of grievances that may date back for generations or even centuries. Therefore the stated reasons or objectives are often only a part of the real or true reasons.

In the case of the 2003 Gulf war, the declared cause to engage in warfare was the existence of weapons of mass destruction. In the years following the declaration of war there has not any validation of this claim. Various theories have been proposed concerning the real reasons for the war, however, this instance of conflict highlights the difficulties in meeting this requirement.

· Strategic advantage

War must be a last resort; all peaceful alternatives must be exhausted.

From a philosophical point of view it can be argued that there are always further peaceful alternatives to be explored and accordingly war, as the last resort, should never be taken up. In practice the parties choosing to engage in warfare are more concerned with gaining a strategic advantage and are thus not inclined to delay. Further, they would argue that their cause is urgent and cannot wait until peaceful alternatives are exhausted.

In the case of the 2003 Gulf War, the US led coalition were determined to proceed even though the United Nations weapons inspectors were asking for more time to complete their work as a peaceful alternative. The US authorities claimed that the risk posed by Iraq's weapons of mass destruction made the need to invade an urgent one. Others have suggested that the invasion took place in the Northern spring as this timing avoided the harsh climatic conditions that would have prevailed if they had delayed.

· Prolonged conflict

The probability of success must be sufficiently clear to justify the human and other costs.

It is extremely difficult to judge the possibility of success in any military engagement. Even when the one of the combatants has far superior military capabilities it does not guarantee success and certainly doesn't ensure that the action will be quick, efficient and contained. In reality, conflicts are often prolonged and devastating in terms of the human cost.

Wars such as the Vietnam War, the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and the recent Gulf Wars highlight the difficulties. In each of these cases a military super power has been unable to quickly and efficiently achieve its goals. In the course of these prolonged conflicts, the local communities have suffered great cost for an extended period of time.

· Devastating military power

The damage inflicted by war must be proportionate to its objectives.

As time has gone by the capacity of military weapons has increased phenomenally and the extent of damage caused has likewise reached extraordinary proportions. Due to capacity of such weapons to inflict damage it is now patently impossible to engage in warfare where the damage is limited to something proportionate to the objectives.

The destructive capabilities of modern weapons have led to extraordinary degrees of destruction in war zones. Accordingly it is unlikely that modern warfare can ever claim to limit the damage inflicted to something which is proportionate to its objectives.

· Innocent victims of warfare

Non-combatants must not be targeted.

Increasingly in modern times, the victims of warfare are non-combatants rather than military personnel. The nature of warfare in recent decades has seen the use of powerful weapons launched from considerable distances to attack targets. This has meant that those actively engaging in conflict are some distance from the target area or war zone. Thus, although there may not be a deliberate strategy to target non-combatants, inevitably many innocent people will suffer the consequences of the action.

The application of the Just War theory remains problematic. In recent decades, religious authorities have been virtually unanimous in their condemnation of warfare.

PEACE AND JUSTICE

· Justice before peace

While a great deal of emphasis has been placed on the value of the Just War theory, in modern times an increasing emphasis has been brought to bear on the underlying causes of the conflicts that undermine peace.

Leaders of the Christian Churches have increasingly focused their attention on the relationship between poverty, justice and human rights and the escalation of conflicts. They have argued powerfully that the world cannot expect to achieve peace without first achieving justice and that while so many people live in poverty and without basic human rights that there will always been unrest leading to conflict and violence.

(3a) GUIDANCE FOR CHRISTIANS IN ACHIEVING INNER PEACE

A study of the New Testament literature reveals an important relationship between an individual's fidelity to the requirements of the gospel and their own sense of peace and wellbeing. In other words, Christians can expect to find inner peace ultimately in and through living out their vocation as disciples of Jesus Christ and directing their lives towards the following of his teaching.

· Example of Jesus' life

Jesus himself is regarded as the bringer of peace and to live in close relationship to him and his teaching will allow the follower to experience this peace. Jesus' own life is seen as a model of living in peace and therefore Christians are encouraged to model their lives on his example in doing so they will be able to find peace.

The examination of Jesus life and ministry reveals a number of important elements in achieving this sense of peace and wellbeing. These elements include Jesus' integrity and fidelity to his mission, his balance of prayer and active ministry and the communal nature of his work.

A brief reflection on each of these elements will help provide an insight into achieving inner peace.

INTEGRITY AND FIDELITY

· Effect of compromise

The most basic and fundamental aspect of being at home with oneself and thereby experiencing peace and wellbeing comes from maintaining a sense of integrity and fidelity to one's vocation. It would not be possible to achieve inner peace while experiencing turmoil and inner conflict due to compromising personal values etc.

In his life and ministry, Jesus faced various occasions where it would have been expedient to turn his back on his vocation and accept a compromise or succumb to a temptation of selfishness. These temptations are essentially about serving one's self or avoiding challenging situations. Jesus' example clearly shows the importance of being true to the values of the gospel and not being prepared to accept compromise. Such compromise would inevitably erode a sense of inner peace as it amounts to a lack of integrity and will always result in inner conflict.

· Temptation in the wilderness

These types of challenges and temptations can be seen in the accounts of Jesus' temptation in the wilderness before beginning his public ministry (Matthew 4:1-11 & Luke 4:1-13). These temptations offer Jesus an easy way out of challenging circumstances and also encourage him to put himself and his own needs before those of others. To have accepted these offers would have resulted in Jesus' compromising himself and losing the sense of peace that arises from integrity.

By refusing to be tempted he retains his integrity and is able to faithfully go about his ministry. This includes the important element of being able to place his life at the service of others. This selflessness is a liberating quality which has a significant impact on the capacity to achieve inner peace.

Christians, therefore, will find guidance in the example of Jesus' life and ministry which will assist them in achieving inner peace through being faithful to their calling, maintaining personal integrity and placing the needs of others before their own. These elements provide a sense of freedom and wellbeing and avoid the kind of inner turmoil and conflict which arises from selfishness and compromise.

PRAYER AND SERVICE

· Balance of prayer and active ministry

The ministry of Jesus highlights the aspects of prayer and service being kept in balance. The gospel accounts portray Jesus as a man of prayer who is frequently in communion with God. These occasions of prayer are particularly evident leading up to significant moments in his ministry.

Clearly prayer is a vehicle through which Jesus is able to nurture and sustain the relationship with God which is the source of his wellbeing and inner peace. This relationship of prayer is something which followers of Jesus are strongly encouraged to emulate in order achieve this sense of peace and serenity.

