when art and marketing meet on a poster
TRANSCRIPT
WHEN
ART & MARKETING
MEET ON A POSTER
Art Appropriation in Advertising
Student: Femke Wijman
Student number: 2178532
Email: [email protected]
First corrector and supervisor: Ingmar Leijen
Second corrector: Rick Heldoorn
VU University Amsterdam
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
Bachelor Thesis BK Marketing
28-01-2015
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
2
Samenvatting
Bedrijven maken al sinds het ontstaan van reclame gebruik van kunstwerken om hun producten en
diensten te verkopen. Dit fenomeen wordt ook wel art appropriation genoemd. Desondanks is er tot
heden weinig onderzoek gedaan naar hoe en of dit gebruik van kunst in de reclame invloed heeft op
het merk en haar persoonlijkheid (brand personality).
Het doel van dit literatuuronderzoek is om de gevolgen van art appropriation op de effectiviteit van
reclame weer te geven. Hoewel er verschillende manieren bestaan om de effectiviteit van reclame te
meten, wordt in deze scriptie gebruik gemaakt van brand personality. Daarnaast wordt een nieuwe
variabele gevormd, namelijk attitude towards artwork. De relatie tussen alle variabelen in het
onderzoek worden uitgelegd; hoe involvement, familiarity en congruence invloed hebben op attitude
towards artwork, wat weer effect heeft op de brand personality. Uit het theoretisch kader worden een
aantal stellingen geformuleerd die later samengevat worden in het conceptueel model.
Deze scriptie is geschreven in de vorm van een literatuuronderzoek, met het doel bestaande theorieën
samen te voegen en de basis te leggen voor toekomstig empirisch onderzoek.
De resultaten van dit onderzoek hebben gevolgen voor de academische wereld, omdat er nog vrij
weinig bekend is over dit onderwerp. Daarnaast dient het conceptueel model als uitgangspunt voor
toekomstig onderzoek. Implicaties voor managers liggen vooral in het beslissingsbeleid om bepaalde
kunstwerken wel of niet te gebruiken in reclames. Deze beslissing zou gebaseerd moeten worden op
de variabelen involvement, familiarity en congruence, welke invloed hebben op de attitude towards
artwork die op haar beurt de brand personality bepaalt. Zo zorgt meer involvement van consumers tot
een positievere attitude towards artwork. Verder hebben familiarity en congruence afzonderlijk
positieve, maar in combinatie weer andere effecten op de attitude towards artwork. Weloverwogen
beslissingen verhogen de effectiviteit van reclame en kunnen veel geld besparen. Beslissingen waar
deze variabelen niet in mee worden genomen zouden de brand personality kunnen schaden en voor
minder klanten zorgen.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
3
Management Summary
Art appropriation in advertising has been used by brands for a long time to sell their products or
services. Nevertheless, there has been very little research whether and how this use of art in
advertising enhances the Brand Personality.
The purpose of this paper is to explore how art appropriation in advertising has an impact on the
effectiveness of advertising. While various measures of advertising effectiveness exist, this thesis uses
the measure of Brand Personality. A valuable new variable has been defined, i.e. Attitude towards
Artwork. The relationships between all variables in this paper are explained. Involvement, Familiarity
and Congruence affect Attitude towards Artwork which in turn influences Brand Personality. The
following problem statement is used: How do Familiarity and Congruence influence the relationship
between Attitude towards Artwork and Brand Personality in appropriated art advertising? From the
theory a number of propositions are formulated and those can be summarized in the conceptual model.
1) Attitude towards Artwork has a positive effect on Brand Personality; 2) Involvement has a positive
effect on Attitude towards Artwork; 3) Familiarity has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork;
4) Congruence has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork; 5) Attitude towards Artwork will be
more positive for a combination of Familiarity and Incongruence than for a combination of
Familiarity and Congruence; and 6) Attitude towards Artwork will be more positive for a combination
of Unfamiliarity and Congruence than for a combination of Unfamiliarity and Incongruence.
