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Ethnicity, Crime & Deviance

There are huge differences between the offending rates of

different ethnic groups according to official statistics. This

topic examines various theories of ‘ethnicity-based’ offending

& highlights the issue the criminal justice system may be

discriminative towards certain groups.

Your Learning Objectives for this topic are as follows. You

Should:> Know the main patterns of ethnicity & criminalisation as

shown by different sources of data differences in recorded

patterns of offending.

> Be able to evaluate sociological explanations of the

relationship between ethnicity, offending & criminalisation

Ethnicity and crime

Key facts

Official statistics say black people are:

7 times more likely to be stopped and searched.

3 ½ times more likely to be arrested.

5 times more likely to be in prison than their white counterparts.

Victim studies say black people are more likely to be identified as offenders & most crime is intra –ethnic meaning it takes place among rather than between ethnic groups.

Self-report studies conclude that black people have similar rates of offending to whites if not lower.

Ethnicity and the criminal justice system

2.Stop and search

Lots of stop an search is perhaps due to racism and the targeting of

ethnic minorities.

1. Policing

Many allegations of oppressive policing from minority ethnic communities are made.

3. Arrests and cautions

More likely to be arrested and cautioned perhaps due to a mistrust of police and not admitting to the offence.

4. Prosecution & conviction

Crown prosecution Service more likely to drop cases against ethnic minorities. Black and Asian defendants are less likely to be found guilty.

5. Sentencing and Prison

Custodial sentences more likely to be given to black offenders. Blacks and Asians over-represented in prisons and more likely to be given longer sentences.

Ethnicity & Crime

Like the working-class, teenagers and males, certain ethnic groups

are highly represented in official crime statistics compared to others.

In 2008, the Ministry of Justice reported that, compared to white

people, black people (African Caribbeans) were:

>Three and a half times more likely to be

arrested

> More likely, if found guilty, to receive a custodial sentence.> Five times more likely to be in prison

> If arrested, more likely to be charged & face court proceedings

than to receive a caution

> Three times more likely to be cautioned by police

> More likely to be arrested for robbery

In 2008, the Ministry of Justice reported that, compared to white

people, Asians were;

>Twice as likely to be stopped & searched (mainly for

drugs)

> More likely to be charged and face court proceedings than to

receive a caution.

> More likely to receive a custodial sentence if found

guilty> More likely to be arrested for fraud & forgery

In 2007, 26% of male prisoners and 29% of females were from black &

minority ethnic groups despite making up only 9% of the general

population.

We will now look at some sociological explanations of these trends

Before continuing, what problems should we be aware of when trying to

examine crime rates by ethnic groups?

What is meant by the term ‘Generalisation’?

Neo-Marxism:

What do you already know about Neo-Marxist Theory?

Gilroy (1982) argues that Black crime, particularly in the 1970s was a form

of political resistance against a repressive, racist state (Capitalist State)

He denies that there was greater criminality amongst black people than

white but the media created a folk-devil of black people which generated

deviance amplification…..

As such it is important to recall the work of labelling/ interactionist

theorists such as:

Becker Cohen Young

How do each of these sociologists explain high crime rates amongst particular

groups?

THEORY LINK:

Neo-Marxism might be described as a STRUCTURATION THEORY…why?

Criticisms of Neo-Marxist explanation of black

crime:

> Ignores the fact that much black crime is committed against

other black people (not just against the ‘white establishment’.

> Ignores that much crime is actually reported by the public,

suggesting that it is not the police being racist.

Despite these criticisms, this theory is supported by other

researchers including Hall et all (1982) in ‘The Whites of Their

Eyes.

During the 1970s Britain was facing a CRISIS OF

HEGEMONY.

There was high unemployment, civil unrest in relation

to political issues and a high number of strikes. This

had the potential to topple ruling-class power and as

such the ruling-class needed a SCAPEGOAT – they did

this by using the media to create the ‘Black

Mugger’……

Due to the hostility developing between the black community

and the police, the police begin to implement MILITARY

POLICING. This is aggressive, stricter and more repressive

policing.

How might the black community react to such police tactics?

See Article: Police accused of misusing terror laws against

peaceful protests

(Once again the work of Becker, Cohen & Young is

important here)

By creating a folk-devil and a moral panic (and convincing the

public that the ‘Black Mugger’ is to blame for society’s

problems), the police are justified in using more aggressive and

oppressive tactics against the black community. This in turn

creates resentment and hostility against the police which again

in turn reinforces existing stereotypes and racism.

The Effects of Police Prejudice, Military policing and Deviance Amplification

(Lea & Young)

Unemployment

(Moral Panic Hyped Up by the Media)

Racial prejudice & discrimination within

the police

+ Rising Street Crime & Civil Unrest+

Stereotype the black community as crime prone (Scapegoats)

=

Alienation of Black

Community

Mobilisation of Bystanders

Reduced cooperation with police

Collective Resistance from

Community

Military Police Tactics

Reinforcement of Folk Devil, Moral Panic,

Prejudice and Racism

After the murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993, the Macpherson Inquiry

claimed that the police are characterised by ‘Institutionalised Racism’.