For Jesus, prayer is not a withdrawal from the events of daily life but rather an opportunity to reflect on them and gain strength to face their challenges. Jesus' ministry conveys a sense of balance between prayer and contemplation on one hand and active service on the other.

· Not in competition

These two elements are seen as complementary, not in competition with one another. Prayer is seen as an essential adjunct to the active ministry while the ministry is seen as a practical expression of the life of prayer.

Together the two elements of prayer and service provide important aids for Christians in the search for inner peace. Prayer enables the Christian to sustain and nurture their relationship with God. Through prayer they are able to draw meaning and understanding concerning day to day life as well as gaining strength and inspiration to enable them to meet daily challenges.

· Service flows from prayer

The active component of service flows out of the contemplative element of prayer. The understanding gained through prayer and reflection informs and guides the Christian to respond to the call to service. Additionally, the strength and inspiration they gain through prayer enables them to rise to the challenges they may face in serving others.

Christians are encouraged to find a balance between the contemplative and the active elements of life. An overemphasis on prayer and contemplation can lead to insularity while an overemphasis on active service can lead to burn out. Either of these excesses will undermine the search for an inner peace.

COMMUNITY

· Harmony in community

Another characteristic of Jesus' ministry which is followed by Christians is the element of community. The Christian community is an important source of help and support and the unity which can exist in such communities provides tremendous assistance in the search for inner peace.

Jesus' own community was made up of those who followed him throughout the region of Galilee and then on into Jerusalem. His community of followers shared a great deal of his experience, learned from him and supported him in his ministry. Such elements of sharing, learning and supporting will assist individuals to find a harmony and sense of purpose in community which assists in the search for inner peace and wellbeing.

· Absence or disintegration

The importance of community in the achievement of inner peace can best be illustrated by the effects of its absence or the effects of its disintegration. The absence of community leads to isolation and separation. Because people are essentially social by nature, the absence of meaningful community will inevitably erode their sense of wellbeing and destroy their inner peace.

Likewise, the breakdown or disintegration of a community through conflict, disunity etc will also have a negative effect on an individual's sense of wellbeing.

TOWARDS INNER PEACE

· Prayer, service, ritual and community

For individuals to achieve inner peace, following the example of Jesus is a fruitful and worthwhile path. Various groups within the Christian tradition will have established methods of following this example. They will normally include the use of prayer, ritual and the reading of scripture, the service of others and the participation in community with those of similar beliefs.

· Basic orientation

Creating a basic orientation in life which supports the quest for integrity and fidelity to the gospel is an important foundational element. It will not be possible to achieve inner peace while values are seriously compromised.

Maintaining a sound balance between prayer and service is also fundamental to the quest for a sense of peace and wellbeing. Both prayer and service are essential and each should support and draw from the other.

Engaging with a local community is also an important element. Communities provide important occasions of interaction for sharing, for learning and for support. The absence of meaningful community undermines the possibility of achieving inner peace.

(3B) CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY TO WORLD PEACE

The Christian tradition makes significant contributions to world peace at a number of different levels. Among these are public statements by Church leaders, programs of action at local and international levels, organisations dedicated to bringing about peace, courses of study, commemorative days etc.

PUBLIC STATEMENTS

In recent decades, Church leaders have frequently made statements in support of peace. In some cases these statements have been specific appeals for peace in particular circumstances, however, on other occasions they have also published more comprehensive statements on the need for peace and the means of achieving it.

· Establishment of peace

In the Catholic community, one of the more well-known statements was the 1963 statement of Pope John XXIII "Pacem in Terris" (Peace on Earth). In Pacem in Terris John XXIII discusses an issue of critical importance to the establishment of peace - social rights and responsibilities that need to exist between people, between citizens and their political authorities, between nations, and between people and nations on a world wide level. Within this context, John XXIII addresses moral and cultural values, economic rights, political rights, disarmament, refugees, and the call to solidarity.

· World Council of Churches

Other organisations such as the World Council of Churches and individual denominations such as the Society of Friends (Quakers) have also released many public statements relating to peacemaking. In the months before the beginning of the 2003 Gulf War, Christian Churches in the United States made frequent public appeals to avoid the conflict. The Society of Friends website contains excerpts from over forty statements from US Churches, many of them representing the views of groups of Church leaders from a particular State or region.

Similar statements were made throughout Europe and the UK. In Australia, statements were made by leaders of most major Christian denominations together with representative statement issued by the National Council of Churches of Australia (NCCA).

PROGRAMS AND ORGANISATIONS

· Peace Movement

There has always been a tradition of opposition to warfare in Church communities even during times when the Church actively used warfare for its own purposes. Francis of Assisi is a famous example of opposition to war. Another interesting example is the Society of Friends (Quakers), a Christian group with a pacifist stance.

In modern times there has been a powerful movement for peace emerging from within the ranks of Christian denominations. The modern peace movement, now embraced by a wide coalition of groups and individuals has a strong link to Christian peace groups in its infancy.

Movements such as the Catholic Worker movement led by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin have been prominent in the quest for world peace. The Catholic worker movement developed an approach of active non-violence and often used civil disobedience as a means of protest.

· Culture of Peace and Non Violence

Another well known organisation is the international group Pax Christi which has pioneered peacemaking at an international level for decades. In preparation for the coming of the third millennium, Pax Christi published a manifesto for a culture of peace and non violence. This manifesto came in support of the United Nations declaring a decade for a culture of peace and non violence beginning in the year 2000.

Pax Christi's declaration contained 6 principles which it invited people to take up as follows:

"Recognising my share of responsibility for the future of humanity, especially for today's children and those of future generations, I pledge - in my daily life, in my family, my work, my community and my region - to:

1. respect the life and dignity of every person without discrimination or prejudice;

2. practise active non-violence, rejecting violence in all its forms: physical, sexual, psychological economic and social, in particular towards the most deprived and vulnerable such as children and adolescents;

3. share my time and material resources in a spirit of generosity to put an end to exclusion, injustice and political and economic oppression;

4. defend freedom of expression and cultural diversity, giving preference always to dialogue and listening rather than fanaticism, defamation and the rejection of others;

5. promote consumer behaviour that is responsible and development practices that respect all forms of life and preserve the balance of nature on the planet;

6. contribute to the development of my community, with the full participation of women and respect for democratic principles, in order to create together new forms of solidarity."

(Pax Christi International: Manifesto for a Culture of Peace and Non Violence. 1999)

· Decade to Overcome Violence

Also in response to the United Nations' decade for a Culture of Peace and Non Violence, the World Council of Churches in launched a campaign of a "Decade to Overcome Violence". This campaign provides an ecumenical dimension to the search for peace and highlights the commonalities held among Christian Churches in this area.