This paper is written as a narrative literature review, in order to establish existing theories and lay a
foundation for further empirical research. The outcome of this review will have implications for the
whole research area, for it proposes a conceptual model that can be tested and expanded in future
research. Brands can use this model for making decisions about using art in advertising, based on the
degree of Involvement, Familiarity and Congruence. These choices affect consumers’ Attitude towards
Artwork and enhance Brand Personality. This could lead to more effective advertising and potentially
save large amounts of money. Failing to make careful considerations could even damage Brand
Personality and may decline consumers’ intention to buy.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
4
Table of Contents
Samenvatting ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Management Summary ............................................................................................................................ 3
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 4
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Problem Statement and Sub Questions .......................................................................................... 6
2. Theory ................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Brand Personality .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Attitude towards Artwork .............................................................................................................. 8
2.2.1 Value of Art ............................................................................................................................ 8
2.2.2 Superiority of the Pleasant versus Law of Extremes .............................................................. 8
2.3 Brand Personality and Attitude towards Artwork ......................................................................... 9
2.4 Involvement ................................................................................................................................. 10
2.5 Familiarity ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.5.1 Parasocial Relationship Theory ............................................................................................ 10
2.5.2 The Mere Exposure Effect .................................................................................................... 11
2.5.3 Style Association .................................................................................................................. 11
2.6 Congruence .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.6.1 Sponsorship Theories ........................................................................................................... 12
2.6.3 Commonality and Complementarity .................................................................................... 12
2.7 Familiarity and Congruence ........................................................................................................ 13
2.8 Propositions ................................................................................................................................. 14
2.9 Conceptual model ........................................................................................................................ 14
3. Conclusion and Discussion ............................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Discussion ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Implications ................................................................................................................................. 17
4. References ......................................................................................................................................... 18
5. Appendix ........................................................................................................................................... 21
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
5
1. Introduction
Advertisements are increasingly becoming works of art by themselves. Brands are always looking for
strong images for their advertisements, so why not draw from masterpieces of art history? In this paper
is addressed how artwork used in advertising may affect the concerning brand. The variables used to
do this are Attitude towards the appropriated Artwork, which is influenced by Familiarity with the
appropriated artwork, Congruence between Brand Personality and appropriated art, and Involvement
of the consumer with the ad. Attitude towards Artwork has a positive effect on Brand Personality.
Art experts and lovers typically do not approve of the commercial usage of art, even though the fields
of art and advertising have been intertwined since the origin of advertisement. The first advertising
posters where made in the late 19th century by artists and graphic designers. Examples of famous
poster designers are Chéret and Mucha in France, as well as the German journal ‘’Das Plakat’’ (The
Poster), which urged artists to work for industry and promoted that one commercial artist could do the
poster, logotypes and lettering alone (Margolin, 2000).
However, it could be said advertising started way earlier; in the Dutch Golden Age with great painters
like Rembrandt, Frans Hals and Vermeer. In that time, the Republic produced seventy thousand
paintings yearly; among many were so-called genre paintings (Dekker, 2009). In line with the Dutch
tradition of moral teaching by fine art, their paintings reflect scenes to propagandize the Dutch
Republic. Portraits of business elite who built an orphanage or medical scenes showing how advanced
their techniques were, can be considered as an early form of advertisement. In the large art market,
freedom of consumers made moral messages in fine art different from mere propaganda. Since success
depended on the congruence of potential consumer’s interest, this commercial use of art is considered
as advertising (Dekker, 2009).
Challenging the fine arts, the art movement Pop Art emerged in the 1950’s, where commercial
products were used in art. Andy Warhol is well known for his work, in which he used commercial
products in artworks. Nowadays, it is the other way around. Brands increasingly use existing artworks
in their advertisements. Art critics may not be so happy about art appropriated in advertisements, but
what does the ‘average’ consumer think? Does it affect the advertisement in a positive way? Are
consumers more willing to buy something that is advertised by e.g. Mona Lisa (See Appendix Image
1) or The Creation of Adam (Image 2)? Is their aesthetic value transferred to the brand? Does the
consumer believe Bic 4 Color pens allow for more possibilities creativity than a regular pen, like
LEGO suggests every child can create a Masterpiece?
The borrowing of an existing work of art is referred to as art appropriation (Dinu, 2004). In this paper
art appropriation is limited to art that is used in advertising. An early case of art appropriation in
advertising occurred already in 1887 in England. Marketing mastermind Barratt, from Pears Soap,
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
6
purchased exclusive copyrights of the painting ‘Bubbles’ by Millais, showing a boy looking up at a
bubble (Image 3). By adding a bar of Pears Soap and the company name, they created the
advertisement. This novel use of art led to the of many debates about the relationship between art and
advertising (Twitchell, 1996).
Despite the fact that art appropriation has long been used in advertising, it is unknown how this
phenomenon affects art and advertising. As the majority of research on this topic has been qualitative
and from either art critics or popular culture scholars, empirical evidence is missing. The assumptions
investigated are that art appropriation in advertising raises perceived aesthetic value of the ad, but
lowers the perceived value of the artwork and art in general (Dinu, 2004). In this paper, what is known
about art appropriation is described and integrated in theories from psychology to marketing.
A new variable, Attitude towards Artwork, is formulated based on the often used construct Attitude
towards the Ad. Numerous scholars have done research on the topic of brand image and the role of
advertising in affecting brand image/brand personality (e.g. Aaker, 1997; MacKenzie et al., 1986; Silk
& Vavra, 1973). One of the main explaining variables of brand image is found to be Attitude toward
the Ad (e.g. Mitchell & Olson, 1981; Lutz, 1975).
This paper is an attempt to combine those theories and form a conceptual framework that can explain
the relation between Attitude towards Artwork and Brand Personality.