Institutionalised Racism:

‘The Police operate by procedures,

practices and a culture that tends to

exclude or to disadvantage non-white

people’

This is racism that is not necessarily intentional but that

the day-to-day activities of the organisation are based

upon racist ideas and practices i.e. Racism is ingrained in

the system.

See handouts:

> ‘Policing & the Law’

> ‘Police Station had

“Apartheid Culture” > ‘Black

Bishop “Demeaned” by Police Search’

Reiner (2000) argues that there exists a ‘Canteen Culture’

amongst the police: a macho, suspicious, racist and mistrusting

culture against non-whites.

The Metropolitan Black Police Association (2008) warned ethnic

minorities not to join the police force because of it’s, ‘…hostile

atmosphere where racism is allowed to spread’.

Evidence in Self-Report Studies?

Offending, Crime & Justice Survey (2003):

> White people had highest offence rate

> Mugging was higher in the black group, but was rare across all groups

> Offences committed in last 12 months: Whites males aged 10-25 more serious

offences.

> Violence & drug-selling: White response higher than average, Asians were lower

than average.

Sharp & Budd (2005) Minority Ethnic Groups & Crime: Findings

from the Offending, Crime & Justice Survey :

Methods Link:

> Why might information obtained through Self-Report studies need to be

questioned?

If you were to investigate institutional racism within the police force

which methods would be best to use and why?

What sorts of problems might you encounter whilst conducting such

research?

> Out of all ethnic groups, black people were more likely to have contact

with the police, been to court & convicted.

> This is despite lower levels of offending than whites in general

> Black & Asian offenders more likely to be charged than white offenders

for similar offences.

> Black & Asian offenders less likely to be granted bail.

> Black & Asian offenders more likely to be given custodial sentences

rather than community punishments

Left Realism:

Lea & Young (1984) accepts that black crime, for some offences,

is in fact higher than for whites i.e. it is not just a social

construction, an the police and racism cannot be blamed for

creating high black crime rates.

What do you know about Realist Theories of crime & Deviance?

Instead Lea & Young look at the how many ethnic minority groups suffer from:

1) Marginalisation

2) Relative Deprivation

3) Negative Subcultures

What is meant by Marginalisation & Relative Deprivation?

Why might ethnic minorities be likely to suffer from these?

Why might these things produce subcultures that are detrimental to minority

individuals?

Lea & Young argue that individuals react to these factors in different

ways yet many black minority groups do in fact react through crime &

deviance.

Is this approach to Crime and Ethnicity realistic?

Can this theory be criticised and if so, how?

Bowling & Phillips (2002) support this realist view by pointing out

that high levels of poverty and social exclusion could explain why

there is a high level of robbery amongst black people.

They also argue that despite the fact that Pakistani & Bangledeshi

communities also suffer from social exclusion, their low crime rates may

well be down to stricter social control within the home and local

community which limits their opportunities to offend.

How could Rational Choice Theory & Control Theory be linked to these

ideas?

Ethnicity and crime

Explaining differences in offending

Left realism

Ethnic minorities commit more crime because racism in wider has caused them to be marginalised, coupled with economic exclusion such as high unemployment and poor housing. Left realists don’t believe that racism in the police can account for higher crime because black people have a higher offending rate than Asians.

Neo-Marxist - Paul Gilroy

Black people commit more crime because they resent the cultural experience of colonialism i.e. being taken over and having black slaves sent to Britain to work. This experience causes resentment in young black males which makes them commit crime.

Neo-Marxist - Stuart Hall et al (Policing

the crisis)

Combines Marxism and Labelling theory.

Economic conditions in the 1990’s were bad, government look for a scapegoat.

Young black muggers are labelled and a moral panic is created about their behaviour in the media.

Young black males commit no more crime than any other group but labelling and the economy makes it seem like they do.

Victimisation

Police recorded 61,000 racists incidents while the BCS reports 184,000 many go unreported. People from mixed ethnic backgrounds were more likely to be victims of crimes.

Stephen Lawrence

The death of Stephen Lawrence in 1993 by a white gang caused outcry as police botched the investigation. The inquiry called the Macpherson report declared institutional racism in the police.

Strain Theory & Anomie

(Merton)

Ecology Theory (Park &

Burgess)

Subcultures & the Working-Classes (Cloward &

Ohlin)

Working-Class Focal Concerns (Miller)And

Apply each of the following theories to the study of Ethnicity & C&D

(evaluate the theories as you do this)

You should also be familiar with other theories of C&D which can also be

applied in relation to Ethnicity & C&D.

Exam style question:

‘Assess Sociological explanations for the over-

representation of some minority ethnic groups in

criminal statistics’. (24 marks)