While this campaign includes a focus of violence in warfare, it also recognises the widespread violence that occurs in many other situations and seeks to work towards peace.

The campaign of the Decade to Overcome Violence has also highlighted the tragic statistic that domestic violence is responsible for the deaths of more women worldwide than any other single cause.

Other important organisations include the Church and Peace alliances in Europe and the UK as well as the Kairos organisation in Canada and the USA.

· Justice and Peace

In Australia major Christian denominations have organisations which have responsibility in working towards peace. These would include the Uniting Church Board of Social Responsibility and the Australian Catholic Social Justice Council. These organisations, together with the National Council of Churches of Australia have peacemaking as an important part of their mandate.

The element of working towards peace is carried out alongside other social concerns such as justice and ecology. This highlights the close relationship between the search for a more just society and the search for peace. Church organisations have frequently stated that the achievement of lasting peace will only be possible with a renewed social order where there poverty is substantially overcome and there is justice among people and between nations.

COURSES OF STUDY

· Studies in Peacemaking

Throughout the world major learning institutions provide studies in peacemaking. Among these, universities run by Christian denominations often feature prominently in offering such courses.

Some significant organisations providing for the study of peace and peace making include the Washington based Centre of Concern and the Maryknoll Justice and Peace Office.

In Australia, the Society of Saint Columba (Columbans) have been prominent in providing peace education firstly through their Columban Mission Institute and through their Centre for Justice, Ecology and Peace.

Courses of study in peacemaking are available at major theological institutes such as the United Theological College and the Catholic Institute of Sydney.

DAYS OF COMMEMORATION

· Anzac Day

Christian Churches have made use of significant days of commemoration to help focus people's attention on the need for peace. All major denominations will have special liturgical events on Anzac day. Many would also hold events on other occasions such as Remembrance Day and Hiroshima Day.

Over the past few decades the most significant day of commemoration and working for peace has been Palm Sunday. This has become a day for public gatherings, marches and rallies in support of peace. Christian churches have traditionally sponsored these events which usually begin with an ecumenical service followed by a rally and a march through city streets.

· Palm Sunday Peace march

Palm Sunday rallies have become a regular feature of life in Australian cities. The numbers of people attending had tended to fluctuate depending on the world situation at the time. Very large numbers gathered in 2003 to protest against the war in Iraq. Smaller, but still quite significant numbers took part in subsequent years.

· peacebus.com

Peacebus.com undertakes campaigns of witness for peace, justice and a sustaining Earth. It is both a colourful and crusading 1996 Mitsubishi L300 van called Happy Wheels

THE UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE IN CHRISTIANITY (FROM BOS)

*** Fabulous source for quotes

1. Christianity and Peace — the New Testament

· investigate the understanding of peace and how it is informed through significant writings within sacred texts

THE CONCEPT OF PEACE

The New Testament understanding of the word 'peace' is essentially connected with that of Judaism and is epitomised by the state of peace that existed in the Garden of Eden, where human beings lived in an idyllic condition and communed regularly with God. Perfect peace disappeared from the world as a result of 'the fall' in Genesis 3, allowing sin and alienation in its stead, and the New Testament sees the coming of Christ as a means of healing the breach between God and humankind, thereby restoring the potential for peace. Through faith in Jesus, therefore, we are able to experience the inner peace that closeness with God can bring to our lives, and may also look forward to a prophetic era to come when Jesus [and therefore also peace) will reign supreme on the Earth.

INNER PEACE

Christianity sees the concept of inner, spiritual peace as literally embodied in the person and teachings of Jesus Christ, or Immanuel, [meaning 'God with us'), as he is also called. As Jesus frequently tells his followers, in me you may have peace.’ (John 16:33) This is for the dual reason that, as God incarnate, Jesus is synonymous with peace, and also because peace with God is available to those who believe in Jesus through the great act of atonement achieved by his death. Through dying, Jesus bore the penalty for human sin, allowing human beings to become 'at-one' again with God. The breach and alienation created in Genesis 3 has been healed and God will extend his forgiveness, and thereby also his peace, to those who believe. This fundamental truth is reflected in Jesus' ministry and teachings—he offers peace to those who are troubled [Matthew 11:28-30), casts out demons and forgives sin [Mark 1:21-2:12), and teaches peaceful cooperation with authorities [Matthew 22:21). Followers are also required to emulate Jesus by making '... every effort to live in peace with all men' (Hebrews 12:14) so that the peace they have through Christ is reflected in their everyday relationships.

Conversely, however, Jesus also makes it clear that there will be no spiritual peace for those who reject God's compassionate gift of forgiveness. Instead they will suffer the full effects of God's wrath and judgment. This is demonstrated by his condemnatory attitude towards the teachers of the Law and Pharisees [Matthew 23), the metaphor of the fruitless Figtree [Mark 11:12-15) and the clearing of the Temple [Mark 11:15-18). Jesus also teaches that although his followers have the inner peace that belief in him brings, actual life in the here and now may be anything but peaceful in tone. He says, I did not come to bring peace but a sword.’ (Matthew 10:34) Jesus warns that until his return there would 'wars and rumours of wars' and that his followers would suffer and be persecuted. His very life, moreover, demonstrates the kind of persecution and rejection that his followers can expect. Ultimately, however, it is all part of a divine master plan that will eventually bring about an everlasting physical and spiritual peace on Earth for those who believe.

THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN

Indeed, the central theme of Jesus Christ's teaching is the Kingdom of God/Heaven. This exists in the dual sense of occurring as 'kingly rule' in the here and now, but is also an age to come, an eschatological kingdom where God's purposes for humankind will be realised and the paradise of Eden finally restored. As God dwelt with humankind in Eden, so too will he dwell with them in the Kingdom: 'Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God.’ [Revelation 21:3) Thus, as in Eden, the Kingdom of God will be characterised by peace—there will be no hunger, thirst, scorching heat or tears [Revelation 7:16-17) or death, mourning, crying or pain '... for the old order of things has passed away.’ [Revelation 21:4) Prior to the consummation of the Kingdom and Jesus' return to Earth however, will be the signs of the 'end of the age' and the coming judgment of humankind. As the Book of Mark states, '... those will be days of distress unequalled from the beginning, when God created the world, until now—and never to be equalled again. If the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would survive: (Mark 13:9-20). However, the tribulation and suffering that ensues will be followed by the redemption of the righteous, those who have remained faithful to God: 'And he will send his angels and gather his elect from the four winds ....’ (13:27) only then will the 'New Jerusalem', a city of perpetual peace, be inaugurated. (Revelation 21].