1.1 Problem Statement and Sub Questions
From the research gap described above, the following problem statement can be formulated:
How does Attitude towards Artwork influence Brand Personality and how do Involvement, Familiarity
and Congruence affect Attitude towards Artwork in appropriated art advertising?
Questions subsumed in the problem statement are:
What is the relationship between Brand Personality and Attitude towards Artwork?
How do Involvement, Familiarity and Congruence influence Attitude towards Artwork?
What is the relationship between Familiarity and Congruence?
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
7
2. Theory
This chapter discusses existing theories on the topic from e.g. psychology and marketing areas. Firstly,
relevant definitions of the variables will be given. Starting with Brand Personality, followed by
Attitude towards Artwork and how that affects Brand Personality. Subsequently, the variables
Involvement, Familiarity and Congruence will be described, after which their relation with Attitude
towards Artwork is elaborated. Furthermore, the relation between Familiarity and Congruence will be
addressed. With empirical evidence the theory will then be integrated to form propositions that are
summarized in the conceptual model.
2.1 Brand Personality
The purpose of marketing is to create and sustain a brand. All communications around a brand and
consumers perception of that brand deliver a message, establishing the brand image. Advertising in
particular plays a major role in this process (Moriarty et al., 2014). Brand Personality is a concept
similar to brand image. Consumers like to reflect their own associations on brand image. Thus, when
describing a brand as if it were a person, human characteristics are used. Doing so has a symbolic or
self-expressive function (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 1993). This is also called personification. Research has
proposed a positive relation between consumer personality and Brand Personality. Brand Personality
reflects the affective dimensions of a brand, in order for consumers to be able to identify the brand
with themselves (Moriarty et al., 2014). The more congruence between perceived Brand Personality
and their own, the more a brand is preferred.
In line with this, a framework of brand personality is developed. The dimensions in this framework are
Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication and Ruggedness (Aaker, 1997). Moreover, this
framework of Brand Personality is strongly connected to the Big Five personality traits (Briggs, 1992).
Three of the Brand Personality dimensions can directly be related to the human personality
dimensions: Agreeableness and Sincerity, Extroversion and Excitement, Conscientiousness and
Competence. The other two, Sophistication and Ruggedness are not related to the Big Five. This
suggests the latter two influence consumer preference in different ways than the first three (Aaker,
1997).
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
8
2.2 Attitude towards Artwork
A new construct formulated in this thesis is Attitude towards Artwork. For existing studies have not
considered Attitude towards Artwork, its definition is derived from comparable attitude constructs in
the research area of advertising and art. Discussed first is how the value of art is perceived. Second,
two viewpoints i.e. Superiority of the Pleasant and the Law of Extremes are explained. Thirdly, the
definition of Attitude towards Artwork will be given.
2.2.1 Value of Art
What is considered art does not seem to have a universal definition. In this paper the definition of art
used is ‘visual communication created with an aesthetic purpose, and which does or might appear in a
museum’ (Dinu, 2004; Wollheim, 1987). Whether this visual communication has aesthetic purpose or
value, is a matter of perception or judgement (Levinson, 2003). The value of art is interchangeable
with the value of the experience the artwork gives us (Sharpe, 2000). However, art philosophers
usually find only the ‘qualified’ can determine value of either experience or artwork, excluding
uninformed others. While those others have no experience, the value of art is unrelated to the value of
experience (Sharpe, 2000). Besides experience, an important measure is the cultural value of art (Dinu,
2004). Also, art is in many respects valued the same as people. We can love it, hate it, be irritated or
bored by it (Sharpe, 2000). These feelings art evokes can be distinguished in favourable or
unfavourable. Moreover, like humans art has some intrinsic value. Their value is not only
instrumental, in the sense of what they do for us, but what they are for themselves (Sharpe, 2000).
Furthermore, Dinu (2004) argues that appropriation of familiar art is more valuable than of unfamiliar
art used in advertisements. This is because unfamiliar art images appropriated in advertising, will
merely been seen as ad illustrations. Their cultural value is, unlike familiar works of art, not
established for the mass of people (Dinu, 2004). As opposed, advertising the Mona Lisa who will be
recognized by many as fine art, preserving her cultural value and transferring that value to the
advertised product. Besides that, appropriation changes the ways in which people perceive both the
ads and the appropriated art. Aesthetic value and cash value of art images in advertising are found to
be evaluated less than the same images in a non-advertising context (Dinu, 2004).
2.2.2 Superiority of the Pleasant versus Law of Extremes
When art connects emotionally with people, this effect is transferred to the ad and thus to the
advertised product or brand. In line with this, since 1929 scholars studied the relation between
affective reactions of consumers and consumer behaviour and the question whether advertising is
effective (Silk & Vavra, 1973). Attitude is found to be a useful measure to predict consumer behaviour
(Mitchell & Olson, 1981; Spears and Singh, 2004).
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
9
Two dominant views exist: the Superiority of the Pleasant versus the Law of Extremes. The first view
states that liking and effectiveness (in advertising) have a positive relationship. Meaning the more
favourable feelings an ad evokes, the more effective and the more unfavourable feelings an ad evokes,
the less effective. The second says the relation between liking and effectiveness is not linear but a
curve. As a result, not only pleasant ads, but also irritating ads, are the most effective (Silk & Vavra,
1973). Moreover, both the Superiority of the Pleasant and the Law of Extremes are found to be true
under specific conditions. In high involvement situations, when the (potential) consumer pays
attention to the ad, the Law of Extremes applies. The Superiority of the Pleasant is true for low
involvement situations (Bozman et al., 2011).
Derived from the theory described above, a definition of the new construct Attitude towards Artwork
is given. In this paper Attitude towards Artwork is defined as consumers’ favourable or unfavourable
feelings toward the appropriated artwork used in the ad and the value they give it.
2.3 Brand Personality and Attitude towards Artwork
There have been numerous studies on the effects attitude towards the ad has on brand attitude
(MacKenzie et al., 1986; Mitchell & Olson, 1981; Lutz, 1975). Others found a reversed relation,
namely that Brand Personality affects brand image (e.g. Geuens et al., 2009).
The type of brand and/or product advertised can be categorized in terms of appropriated art ads versus
ads without art. Ads that do use works of art were found to promote more prestigious products, like
cultural establishments, cosmetics, fashion apparel and health, and furniture and household. Ads that
do not use works of art mainly promote food, leisure and entertainment (Hetsroni & Tukachinsky,
2005). Furthermore, for each ad a Product Prestige Index can be calculated with the following prestige
indicators: soft sell approach, high quality, limited supply, brand reputation and reference to
consumers of high status. The Product Prestige Index for ads that do use art is significantly higher than
for ads that do not use art (Hetsroni & Tukachinsky, 2005).
As opposed to what we can see and touch, (tangibles), personality is an intangible attribute (Moriarty
et al., 2014). In line with this, abstract associations based on the image or personality are more likely
to be transferred to the brand than concrete associations (Hoeffler & Keller, 2002). Accordingly, a
given Attitude towards Artwork influences Brand Personality. This leads to the following proposition:
Proposition 1: Attitude towards Artwork has a positive effect on Brand Personality.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
10
2.4 Involvement
Building on the theories of Superiority of the Pleasant and the Law of Extremes, Involvement of the
potential consumer plays an important role in determining the Attitude towards Artwork. In this
paragraph will be explained how high or low involvement influences consumers’ feelings towards the
advertisement and thus the Attitude towards Artwork.
A study on music background in advertisements used the Elaboration Likelihood Model, which
explains how involvement affects consumers’ attitude (Bozman et al., 2011; Petty et al., 1983).
Involvement is defined as the degree a consumer pays attention to the advertisement. It does not
concern whether the message of the advertisement is relevant for the consumer or not.
As described earlier, particular conditions decide whether the Superiority of the Pleasant or the Law of
Extremes is applicable. The Law of Extremes is true for high involvement situations, whereas the
Superiority of the Pleasant applies to low involvement situations (Bozman et al., 2011). In the first
place, the Superiority of the Pleasant versus the Law of extremes were two incompatible theories (Silk
& Vavra, 1973). Although it was not thought before, it can be concluded that these two opposing
views in advertising are both true, eliminating the need to choose between one of them.
High involvement situations receive the best consumer attitude when the ad makes either positive or
negative feelings. Neutral feelings will lead to lower attitude. In low involvement situations, there is a
linear relation between consumers’ feelings and attitude. In this context, the more positive the feelings,
the more positive the attitude (Bozman et al., 2011).
Proposition 2: Involvement has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork.
2.5 Familiarity
As described earlier, the cultural value of art is an important measure of Attitude towards Artwork.
This value is linked with the Familiarity an individual has with the appropriated artwork (Vanhuele,
1995). Art appropriation in advertising leads to a new dimension considering recognition of and
emotional response to both the product or brand and the work of art that is used.
2.5.1 Parasocial Relationship Theory
Familiarity is created by brand advertising, in order to influence consumer’s purchase decisions
(Moriarty et al., 2014). When purchasing a product, consumers will feel they are taking less risk when
choosing a product from a familiar brand. This is especially the case for major purchases like cars,
education and home appliances (Moriarty et al., 2014). Another view is the Parasocial Relationship
Theory, which is used to explain the affective bond people may develop with familiar media
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
11
characters to the point they are considered as a close friend (de Droog et al., 2012; Hoffner, 2008).
This theory can be applied to appropriated art, since art is similar to people (Sharpe, 2000).