PEACE ON EARTH

This vision of peace on Earth has – its basis in Old Testament prophecy; indeed, the 'New Jerusalem' of Revelation, is very same as that depicted in some detail in books such as Isaiah. Isaiah prophesises that after Israel and the gentile nations have been judged and punished for sinful behaviour. God will show his love and mercy by establishing the 'mountain of the Lord's temple' (Mt Zion, or Jerusalem), towards which '... all nations will stream'. (2:2) God's word will be authoritative and peace will be the distinguishing characteristic. As the arbiter of disputes between nations, for instance. God will see that things are settled peacefully, and, 'They will beat their swords into ploughshares and their spears into pruning hooks. Nation will not take up sword against nation, nor will they train for war anymore.’ (2:14) Zion will be a '... city of our festivals', "... a peaceful abode, a tent that will not be moved.’ (33:20). Peace will be "... your governor and righteousness your ruler: (60:17)

Isaiah also employs many profound images to illustrate this vision of peace on Earth, such as wolves co-existing with lambs, leopards lying down with goats, calves, lions and yearlings peacefully cohabiting and a small child leading them all. [11:6] The topography itself will be transformed as the "wilderness blossoms' and 'bursts into bloom' and 'water gushes forth in the wilderness and streams in the desert: (35:6) This paradise will be enjoyed by God's elect who will 'enter Zion with singing', be overtaken by 'gladness and joy' and for whom 'sorrow and sighing will flee away: (v.9-10)

A DAVIDIC KING

The age of peace, moreover, will be inaugurated and led by a Davidic king, a 'shoot come up from the stump of Jesse' (Isaiah 11:1) who will be distinguished by his wisdom, knowledge and understanding. In fact, this individual, who is also called the 'Prince of Peace' and of whose 'government and peace there will be no end' (Isaiah 9:6-7) is believed by most Christians to be Jesus Christ himself. As Jesus says, 'Do not think I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets: I have not come to abolish them but to fulfil them: (Matthew 5:17) Indeed, most Christians believe that Isaiah Chapter 53. In particular, is a direct prophecy of Jesus, with his death being represented as '... the punishment that brought us peace: (v.5) The Gospel of Matthew states that Jesus is God's chosen servant by citing Isaiah 42:1-4: 'Here is my servant whom I have chosen, the one I love, in whom I delight; I will put my spirit on him, and he will proclaim justice to the nations. He will not quarrel or cry out; no one will hear his voice in the streets. A bruised reed he will not break, and a smouldering wick he will not snuff out, till he leads justice to victory. In his name the nations will put their hope.

2. Principal Teachings About Peace

JESUS AND PEACE

Christianity teaches that peace, in all its manifestations, is something adherents should earnestly seek. This is because Christians are instructed by God to emulate Jesus and follow his teachings: 'This is my Son, whom I love. Listen to him!’ (Mark 9:7) The Gospels emphasise that Jesus highly valued peace—he used it as a form of greeting and farewell, for instance, and a reference to peace is contained within his inaugural address, the Sermon on the Mount: 'Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God.’ (Matthew 5:9) Indeed, as God Incarnate, Jesus is literally the very embodiment of peace, his life and ministry on Earth actualising the Kingdom of God, where peace reigns eternal, dwelling amongst humankind.

One of Jesus' principal teachings in regard to peace is the need for submission. In contradiction of the Old Testament saying of 'an eye for an eye' is the instruction 'Do not resist an evil person. If someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also.’ (Matthew? 5:38) Jesus expands this idea even further when he reinterprets the so-called 'Golden Rule' to include loving not just our neighbour, but our enemies also. (Matthew 5:43-48)

LOVE YOUR NEIGHBOUR

Believers should always endeavour to be at peace with everyone and to seek reconciliation wherever there has been disharmony: 'But I tell you that anyone who is angry with his brother will be subject to judgment.’ (Matthew 5:22) The Apostle Paul elaborates further on these ideas in Romans v2, where he says 'Bless those who persecute you: bless and do not curse. Rejoice with those who rejoice; mourn with those who mourn. Live in harmony with one another.’ (v.14-16). In chapter 13 he reduces the social component of the Mosaic Law (Ten Commandments) to the single rule of 'Love your neighbour as yourself.'

Jesus also taught that his followers should live peacefully by always complying with the laws of the land in which they abide. In response to the questioning of the Pharisees in regard to paying taxes, he replied 'Give to Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God’s.’ (Matthew 22:21) Again, Paul builds on the words of Jesus in Romans, where he instructs listeners to submit to the authorities because those authorities have been installed by God himself. (Romans 13:1-7)

THE WILL OF GOD

Most importantly, however, Jesus teaches that followers should always submit to the will of God: 'Whoever has my commands and obeys them, he is the one who loves me. He who loves me will be loved by my Father ....’ (John 14:21) Indeed, we see that Jesus taught by example as he lived his life in obedience to God to the point of death: 'Father, if you are willing, take this cup from me; yet not my will, but yours be done.’ (Luke 22:42) Jesus also reiterated the Old Testament teaching that peace is a gift from God and a sign of his good will. We observe him, for example, bestowing peace as a reward for godliness: 'Daughter, your faith has healed you. Go in peace and be freed from your suffering.’ -Mark 5:34) This is reiterated in 2 Thessalonians 3:16 where Paul states 'Now may the Lord of peace himself give you peace at all limes and in every way be with you' and Romans 2:20, '... glory, honour and peace for everyone who does good.’ Conversely, however, peace may not exist wherever sin and rebellion are present. This is demonstrated in Jesus' condemnation of the Pharisees with the 'Seven Woes' (Matthew 23, the cursing of the fig tree (Mark 11:14) and his advice to his disciples to 'let your peace return to you' if a home is inhospitable. (Matthew 10:13)

WORLD PEACE

He taught, moreover, that God's peace is not necessarily the same thing as the worldly version of peace. In other words God's peace is more complex than the simple absence of war or hostility: 'Peace 1 leave with you; my peace I give you to you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid.’ (John 14:27).