2.5.2 The Mere Exposure Effect
Additionally, familiar stimuli, even unconscious, lead to recognition and liking (Vanhuele, 1995).
Mandler (1980) distinguishes a dual-process model of recognition. The first process refers, explicitly
or implicitly, to the time the ad was originally presented and is called retrieval. The second process is
without reference to an earlier encounter and thus based only on a feeling of familiarity. This feeling
of familiarity is created by the extent to which the elements or features of a stimulus are integrated
(Mandler, 1980). In marketing the focus lies mainly on the first, retrieval. However, the Mere
Exposure Effect based on familiarity, which is evaluated positively, might work better in creating
familiar marketing stimuli (Janiszewski, 1993). An increased brand familiarity will positively
influence ad recall and diminish vulnerability to competitors (Kent & Kellaris, 2001). Even more,
while the retrieval-based recognition is not required in order to create the Mere Exposure Effect, it
may hinder it (Vanhuele, 1995). The exposure effect is a basic process in preference and attitude
formation and change (Zajonc & Markus, 1982; Laroche et al., 1996) There is significant evidence
that consumers’ attitude toward a specific brand will be positively affected by his familiarity with the
brand (Laroche et al., 1996). Exposure of sponsorship increases positive evaluations, causing people to
include the product or brand in their consideration set, without necessarily increasing recognition
(Hermann, 2014).
2.5.3 Style Association
The most commonly appropriated artworks are (oil) paintings from the Renaissance, Neoclassicism
and Romanticism, of which the best known example is the Mona Lisa. This is presumably because
these works have a familiar look and attribute to good taste (Hetsroni & Tukachinsky, 2005).
Recognition of these classic paintings for most people, does not come from a visit to the Louvre, as
Twitchell says: ‘’Magazines are what most of us have for museums’’ (Twitchell, 1996, 193-95).
Consequently, even when potential consumers do not recognize the artwork itself, they associate the
style with ‘‘great art’’. This effect does not exist for contemporary art (Hetsroni & Tukachinsky,
2005).
Thus, the previous theories predict Familiarity with the appropriated art has a positive effect on
Attitude towards Artwork.
Proposition 3: Familiarity has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
12
2.6 Congruence
Besides Familiarity, perceived Congruence between Attitude towards Artwork and Brand Personality
determines Attitude towards Artwork. Due to little scientific knowledge of Congruence in this specific
context, the influence of Congruence is explained through sponsorship theories, commonality and
complementarity.
2.6.1 Sponsorship Theories
Congruence between the appropriated artwork and the product or brand is of great importance.
Companies like to associate themselves with a recognized brand (e.g. Rijksmuseum, Ajax) and the
consumers like to watch it (art, sports). Appropriated art in advertising can be seen as collaboration
between a (commercial) brand and culture. A similar and better researched phenomenon is seen in
sponsorship of for example sports clubs. Therefore sponsorship theories are adapted, where fit or
Congruence between the sponsor and object has been the most used variable. Universally scholars
agree that higher Congruence is positively related to effects of sponsorship, due to less questioning
and counter-arguing (e.g. Olson, 2010). There is one exception found: when Congruence is too good,
people get sceptical thus have a negative relation (Olson, 2010). What can be learned from the latter, is
that there should be overlap but not a hundred percent.
2.6.3 Commonality and Complementarity
Numerous scholars write about the Congruence between advertising and target group or brand
personality, but there is no consistent definition of what Congruence is (e.g. Moriarty et al., 2014;
Olson, 2010). For the purpose of this paper a sponsorship theory from Corporate Societal Marketing is
used. In this theory, two important aspects that determine Congruence are Commonality and
Complementarity (Hoeffler & Keller, 2002). Commonality is defined as having similar associations
and responses to the brand and artwork, in order to enhance the link between them. Complementarity,
on the other hand, consists of different associations and responses that create a new and valuable
imagery.
Louboutin has inspired their advertisements several times on masterpieces by e.g. Van Gogh
Rembrandt and Vermeer (Image 4 & 5). And Coldplay’s Viva La Vida album cover is a painting by
Eugène Delacroix (Image 6). In the case of Louboutin and Coldplay it may be a tribute to those
masterpieces. But Whoopi Goldberg as Mona Lisa selling incontinence pads is just a bad parody
(Image 7). Louboutin’s attempt to visualize the luxurious shoe with ladies of wealth in the paintings
fits quite good with their target group. The higher perceived Congruence between Attitude towards
Artwork and Brand Personality, the more likely consumers have a positive Attitude towards Artwork.
From this, the following proposition is formulated:
Proposition 4: Congruence as a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
13
2.7 Familiarity and Congruence
As described above, both Familiarity and Congruence in themselves are expected to have a positive
effect on Attitude towards Artwork. However, when combining these variables, it causes an
interaction effect: the measures of Familiarity and Congruence also affect each other (Figure 1).