God's peace, therefore, also involves inner peace, a sense of calm and spiritual well-being: 'And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and minds in Christ Jesus.’ (Philippians 4:7) It does not, however, preclude the possibility of outward turmoil: 'I have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In this world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome the world.' (John 16:33) Jesus taught his disciples that they would be assisted in their efforts by the presence of the Holy Spirit, the fruit of which is 'love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control.’ (Galatians 5:22} As Jesus' position in regard so peace is very clear, most practicing Christians will seek to implement his teachings and try to promote peace wherever possible. This, of course, can become a complicated matter, particularly in terms of me Christian ideal of all humankind being free to enjoy justice and freedom. Issues may arise where threats to freedom may need to be dealt with via conflict and war, such as in situations of self-defence. The early church father, Augustine of Hippo, dealt with this problem by framing the concept of a 'just war', which combined the traditional Christian abhorrence of war with a readiness to accept that in some circumstances it may be necessary. The medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas and the Renaissance Christian philosopher Hugo Grotius, further developed the 'just war' theory, culminating in its being codified as a set of rules used by the Catholic Church in regards to war.

CONFLICT AND CHRISTIANITY

These rules deal with such issues as when it is the right time to resort to war, how much force is acceptable and, in more recent years, a third category has been added governing concerns such as peace agreements. In 1993, the United States Catholic Conference adapted the first category to apply to the modern arena, saying 'Force may be used only to correct a grave, public evil, i.e. aggression or massive violation of the basic human rights of whole populations.

The World Council of Churches, an international ecumenical organisation comprising 340 churches and denominations from more than 120 different nations (not including the Catholic Church), has also made a number of statements concerning war. At its inaugural meeting in Amsterdam in 1948 the World Council of Churches made the statement, 'War as a method of settling disputes is incompatible with the teaching and examples of our Lord Jesus Christ.’ In 1983 it issued another statement saying Christians should oppose the possession and use of nuclear weapons.

3a. The contribution of Religious Traditions for the Individual and Inner Peace.

THE NEW TESTAMENT AND INNER PEACE

The New Testament gives some very practical guidelines for the individual in achieving peace, both external and inner. As we have already seen, adherents are advised to seek peace by not retaliating to their enemies, by obeying authorities and by obeying God. The New Testament also informs believers that faithfulness to God and efforts to do good deeds will bring about peace in their lives. There are also several other methods, however, that the New Testament recommends in order for individuals to find peace. These include trusting God, prayer, and the forgiveness of sins. Jesus repeatedly tells his followers to trust God in all matters and to desist from worrying. He reassures them that God knows their needs and will provide food, drink and clothing, for 'who of you by worrying can add a single hour to his life?’ (Matthew 6:27) He demonstrates, moreover, that he is capable of bringing peace to the lives of believers in very practical ways, such as healing sickness and casting out demons, and he encourages them to find spiritual rest within him. As he says, 'Come to me, all you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you and learn from me, for I am gentle and humble in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy and my burden is light.’ (Matthew 11:28) When the disciples are anxious about Jesus' forthcoming departure, he says 'Do not let your hearts be troubled. Trust in God; trust also in me.’ (John 14:1)

THE PLACE OF PRAYER

Jesus also provides his followers with the example he makes of being constantly in touch with God via prayer. Following the Jewish model, Jesus prays directly to God frequently and on many issues, and recommends that others do the same: 'Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be opened to you.’ (Matthew 7:7) He prays for others, 'Holy Father, protect them by the power of your name ...' (John 17:11) and for himself, 'And now. Father, glorify me in your presence ....’ (John 17:5) On the Mount of Olives we witness him coming before God with heartfelt supplication: 'Father, if you are willing, take this cup from me' (Luke 22:42) and, at the moment of death, with anguish and a sense of abandonment: 'My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’ (Mark 15:34) We learn from this that although God may not always rescue us from our suffering, our inner turmoil may be assuaged by the knowledge that he is nonetheless always listening. The model given by Jesus in Matthew 6:9-13 (the Lord's Prayer) follows the Jewish tradition of first glorifying God and submitting to his will when approaching in prayer.

CHRISTIANITY AND FORGIVENESS

A significant way in which Christianity helps adherents find inner peace is through the concept of forgiveness. Through the death of Christ, forgiveness is available to the repentant sinner, allowing them to have peace with God which is the very foundation of 'inner peace'. As Romans 5:1 says, 'Therefore, since we have been justified through faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.’ Apart from the spiritual ramifications, this idea of being freely relieved of our guilt for past actions (though not necessarily of consequences) may well have a myriad of positive mental health implications. Indeed, many psychologists feel the dramatic increase in mental health problems in the western world may possibly be linked to the downturn we have witnessed in spiritual connectedness and church attendance.

Through Jesus, therefore, we are free to ask forgiveness: 'Through this man forgiveness of sins is proclaimed to you.’ (Acts 13:38) However, it also made clear that in order to receive the forgiveness of Jesus, we might also be prepared to forgive others. As Luke 6:37 states, 'forgive, and you will be forgiven.’ Again, psychologists have repeatedly demonstrated that by forgiving others for their hurtful actions against us, we are much more likely to experience inner peace than if we hold grudges and maintain our feelings of hostility and anger.

3b. The Contribution of Religious Traditions to World Peace

INITIATIVES BY THE WORLD COUNCIL OF CHURCHES (WCC)

The Decade to Overcome Violence: Churches Seeking Reconciliation and Peace 2001-2010 [DOV) is a global movement striving to strengthen existing networks and efforts aimed at overcoming violence, as well as inspiring the creation of new networks. It aims to help all people systematically oppressed by violence; to remove theological justifications for violence; and to interact with local communities to foster a culture of peace.

DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE WCC AND UNITED NATIONS ON WORLD PEACE

This was held in New York on 17 May 2004. The meeting focused on the situation in Iraq, and the Israel/Palestine conflict and the role of religion in regards to this. The WCC general secretary, Rev. Dr Samuel Kobia, suggested the 'creation of a mechanism for truth and reconciliation, which should include in its mandate the actions of the occupying powers.’ Also discussed were poverty, the HIV/AIDS crisis and conflicts in Africa. The meeting led to UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan's welcoming of Rev Kobia's suggested International Day of Prayer to coincide with the International Day of Peace on 21 September.

INTERFAITH DIALOGUE

The Geneva Spiritual Appeal of 1999 was convened 50 years after the Geneva Convention to address the religious causes of human suffering. Attended by Christians [Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant), Buddhists, Jews, Muslims and secular groups, the appeal sought help from political and religious leaders organisations to ensure that religious faith is not used to justify future violence.