Figure 1 The Familiarity - Congruence matrix
When Familiarity and Congruence are combined, the effect on Attitude towards Artwork changes.
Familiarity generally has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork, but this effect depends on the
Congruence between Attitude towards Artwork and Brand Personality. Research found that
Familiarity combined with Incongruence leads to significantly more positive attitude than Familiarity
and Congruence (de Droog et al., 2012; Lange & Dahlén, 2003). An explanation for this is that
Familiarity causes consumers to get bored. Therefore, using an artwork with high Congruence in an ad
may go by unnoticed. Incongruence on the other hand, will surprise the consumer and grab their
attention (Lange & Dahlén, 2003). Strange and unexpected ad elements are more effective and
increase memorability. Additionally, Incongruence results in better ad and brand evaluations (Lee,
2000). Resulting from the theory above are the following propositions:
Proposition 5: Attitude towards Artwork will be more positive for a combination of Familiarity and
Incongruence than for a combination of Familiarity and Congruence.
Proposition 6: Attitude towards Artwork will be more positive for a combination of Unfamiliarity and
Congruence than for a combination of Unfamiliarity and Incongruence.
Familiarity
+
Incongruence
Familiarity
-
Congruence
Unfamiliarity
-
Incongruence
Unfamiliarity
+
Congruence
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
14
2.8 Propositions
Based on the literature, the following propositions have been formulated:
Proposition 1: Attitude towards Artwork has a positive effect on Brand Personality.
Proposition 2: Involvement has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork.
Proposition 3: Familiarity has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork.
Proposition 4: Congruence has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork.
Proposition 5: Attitude towards Artwork will be more positive for a combination of Familiarity and
Incongruence than for a combination of Familiarity and Congruence.
Proposition 6: Attitude towards Artwork will be more positive for a combination of Unfamiliarity and
Congruence than for a combination of Unfamiliarity and Incongruence.
2.9 Conceptual model
The propositions can be visualised in the following model:
familiarity
+
incongruence
familiarity
-
congruence
unfamiliarity
-
incongruence
unfamiliarity
+
congruence
Attitude towards Artwork
Brand Personality
Involvement
Familiarity Congruence
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
15
3. Conclusion and Discussion
How does Attitude towards Artwork influence Brand Personality and how do Involvement, Familiarity
and Congruence affect Attitude towards Artwork in appropriated art advertising?
One way for brand advertising is the use of art appropriation. The purpose of this paper was to address
this phenomenon of art appropriation in advertising. An advantage for this way of advertising is that
brands can lend from the cultural value of the artwork used (Dinu, 2004). But like in every way of
advertising, the attitude towards ad, thus in this paper Attitude towards Artwork, influences how
consumers perceive the brand image, also Brand Personality. The Attitude towards Artwork is affected
by three factors, namely Involvement, Familiarity and Congruence.
In order to answer the problem statement, existing literature was reviewed concerning how Attitude
towards Artwork affects Brand Personality. Idem the influence of Involvement, Familiarity and
Congruence have on Attitude towards Artwork, and the interaction effect between Familiarity and
Congruence are described.
The first proposition, Attitude towards Artwork has a positive effect on Brand Personality. A
favourable Attitude towards Artwork leads to favourable Brand Personality and furthermore positive
Intention to Buy. Although unfavourable Attitude towards Artwork leads to unfavourable Brand
Personality, the Law of Extremes suggests that unfavourable Brand Personality has a positive effect on
Intention to Buy. Besides that, when a brand wants to reach a specific target group, with their specific
human personality, they can evaluate whether it is a good idea to use a work of art that may influence
the perceived Brand Personality in a positive way to make it congruent to their consumers’ Attitude
towards Artwork. Besides works of art such as paintings, brands should also consider using sports,
film, music, etc. in order to enhance their Brand Personality. Additionally, consumers in
individualistic cultures are found to be more likely to use brands to express how they are different.
Collectivist consumers on the other hand are more likely to use brands to express how they are similar
(Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Wrapping up the evidence, there is strong support for proposition 1 in
the current literature.
Second, Involvement has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork. High Involvement and positive
feelings indeed lead to a more positive Attitude towards Artwork, just like high Involvement and
negative feelings do. For low Involvement, only positive feelings will result in positive Attitude
towards Artwork. Partially, this proposition can be proven with the Elaboration Likelihood Model
(Bozman et al., 2011; Petty et al., 1983). However, because the high and low involvement situations
interact with positive/negative feelings in different ways, more research is needed. Proposition 2 is the
best guess for now.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
16
Furthermore, Familiarity has a positive effect on Attitude towards Artwork, is supported by the
Parasocial Relationship Theory (Hoffner, 2008). This theory describes how familiar images can
become like a close friend, thus creating positive feelings. The Mere Exposure Effect also explains
more affective reactions towards familiar than unfamiliar images (Janiszewski, 1993). Even so, the
consensus that fine art from the Renaissance, Neoclassisicm and Romanticism is considered of high
value, allows people that may not be familiar with the artwork itself nonetheless to associate the style
with great art (Hetsroni & Tukachinsky, 2005). Looking at the arguments, there is strong evidence for
proposition 3..
Additionally, there is evidence for the proposition: Congruence has a positive effect on Attitude
towards Artwork. Lending from sponsorship theories, the perceived degree of Congruence between
Attitude towards Artwork and Brand Personality is an explanatory variable in effectiveness. Higher
Congruence leads to more positive Attitude towards Artwork (Olson, 2010). However, full overlap or
Commonality is not desired. There should be some different associations in order to create valuable
imagery, also called Complementarity (Hoeffler & Keller, 2002). All this information is showing
strong support for proposition 4.
At last, combinations of Familiarity and Congruence have their own effects on Attitude towards
Artwork. The third and fourth propositions predict that: Attitude towards Artwork will be more
positive for a combination of Familiarity and Incongruence than for a combination of Familiarity and
Congruence, and: Attitude towards Artwork will be more positive for a combination of Unfamiliarity
and Congruence than for a combination of Unfamiliarity and Incongruence. While a combination of
Familiarity and Incongruence has positive reactions, Familiarity combined with Congruence does this
significantly less. The same goes for positive reactions on a combination of Unfamiliarity and
Congruence, when Unfamiliarity and Incongruence provides no positive feelings (de Droog et al,
2012; Lange & Dahlén, 2003). Looking back, there is again strong support for Proposition 5 and 6.
3.1 Discussion
The next step is to set a research agenda toward the goal of improving knowledge regarding art
appropriation and its effectiveness in advertising. This literature review has some limitations. There
has been attempted to consider all relevant literature in the area of art appropriation and advertising.
However, due to scope and time not all existing literature has been included and discussed. Therefore
the outcome of this review may not be complete or generalizable to all advertising that uses art.
Besides that, the propositions given in this thesis first have to be confirmed with empirical data. In
future research, apart from the used variables, more factors should be taken into consideration. For
example Congruence is a variable that could also be seen as moderating factor between Attitude
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
17
towards Artwork and Brand Personality. Furthermore, as discussed in the conclusion, unfavourable
Brand Personality does not necessarily mean a negative intention to buy. Future research should be
done to reveal whether the suggestion of The Law of Extremes, U curve in the relationship, does
indeed apply. Overall, this review confirms the importance of art appropriation in advertising.
Continuation of research into this topic will provide valuable insights for advertisers and consumers.
Since this paper could not give a full explanation of the relationship between the degree of
Involvement and Attitude towards Artwork, this issue should be addressed in future research. Also, the
limited literature available bout art appropriation in advertising required lending theories from other
research areas. A downside to this is that the generalizability of these theories outside their own field
has not yet been proved.
3.2 Implications
Since there has been little research on the topic of art appropriation in advertising, this study clarifies
important relationships and variables that contributes to improve our theoretical knowledge. In
particular how Attitude toward Artwork affects Brand Personality, which is a measure for consumer
behaviour. Thus, the findings of this review have implications for advertisers as well. It would be
helpful for brands to have a better understanding of the variables that determine consumer behaviour.
That is why focusing future research on the role of Involvement, Familiarity, Congruence, Attitude
towards Artwork and Brand Personality in appropriated art advertising is necessary. Because empirical
evidence is needed, a survey with questions about the variables Involvement, Congruence, Attitude
towards Artwork and Brand Personality is suitable. For the variable Familiarity however, a survey
may not be sufficient due to bias. Instead, an experiment is to be conducted where artworks are shown
and later used in an advertisement, for both existing and non-existing brands. These should be
complemented with new and unfamiliar artworks in an advertisement. As Familiarity and Congruence
have an interaction effect, Congruence should be included in the experiment, as well as Attitude
towards Artwork.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
18
4. References
Aaker, J. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347–356.
Barratt, T. J. (Managing Director Pears). (1887). Bubbles [Advertising Print], Retrieved December
2014 from: http://www.ebay.com/itm/PEARS-SOAP-RECOMMENDED-BY-MRS-LANGTREE-
BUBBLES-ANTIQUE-/400083762754
Baumeister, R. & Leary, M. (1997). Writing Narrative Literature Reviews. Review of General
Psychology, 1(3), 311-320.
BIC 4 Color 'Creation of Adam' [Advertising Print]. (2013). Retrieved December 2014 from:
https://agmccar2eng101.wordpress.com/2013/02/05/visual -text/
Bozman, C.S., Mueling, D. & Pettit-O'Malley, K.L. (2011). The directional influence of music
backgrounds in television advertising. Journal of Applied Business Research, 10(1), 14-18.
Briggs, S. (1992). Assessing the Five-Factor Model of Personality Description. Journal of Personality,
60(2), 253-93.