VARIOUS GROUPS

Founded in Galilee by Elias Jabbour, a Palestinian Christian, the House of Hope peace centre brings Arabs and Jews together for dialogue and conferences and runs a summer camp for youth as well as a 'peace kindergarten'. The Interfaith Encounter Association promotes interfaith study and dialogue between Christians, Jews, Muslims, Druze and Baha'is in Israel and the Middle East. The Sulha Peace Project organises three-day festivals for Christians, Muslims and Jews so as to facilitate the process of reconciliation. The Australian Partnership of Ethnic and Religious Organisations (APERO) was formed in response to the climate of conflict caused by terrorism and the events in the Middle East. Its goal is to foster harmony between Christians, Muslims, Jews, Buddhists, Hindus, Baha'is and Sikhs through dialogue and education.

PUBLIC STATEMENTS AND DECLARATIONS

Pope John Paul II's 1996 message for the World Day of Peace was entitled ‘That violence may never again be justified by appeals to religious motives.’ Pope John Paul II had a powerful influence on the peace process and was widely mourned when he died, with the Palestinian president, Maamoud Abbas saying he was '... a great religious figure who devoted his life to defending the values of peace, freedom, justice and equality for all races and religions.’ The Muslim-Christian Initiative on the Nuclear Weapons Danger was started jointly between the Presbyterian Peace Fellowship of America and the Islamic Society of North America (as well as secular groups). The initiative affirms the role of human beings as 'humble custodians' of the Earth and denounces chemical, biological and nuclear weapons because of their indiscriminate destruction.

…………….. ISLAM ………………

(1)THE UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE EXPRESSED IN THE QUR'AN AND HADITH

· Fundamental text

In Islam, the Qur'an is the fundamental text for all Muslims. It is believed to contain the revelation of Allah, complete and unaltered as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad beginning with the first revelation on the night of power and continuing over hundreds of occasions during the remainder of his life.

The Qur'an is organised into 114 surahs or chapters. The order of the Qur'an today is not the same order in which the revelations were received. The order is according to an instruction given to the Prophet Muhammad later in his life.

· Collection of traditions of Muhammad

The term "hadith" means that which has been recounted or told. The hadith refers to the collection of traditions of the words and deeds of Muhammad. Many such traditions emerged after the death of Muhammad and these are highly respected though they are viewed separately and subordinate to the Qur'an.

The religion of Islam is essentially one of peace. The word "Islam" itself comes from selm and salam the Arabic words for peace. Muslims greet one another with the expression "As-Salamu-Alaykum" which means peace be with you.

From the very first verse of the Qur'an the theme of peace is evident. " In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most compassionate." This tone continues in many places throughout the revealed text. This verse is repeated in the Qur'an no less than 114 times. It shows the great importance Islam attaches to such values as mercy and compassion. One of Allah's names, according to the Qur'an, is "As Salaam" which means peace.

· Paths of peace

The Qur'an refers to Islam as 'the paths of peace' (5:16). It describes reconciliation as a basic stance (4:128) and states that Allah abhors disturbance of the peace. (2:205) Islam regards the mission of the Prophet Muhammad as one of peace and mercy to humankind. (21:107)

A study of the Qur'an shows that much of it as well as the traditions of the hadith is based on peace and kindness, either directly or indirectly. The ideal society, according to the Qur'an is "Dar al Salaam" which means the house of peace. (10:25)

· Natural order conveys peace

The accounts of creation and the natural order in the Qur'an present the universe as a model, which is characterised by harmony and peace (36:40) When Allah created heaven and the earth it was ordered so that each element may perform its function peacefully without clashing with any other part. The Qur'an states that "the sun is not allowed to overtake the moon, nor does the night out pace the day. Each in its own orbit runs." (36:40)

· Essence of Islam

The very essence of Islam is peace and authentic Islam cannot be achieved except in an atmosphere of peace and harmony. According to Islam peace is not simply an absence of war. Peace opens doors of all kinds of opportunities, which are present in any given situation. It is only peaceful situation in which planned activities are possible. Due to this the Qur'an says 'reconciliation is the best' (4:128) Similarly the tradition of the Prophet Muhammad affirms "Allah grants to ifq (gentleness) what he does not grant to unf (violence), (Hadith 4/255).

· War of aggression not permitted

Because of this importance of peace the Qur'an has clearly declared that no aggressive war is permitted in Islam. Muslims can engage themselves only in a defensive, not in an offensive war, whatever the circumstances. (2:190). According to Islam, peace is the rule and war is only an exception.

Even in a situation of a defensive war Muslims are required to make an assessment of the situation and if the likely outcome does not warrant the conflict Muslims should avoid the war.

· Jihad misrepresented

One of the most often misrepresented ideas in Islam is the notion if "jihad" or struggle. Jihad is a central teaching of Islam but is not, as many believe, synonymous for war. It is not even the term used in the Qur'an to refer to war When the Qur'an refers to war or fighting it uses the word "qital" and not jihad.

Jihad literally means to strive or to struggle. In its proper usage it refers mostly to the essential struggle in overcoming obstacles to submission to Allah. It can, and does also refer to the military struggle to achieve religious freedom for Muslims and the protection of Muslim values, however, the use of force is always a last resort and war of aggression is never an option for Islam.

· Muhammad's prayer

According to the tradition of the Hadith, the daily prayer of the Prophet Muhammad was centred on peace. A peace which comes from Allah and a peace which is foundational to the faith of Islam: "O Allah, you are the original source of peace; from you is all peace, and to you returns all peace, So, make us live with Peace; and let us enter paradise; The House of Peace. Blessed be you, our Lord, to whom belongs all Majesty and Honour!"

QUR’AN & HADITH

- SOME QUOTATIONS ON “PEACE”

The Muslims say "hello" with the phrase "as-Salamu `alaykum"-- "peace be upon you."

· Allah is with those who restrain themselves." [16: 128]

· And do good. Truly Allah loves the good-doers.’ (Surat-al-Baqarah (2), ayah 195)

· And the servants of Allah . . . are those who walked on the earth in humility, and when the ignorant address them, they say 'Peace'" [25:63]

· But if they incline to peace, you also incline to it, and put your trust in Allah. Verily, he is the All-Hearer, the All-Knower. (Surat-al-Anfal (8), ayah 62)

· Exempted are those who join people with whom you have signed a peace treaty, and those who come to you wishing not to fight you, nor fight their relatives. Had GOD willed, He could have permitted them to fight against you. Therefore, if they leave you alone, refrain from fighting you, and offer you peace, then GOD gives you no excuse to fight them. [4:90]

· For them will be the home of peace (paradise) with their Lord. And He will be their Helper and Protector because of what they used to do. (Surat-al-An’aam (6), ayah 127)

· For those who respond to GOD and the messenger, despite the persecution they suffer, and maintain their good works, and lead a righteous life, a great reward. [3:172]

· GOD invites to the abode of peace, and guides whoever wills (to be guided) in a straight path [10:25]

· If the unbelievers do not offer you peace, kill them wherever you find them. Against such you are given clear warrant. 4:91

· If they seek peace, then seek you peace. And trust in God for He is the One that heareth and knoweth all things. [8:61]

· Therefore, you shall not waver and surrender in pursuit of peace, for you are guaranteed victory, and GOD is with you. He will never waste your efforts. [47:35]

· They have deserved the abode of peace at their Lord; He is their Lord and Master, as a reward for their works. [6:127]

· Verily, Allah enjoins justice and Righteous deeds (Surat-an-Nahl (16), ayah 90)

· We shall not suffer to be lost the reward of anyone who does his (righteous) deeds in the most perfect manner. (Surat-al-Kahf (18), ayah 30)

· When our messengers went to Abraham with good news, they said, "Peace." He said, "Peace," and soon brought a roasted calf. [11:69]

· Whoever kills another one without justifiable cause, surely he is killing all of humanity. And whoever saves the life of another one, surely he saves the lives of all of humanity. [Sura Al Ma'aidah: Ayah 32]

· With it, GOD guides those who seek His approval. He guides them to the paths of peace, leads them out of darkness into the light by His leave, and guides them in a straight path. [Surah 5:16]

(2)PRINCIPAL TEACHINGS ABOUT PEACE IN ISLAM

· Centrality of peace

The religion of Islam is based on the notion of peace as an essential element. The word "Islam" itself comes from the Arabic words for peace selm and salam. The traditional Muslim greeting "As-Salamu-Alaykum" means peace be with you.

The opening verse of the Qur'an expresses an important element of the Muslim understanding of peace. " In the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most compassionate." This tone continues in many places throughout the revealed text. This verse is repeated in the Qur'an no less than 114 times. Included among the Qur'anic names for Allah is "As Salaam" which means peace.

· Paths of peace

The Qur'an refers to Islam as 'the paths of peace' (5:16). It describes reconciliation as a basic stance (4:128) and states that Allah abhors disturbance of the peace. (2:205) Islam regards the mission of the Prophet Muhammad as one of peace and mercy to humankind. (21:107)

· Permitted use of force

It is therefore clear that the principal teachings of Islam strongly advocate peace. However, there are also clear teachings in Islam which permit the use of force in certain situations.

Unfortunately, the teachings of Islam on the use of force have frequently been misrepresented both by extremist elements claiming to be Muslim and others outside the Muslim tradition who seek to portray all Muslims as extremists.

· Jihad misrepresented

The concept of "Jihad" in Islam is very often the source of the misrepresentation. Jihad is a central teaching of Islam but is not, as many believe, synonymous for war. It is not even the term used in the Qur'an to refer to war When Qur'an refers to war or fighting it uses the word "qital" and not jihad.

Jihad literally means to strive or to struggle. In its proper usage it refers mostly to the essential struggle in overcoming obstacles to submission to Allah. It can, and does also refer to the military struggle to achieve religious freedom for Muslims and the protection of Muslim values, however, the use of force is always a last resort and war of aggression is not permitted Islam.

· Peace fundamental aim of Islam

A close analysis of Islamic texts and the history of Islam demonstrate clearly that peace is the fundamental aim of Islam. Wars can be fought, however, to defend against acts of aggression and overcome oppression, but only as the last resort. For Muslims war is not a way to advance ideology or extend political power and influence.

Peace in Islam does not just mean the absence of war, but extends to the absence of oppression and tyranny. For Muslims, true peace can only exist where there is justice. Therefore, Islam justifies war against oppressive regimes that prevent people from living in freedom and upholding their religious beliefs and practices. It does not, however, justify war against non-Muslim people for the purposes of forcefully spreading the influence of Islam.

· dar al Islam and dar al Harb

The idea that Islam supports the use of force in order to propagate itself stems largely from doctrines that were developed during the classical period of Islamic scholarship. Including in this period of scholarship was a doctrine that divided the world into two domains. These two domains were broadly understood as the areas or regions under the influence of Islam "dar al lslam" and "dar al Harb", the regions not under the influence of Islam or Islamic law. Some scholars have regarded the second region "dar al Harb" as a zone of struggle or conflict which Muslims should seek to bring under Islamic influence.

· Muslim influence

The division of the world into these two domains and the notion that Muslims ought to strive to bring "dar al Harb" under Islamic influence is the idea that is used by Muslim extremists to promote their ideology of an aggressive propagation of Islam. Some such extremists use the term "jihad" to describe their campaigns of violence. Thus the term "jihad" has, in the minds of many, come to be associated with the idea of a holy war against all who do not embrace Islam.

Such extremist views, however, are clearly matters of ideology rather than an authentic vision of Islam and there is no doubt that authentic Islam abhors the use of force and seeks to promote peace.

· Muslim pacifism

In the early years of Islam, under persistent threats of persecution and harassment Muslims adopted a pacifist stance in Makkah. Even when this pacifism was abandoned during the time in Madinah, force was only used in response to those who attacked the Muslims. This permission to use force is expressed in the Qur'an "to those against whom war is made, permission to fight is given" (22:39)

In Madinah, the Muslims remained at peace with the Jews who lived in the city. Muhammad forged an alliance of cooperation and friendship with the Jews which assured them of their freedom of religion as well as their security in the Muslim world.

· Conflict with Byzantium

The notion of the two domains "dar al lslam" and "dar al Harb" did not arise until sometime later during a period of conflict between Islam and the Byzantine empire. It is understandable during such conflicts that extremist attitudes develop towards the other. Previously peaceful relations had existed between the Islamic world and the Christian realm of Abyssinia.

Muslim scholars had no notion of "dar al lslam" and "dar al Harb" until later periods when conflict prevailed. Thus this sense of polarisation between Muslims and non Muslims is not a reflection of the authentic teaching of Islam but a response to a period of conflict. Extremists seeking to use the name of Islam to further their ideologies often call upon this division as a basis for their campaign, however, such hostility and division is not representative of Islam.

· Use of Qur'an by extremists

The Qur'an has also been used to provide support for extremists in their campaigns. Surahs such as 2:193 at face value suggest an endorsement of a campaign to force others to submit to Islam. "And fight them on until there is no more Fitnah and religion should be only for Allah. (2:193).