Coldplay (2008). Viva la Vida [Album Cover], Retrieved January 2015 from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viva_la_Vida_or_Death_and_All_His_Friends#Graphic_design
de Droog, S.M., Buijzen, M. & Valkenburg, P.M. (2012). Use a Rabbit or a Rhino to Sell a Carrot?
The Effect of Character–Product Congruence on Children's Liking of Healthy Foods. Journal of
health communication, 17(9), 1068-1080.
Dekker, J. (2009). Beauty and Simplicity: the Power of Fine Art in Moral Teaching on Education in
Seventeenth-Century Holland. Journal of Family History, 34, 166.
Dinu, L. F. (2004). Do Ads Degrade Art? Advertising And Art Appropriation. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the International Communication Association, New Orleans Sheraton, New
Orleans, LA.
Geuens, M., Weijters, B. & De Wulf, K. (2009). A new measure of brand personality. International
Journal of Research in Marketing, 26(2), 97-107.
Hetsroni, A. & Tukachinsky, R. H. (2005). The Use of Fine Art in Advertising: A Survey of Creatives
and Content Analysis of Advertisements. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising,
27(1), 93-107.
Hoeffler, S. & Keller, K. L. (2002). Building Brand Equity Through Corporate Societal Marketing.
Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 21(1), 78-89.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
19
Janiszewski, C. (1993). Preattentive Mere-Exposure Effects. Journal of Consumer Research,
(December), 376-392.
Kent, R. J. & Kellaris, J. J. (2001). Competitive interference effects in memory for advertising: are
familiar brands exempt? Journal of Marketing Communications, 7, 159-169.
Lange, F. & Dahlén, M. (2003). Let’s be strange: brand familiarity and ad‐brand incongruency.
Journal of Product & Brand Management, 12(7), 449-461.
Lee, Y.H. (2000). Manipulating ad message involvement through information expectancy: effects on
attitude evaluation and confidence. Journal of Advertising, 29(2), 29‐43.
Levinson, J. (2003). The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics. Oxford University Press.
Lippmann, P. (Photographer). (2011). Women of History ‘Clouet’ [Advertising Print], Retrieved
December 2014 from: http://www.peterlippmann.com/
Lippmann, P. (Photographer). (2014). Bouquet ‘Van Gogh’ [Advertising Print], Retrieved December
2014 from: http://www.peterlippmann.com/
MacKenzie, S. B., Lutz, R. J. & Belch, G. E. (1986). The role of attitude toward the ad as a mediator
of advertising effectiveness: A test of competing explanations. Journal of marketing research, 130-
143.
Mandler, G. (1980). Recognizing: The Judgment of Previous Occurrence. Psychological Review,
87(3), 252-271.
Markus, H. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion and
Motivation. Psychology Review, 98, 224-53.
Mitchell, A.A. & Olson, J.C. (1981). Are product attribute beliefs the only mediator of advertising
effects on brand attitude? Journal of Marketing Research. 18(August), 318-332.
Moriarty, S. E., Mitchell, N., Wells, W., Crawford, R. & Brennan, L. (2014). Advertising: Principles
and Practice. (Third edition). Australia: Pearson Education.
Olson, E.L. (2010). Does sponsorship work in the same way in different sponsorship contexts?
European Journal of Marketing, 44(1/2), 180-199.
Poise (2009). Whoopie bladder control [Advertising Print], Retrieved January 2015 from:
https://advertisinginthecity.wordpress.com/2010/05/13/259/
Sharpe, R. A. (2000). The Empiricist Theory of Artistic Value. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism, 58(4), 321-332.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
20
Silk, A. J. & Vavra, T. G. (1973). The influence of advertising's affective qualities on consumer
response.
Sodano, M. (Art Director). (2014). Imagine ‘Mona Lisa’ [Advertising Print], Retrieved December
2014 from: http://www.theinspiration.com/2014/05/lego-imagine-geometry-global-hong-kong/
Spears, N. & Singh, S. N. (2004). Measuring Attitude toward the Brand and Purchase Intentions.
Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 26(2).
Twitchell, J. B. (1996). Adcult USA. The Triumph of Advertising in American Culture. Columbia
University Press.
Vanhuele, M. (1995). Why familiar stimuli are better liked. A study on the cognitive dynamics linking
recognition and the mere exposure effect. Advances in Consumer Research, 22, 171-175.
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
21
5. Appendix
Image 1 Imagine (Sodano, 2014) Image 2 BIC 4 Color (2013)
Image 3 Bubbles (Barratt, 1887)
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
22
Image 4 Bouquet (Lippmann, 2014)
Image 5 Women of History (Lippmann, 2014)
28-1-2015 16:55 Femke Wijman 2178532
23
Image 6 Viva la Vida (Coldplay, 2008)
Image 7 Whoopie bladder control (Poise, 2009)