However, in context this surah clearly refers to a defence of Islam in the face of aggression by others. "Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not commit aggression, for Allah loves not aggressors." (2:190) . but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression. (2:193)

· Aggression towards non-Muslims

Another section of the Qur'an seems to invite aggression towards non Muslims "slay the mushrikin wherever you find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem; but if they repent, and establish Salat and pay Zakat, then open the way for them" (9:5). Yet the context is clearly a reference to the non Muslims at the time of Muhammad who were actively plotting against the Muslims in Madinah.

Therefore, while this surah is not an endorsement of hostility towards non Muslims it does contain the basis for the Muslim support of a pre-emptive strike where the evidence of an imminent attack is unmistakable.

· Permitted use of war

In Islam, the permitted use of war is to establish and assure justice, and to overcome oppression and tyranny. Four situations can be seen where an Islamic state is justified in using force.

i. The first situation is to overcome oppression where there is the denial of religious freedom

ii. The second situation is when individual Muslims and their property are under attack from another group in the community.

iii. The third situation is where an Islamic state is invaded by a foreign power. In this situation, the use of a pre-emptive strike is also permitted if the evidence of an impending attack is unmistakable.

iv. The fourth situation relates to law enforcement where there is a need to subdue rebellion against legitimate authority within an Islamic state. This does not refer to opposition to public policy or reasonable protest. Rather it relates to a kind of insurrection which seeks to use violence and force to achieve ideological goals. In this context, the use of force by Muslim authorities is understood as being aimed at the protection of other people and their property.

· Force necessary in some situations

Muslims see the use of force as necessary in certain contexts, believing that without the responsible use of force there would be chaos and the triumph of tyranny in the community.

"Had it not been (the Will of) Allah that one set of people is repelled by another, certainly the earth would have been in a state of disorder." (2:251)

"Had it not been (the Will of) Allah that one set of people is repelled by another, certainly there would have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is commemorated in abundant measure." (22:40) .

(3A)GUIDANCE FOR MUSLIMS IN ACHIEVING INNER PEACE

· Peace with self and with the world

For Muslims, peace is not a single dimensional or individual concept. Peace is, first and foremost, to be at rest with one's own desires and ambitions and having a balance, which is an internal affair, and then, secondly, to have peace with the world around. There is a reciprocal relationship between this inner peace and the peace with the wider world. No one can be at peace with themselves until they are also at peace with others. Conversely, it will not be possible to live at peace with others until there is a sense of peace and wellbeing with one's self.

In Islam the concept of peace is two-fold. Firstly, to be at peace with Allah and then, secondly, to be at peace with oneself and with the rest of the world. In Islam the concept of peace is closely related to the idea of submission.

· Submission leads to peace

The goal of Islam is submission to Allah and in this submission peace is found. Muslims understand that peace is not possible outside of this relationship with Allah. In submitting to Allah a person finds peace, peace first of all with Allah, then with self and also with others. Submission to the will of Allah is the only means of attaining peace with Allah.

· Qur'an sets out paths for peace

The Qur'an sets out clear paths for Muslims to follow in their desire to submit to Allah. The most significant of these are the five pillars or the pillars of Islam (arkan al-islam). These activities and beliefs are regarded as foundational for all who follow Islam. Each of the pillars requires both an internal or spiritual commitment together with an outward action or sign.

By devoutly and sincerely following fulfilling the requirements of the five pillars, Muslims will find themselves living according to the will of Allah and as a consequence experience a deep sense of peace and wellbeing that can only come through this submission.

· Shahada

The first of the five pillars is a witness to the oneness of Allah and the role of the Prophet Muhammad as its messenger. This pillar is known as the shahada which means to bear witness. The shahada is expressed as follows "Ashadu an la ilaha il-allahu wa Muhammadar rasullah". It means "I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah".

The witness in the shahada is essentially all that it takes to be considered a Muslim. It is a declaration that Muslims pray ceaselessly in everyday life. Muslims seek to pray the shahada each morning upon waking and each night before sleeping. The shahada is whispered into the ear of a newly born child. It is part of the call to prayer proclaimed by the muezzin, it forms part of ritual prayer and underpins prayers offered during pilgrimage and at the hour of death of a believer.

The shahada essentially witnesses to the monotheism of Islam. Its central statement affirms the oneness of Allah and expressed in the negative "there is no god but Allah" provides not only an affirmation of the oneness of Allah but also includes a repudiation of anything which falsely claims to be God. The repudiation of anything false includes a repudiation of self and selfishness which frees a Muslim to worship Allah freely without the restrictions of egocentrism. This freedom is an integral part of the quest for inner peace as a focus on self and selfishness will effectively destroy this peace.

· Salat

The second of the pillars of Islam is the requirement of ritual prayer known as "salat". The requirement here is that every Muslim will offer five daily prayers. In addition, prayers are offered on Fridays at noon at the mosque. There are also prayers to be offered on the great festivals and on other significant occasions.

The ritual prayers of salat play an important role in Islam at a number of different levels. Firstly they are an act of obedience to Allah. Secondly they proclaim the oneness and greatness of Allah. The prayers also serve the function of bringing people closer to Allah, they contribute to the purity of the person praying, provide strength to carry out the requirements of Islam and forgiveness for transgressions. The purity and strength associated with salat provide important foundations for a sense of peace and wellbeing

· Zakat

The third pillar of Islam is the requirement of almsgiving known as "zakat". Zakat operates as a kind of tithe where money is collected from Muslims and given to the poor. It has also been described as a charitable tax.

The aim of zakat for the one contributing is to purify and cleanse wealth and to allow it to be free from greed and selfishness. It helps Muslims to overcome feelings of attachment to money and the wish to cling to it. It affirms that money is for the service of human kind and not for exclusive personal gain. The freedom from the attachment of wealth and possessions is considered by Muslims to be an essential element in the quest for inner peace.

Muslims believe that the things they own; their wealth and possessions, are not truly their own but rather in trust to them by Allah. Thus anything they give is understood as simply returning the material goods to their rightful owner. They also believe that it is Allah's choice for people to be rich and poor and that the rich have an obligation to help the poor which goes beyond the notion of charity.

Wealth and material possessions are understood to be transient things. People are born into the world without possessions, they will leave the world without possessions and therefore it is foolishness to cling to possessions and even worse to be dominated by them. To maintain close ties to wealth and possession will effectively undermine the search for inner peace.

· Sawm

The fourth pillar of Islam involves fasting. It refers to voluntary fasting and is known as "sawm". The period of fasting is for the month of Ramadan. During this period all adult Muslims who are in good health will fast for all the hours of daylight. T